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Introduction to
Semiconductor Lasers:
Guy Verschaffelt
Vrije Universiteit Brussel, guy.verschaffelt@vub.ac.be
Based on semiconductor lasers chapters in the “Lasers” course, Interuniversity
Master in Photonics, Geert Morthier, Guy verschaffelt
1
SEMICONDUCTOR LASERS
Laser:
Gain medium
Pump
Resonator
→ Semiconductor
Advantages:
Mass-fabrication → low production cost
Direct electrical pumping
Small
Low threshold current and power dissipation
High efficiency
High modulation bandwidth
Integration with other optical components
2
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL
Crystalline solid
Energy
Energy bands Band filling
Electron
Hole
Metal Semi-
conductor Isolator
Conduction
band
Valence
band
Energy
3
SEMICONDUCTOR LASERS
Source: Laser Focus World
4
OUTLINE
■ Introduction
■ Structure of semiconductor lasers
■ Gain
■ Refractive index and a-factor
■ Laser resonance
■ Rate-equation description and linewidth
■ Different types of semiconductor lasers
■ Packaging
■ Summary
5
OUTLINE
■ Introduction
■ Structure of semiconductor lasers
■ Gain
■ Refractive index and a-factor
■ Laser resonance
■ Rate-equation description and linewidth
■ Different types of semiconductor lasers
■ Packaging
■ Summary
6
HOMOJUNCTION LASER DIODE
First pulsed demonstration in 1962 by Robert N. Hall
(homojunction laser diode)
7
HOMOJUNCTION LASER DIODE
Lasing is possible, but with very high threshold current density (1000 A/cm2 at
77 K, 100 000 A/cm2 at 300 K)
→ Solution: double heterostructure
8
DOUBLE HETEROSTRUCTURES
First CW laser diode operating at room temperature was demonstrated
in 1970 by Zhores Alferov (double heterostructure laser diode)
9
LASER DIODE GEOMETRY
TYPICAL GEOMETRY BURIED RIDGE LASER
bond wire
x (transverse)
y (lateral)
z (longitudinal)
p-ohmic metal
dielectric
p-InP InGaAsP
active layer n-InP
n-InP substrate
n-ohmic metal
10
OUTLINE
■ Introduction
■ Structure of semiconductor lasers
■ Gain
■ Refractive index and a-factor
■ Laser resonance
■ Rate-equation description and linewidth
■ Different types of semiconductor lasers
■ Tunable lasers
■ Packaging
■ Summary
11
DIRECT VS. INDIRECT SEMICONDUCTORS
Band diagram:
Direct, e.g. GaAs Indirect, e.g. Si
Notice: k = k-vector of electron or hole
Real band diagrams normally depend on direction of k
Laser or LED requires direct material, photodetector not!
12
MATERIALS
Bandgap (eV)
Lattice
constant
(nm) l/(µm)
0 1 2 3
3. 2. 1.5 1 0.8 0.6
0.60
0.54
InAs
Ge GaAs
Si GaP AlP
AlAs
AlSb GaSb
InSb
InP l[mm]=1.24/Eg[ev]
13
DOUBLE HETEROSTRUCTURES
Band edge diagram:
Refractive index profile:
Stimulated emission is only possible for photon energies slightly above Eg
Materials have to be lattice matched
Ec
Ev
Active
layer
cladding cladding
Bulk material
Undoped: N=P
14
Conduction and valence bands
dE)]E;E(f1)[E(P
dE)E;E(f)E(N
Fvv
Fcc
Semiconductor in equilibrium: single Fermi level Ef
Non-equilibrium:
dE)]E(f1)[E(P
kT
E-Eexp1f(E) with dE)E(f)E(N
v
1
fc
15
Low dimensional structures
Bulk Quantum well Quantum wire Quantum box
g(E)
E E E E
g(E) g(E) g(E)
Density of
states:
QUANTISATION OF ACTIVE LAYER
16
DOUBLE HETEROSTRUCTURES
Band edge diagram:
Refractive index profile:
Ec
Ev
Active
layer
cladding cladding
Bulk material QW material
Ec
Ev
Active
layer cladding cladding
Undoped: N=P
17
QUANTISATION IN 1, 2 and 3 DIMENSIONS
dEE-E~(E)dE ,dkk~(k)dk
m2
kkkEE :.B.C
c
2
c
2
z
2
y
2
x
2
c
xn
c
2
z
2
y
2
nc
L decreasingfor increases E
dE~(E)dE kdk,(k)dk
m2
kkEEE :.B.C
Ec
Ev
Quantum
well
barrier barrier
E1
E2 Bulk:
QW:
QWire:
….
Lx< 10 nm
yxmn,
c
c
2
z
2
nmc
L,L decreasingfor increases E
dEE-E
1~(E) dk,~(k)dk
m2
kEEE :.B.C
18
ABSORPTION VS. STIMULATED RECOMBINATION
Absorption (= optical loss)
Ec
Ev
hn hn 2hn
Stimulated Recombination (= optical gain)
Absorption rate Stimulated Recombination rate
nIEfEfBR cv )(1)( 211212 nIEfEfBR cstim )(1)( 1v22121
)(2112 EinsteinBBB
Net amplification
inversion)n (populatio )(E)( 0 12 vc
vc
fEfif
IffB
n
E2
E1
E2
E1
19
EINSTEIN COEFFICIENTS
Spontaneous emission Ec
Ev
hn
Emission rate
E2
E1
)(1)( 122121 EfEfAR vcspont
Thermal equilibrium spontstim RRR 212112
Number of photons (per unit energy and per unit volume) photphot nEEI 1212 n
2112
12
211212
12
21
1exp
expBB
TkE
BTkEB
E
A
B
B
phot
20
ABSORPTION VS. STIMULATED RECOMBINATION
Energy levels involved in interband transitions:
kkkk
m
kE
m
kEBC
vphv
v
vv
c
cc
cc
v*
22
1
c*
22
2
k k
hole) of momentum :(k 2
E :V.B.
electron) of momentum:(k 2
E :..
2/1
2/3
22
2
4
1)( with )( g
rcvcvvc
g
EEm
EEffv
Bgain
r
g
vc
g
m
kE
mm
kEEE
2
11
2
22
**
22
12
21
GAIN CALCULATION
qVEEEE if )E(f)E(f fvfcg1v2c [Condition of Bernard and
Duraffourg]
gmax = A.N - B
22
GAIN CALCULATION
More accurate gain calculations need to consider
• Energy bands are only approximately parabolic
• Band mixing effects due to strain
• Gain in two-level system has a Lorentzian shape
• Excitonic effects near band gap
• Gain nonlinearity, e.g. due to spectral hole burning
En
erg
y
Electron density
Ec
Equilibrium
distribution
in
in
SEDensity of
states
in : intraband relaxation
SE: stimulated emission
23
OUTLINE
■ Introduction
■ Structure of semiconductor lasers
■ Gain
■ Refractive index and a-factor
■ Laser resonance
■ Rate-equation description and linewidth
■ Different types of semiconductor lasers
■ Tunable lasers
■ Packaging
■ Summary
24
LASER DIODE WAVEGUIDES
n2 n1
Index guiding: n1>n2
Fundamental waveguide mode:
propagation constant b,
b=kneff with n2<neff<n1
Fraction of power in active layer
: confinement factor
Change Dn1 in n1 and Dn2 in n2:
Dneff=Dn1+(1-) Dn2
25
a-factor
BNAgdA
ctedN
dN
N
N
i
r
andKK from''
)'( and
dg
dn4
0
r
a
l
a
For QW active region For 2-level system (e.g. gas laser)
gain
l
A is asymmetric around llasing
a ≠ 0
gain, and also differential gain,
is symmetric around llasing
a ≈ 0
From: S. F. Yu,, Analysis and
Design of Vertical Cavity Surface
Emitting Lasers
26
COMPLEX REFRACTIVE INDEX
Complex effective index due to carrier density N:
k2
gjN
dN
dg
k2)E(nn int
0,effc,eff
a
a
a-factor or linewidth enhancement factor
Material dependent
Wavelength dependent
Current dependent
27
OUTLINE
■ Introduction
■ Structure of semiconductor lasers
■ Gain
■ Refractive index and a-factor
■ Laser resonance
■ Rate-equation description and linewidth
■ Different types of semiconductor lasers
■ Packaging
■ Summary
28
CAVITY RESONANCE
L
facet
x
z
Fabry-Perot
Cavity
Resonance means : For Fabry-Perot cavity :
1
gain roundtrip
λN,L
rλN,R
r
condition) (amplitude
2R
1R
1ln
2L
1
passαΓ1
actΓαNΓg
condition) (phaseinteger m ,m
2L
n
λ
r
passive cladding active layer passive cladding
L
facet R
facet R
r
r
a
g(N), aact
a
pas
pas
R
L
1
2
29
CAVITY RESONANCE
Jth
power
threshold
current
power
spectrum Dl
l
Dl
l
l n
L
r
2
l
roundtrip gain
λN,.rλN,r RL
30
FACET REFLECTIVITY
■ TE-mode has higher reflectivity than TM-mode
laser emission is mainly TE
■ Facet reflectivity can be modified with coatings
AR-coating: R down to 0,01%, HR-coating: R up to 100%
TM ±30%
R TE
d/l
31
FAR FIELD (ANGULAR RADIATION PATTERN)
■ wide transverse beam divergence
■ elliptic beam
■ in some lasers: astigmatic beam
2wx
2wy
2qx
2qy
y
y
x
x
w
w
lq
lq
32
OUTLINE
■ Introduction
■ Structure of semiconductor lasers
■ Gain
■ Refractive index and a-factor
■ Laser resonance
■ Rate-equation description and linewidth
■ Different types of semiconductor lasers
■ Packaging
■ Summary
33
RATE-EQUATIONS
Simplest dynamic model to describe lasers
ΔNdN
dG
2
α
dt
dφΔω
V NR βτ
SSN,R
dt
dS
V
SN,RNR
qV
I
dt
dN
spont
p
stim
stimspont
Carrier equation:
Photon equation:
Phase equation:
S: Number of photons in the mode, N: carrier density in active layer [cm-3], φ: phase of the field
nspont τNNR
SG S Ng vΓSN,R gstim
BANNg
spontaneous recombination rate [cm-3 s-1]
stimulated emission rate [s-1]
gain [cm-1]
carrier lifetime [s]
photon lifetime [s]
spontaneous emission coupling factor (typically 10-4)
volume of active layer [cm3]
nτ
pτ
β
V
34
For phase-dependent coupling: often easier to start from
instead of the rate-equations for S, f and N
RATE-EQUATION FOR THE COMPLEX FIELD E
2
1
2
1
EV
GN
qV
I
dt
dN
EGj
dt
dE
n
p
a
35
RATE-EQUATIONS
Photon rate equation: simple derivation from field propagation
)exp()()( tjtStE Field:
After one roundtrip in cavity: ]exp[)()( tjtStE
SRRL
vvgv
dt
dStStS
RRLg
RRLg
LjknLgRRtEtE
g
gg
eff
21
int
21
int
21
int
int21
1ln
2
)()(
1ln)(21S(t) )S(t
1ln)(2S(t)exp)S(t
)2exp()(exp.).()(
a
a
a
a
36
DIFFERENCE WITH OTHER LASERS
■ Carrier lifetime very short: of order ns or sub-ns
■ Linewidth enhancement factor a (0 in other lasers)
■ Short cavities high mirror losses
+ “Low” facet reflectivities
■ High differential gain
37
STEADY STATES AND LINEAR STABILITY
Steady state:
1) S=0 solution
2) Non-zero solution
0 and 0 dt
dN
dt
dS
Vq
IN
S
n
0
th
p
p
IIq
S
G
1
N
I
S
I
N
I
S
I I = Ith
G(N) = 1/τp
38
DYNAMIC OPERATION: IM AND FM MODULATION
Thermal FM Carrier FM
Modulation frequency (Hz)
(GHz/mA)
1 1K 1M 1G
1
0.1
ID
nD
Modulation frequency (Hz)
(mW/mA)
1 1K 1M 1G
1
0.1
I
P
D
D
Carrier IM
I t I0 DI cos mt
D
D
D
D
)(cos
distortionorder 3rd3cos
distortionorder 2nd2cos
cos
0
33
22
0
FMtt
tP
tP
IMorAMtPPtP
vm
pm
pm
pm
f
f
f
f
39
POWER SPECTRUM and PHASE NOISE
Power spectrum:
Phase noise: spontaneous emission
ftjdtSfSE f
2exp2
exp )(
2
D
tat D )(2f
Lorentzian spectrum:
2
2
2)2(
)(
a
f
aSfSE
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Po
we
r [a
.u.]
Frequency [MHz]
Dn 21
22
1
2a
n D
S
Ra sp
40
OUTLINE
■ Introduction
■ Structure of semiconductor lasers
■ Gain
■ Refractive index and a-factor
■ Laser resonance
■ Rate-equation description and linewidth
■ Different types of semiconductor lasers
■ Packaging
■ Summary
41
Fabry-Perot Laser Diodes
Mirrors = Cleaved facet
Active layer: double
heterostructure
Iactive
Disadvantages:
• No longitudinal mode selection:
• More than one mode
• Mode hoppping
Power
spectrum
l
SMSR (e.g.10 dB
or less)
42
DFB and DBR Laser Diodes
Distributed Feedback (DFB) laser diode
Distributed Bragg Reflector (DBR) laser diode
gain
section
bragg
section
Ip Ig Ib
phase
section
grating
Active layer
Passive waveguide
Ia
43
Reflectivity of Passive Grating
R
1
l lB
IMPORTANT PARAMETERS
lB 2nr
L ( : grating coupling coefficient in 1 / cm)
waveguide
power flux
L
Dl
44
Roundtrip gain of DFB laser
0.9
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.98
1
1.02
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
1.535 1.54 1.545 1.55
Am
plit
ud
e
Wavelength [ mm]
Ph
ase
F-P laser vs. DFB laser
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
-4
-2
0
2
4
1.557 1.559 1.561 1.563 1.565 1.567
Wavelength [ mm]
Am
plit
ud
e
Ph
ase
[rad
.]
45
VCSELs
Advantages:
• compact
• low threshold
• wafer testable
• cheaper
• dense 2D arrays
• circular beam
• single longitudinal mode
Difficulties:
• high reflectivity mirrors
• series resistance in mirror
• current confinement
46
Semiconductor ring lasers
Advantages:
• no DBR mirros
• integrable
• all-optical directional switching
Difficulties:
• moderate output power
• no longitudinal mode selection
• increased bending loss in
small devices
SRL
Couplers
Trigger pulse1
Trigger pulse2
CCW
CW
47
QUANTUM DOT LASER DIODES
■ Advantages: - low to zero a-factor
- very broad gain bandwidth (due to spread in
dimensions): tunable lasers and amplifiers
SEM-picture of self-organized InAs quantumdots
on a GaAs-surface grown with MBE.
48
QUANTUM CASCADE LASERS
Different type of gain layer based on intra-band transitions
Conduction
band
Valence
band
Conduction
band
Interband laser Intersubband transition Multiple cascades
in series
Advantages
Long wavelength laser (mid- to far-infrared wavelength range, THz generation)
Large wavelength span with one material system
49
OUTLINE
■ Introduction
■ Structure of semiconductor lasers
■ Gain
■ Refractive index and a-factor
■ Laser resonance
■ Rate-equation description and linewidth
■ Different types of semiconductor lasers
■ Packaging
■ Summary
50
LASER PACKAGING
TO package
Butterfly package
DIL package
51
LASER PACKAGING
LASER PACKAGE MAY CONTAIN
photodiode monitoring back side emission
Peltier cooler and temperature sensor
fiber coupling
high bandwidth modulation access
optical isolator: laser diodes are very sensitive to external
reflections (e.g. from fiber tip)
change in P
increase in intensity and phase noise
chaos
52
Summary/Conclusions
Semiconductor lasers
Overview of operating principles
Different structures/materials for optimized performance in
different applications
New wavelength ranges and new laser types are under
development
Highly efficient, compact sources
Recommended