Introduction to the making of modern Britain 1951-2007 The

IntroductiontothemakingofmodernBritain1951-2007

TheEstablishmentofthePost-WarConsensus,1954-64ByAndrewBoxer|PublishedinHistoryReview2010Political20thCenturyBritainAndrewBoxerexplainswhypartypoliticalstrifelackedrealsubstanceintheperiodafter1945.

InFebruary1954TheEconomistinventedanewword–‘Butskellism’.ThemagazinethoughtthatthepoliciesofChancelloroftheExchequeroftheday,theConservativeR.A.Butler,weresosimilartothoseofhisLabourpredecessor,HughGaitskell,thattheyhadbeendevisedbya‘MrButskell’.Thenamecaughton–therereallydidseemtobenodifferencebetweentheeconomicpoliciesofthetwomainparties.‘Butskellism’outlivedbothButlerandGaitskellbecausesuccessiveConservativeandLabourgovernmentsappeared,notonlytotackleBritain’seconomicproblemsinthesameways,buttoshareawiderangeofpoliciesandattitudes.Mosthistorianstodayacceptthisviewandarguethat,for30yearsaftertheSecondWorldWar,therewasawidespreadagreementamongtheBritishpeopleandtheirpoliticalleadersaboutthepoliciesandstyleoftheirgovernment.Thisisknownas‘thepost-warconsensus’–and,itisclaimed,itremainedinplaceuntilitwasdismantledbyMrsThatcher’sgovernmentsofthe1980s.

Consensusdidnotmeanthatthepoliticalpartiesabandonedtheirideologicallabels,andtheycertainlycontinuedtoarguewithoneanother.But,onceingovernment,politicalleadersseemedtoacceptthattheirrolewastomanagethenation’sresources,arbitratingbetweentheimportantandpowerfulsectorsofBritishsocietytoachieveanagreedsetofgoals,ratherthanimposingdoctrinaire,ideologicalpolicies.Thispost-warconsensuscoveredfourprincipalareas:themaintenanceofamixedeconomy,pursuingthegoaloffullemployment,maintainingacomprehensivewelfaresystemand,finally,adjustingforeignandimperialpolicytoBritain’splaceinthepost-warworld.

ImpactoftheSecondWorldWar

TheexperienceoftheSecondWorldWarwascruciallyimportantindeterminingthenatureofthepost-warconsensus.NationalunityisessentialinwartimeandChurchill,PrimeMinisterfrom1940until1945,recognisedthis.AlthoughaConservative,hebroughtmembersoftheothertwomainpartiesintohisgovernment.ClementAttlee,theLabourleader,becameDeputyPrimeMinister,HerbertMorrisonHomeSecretaryandErnestBevin,theleaderoftheTransportandGeneralWorkers’Union,MinisterofLabour.TheLiberalleader,SirArchibaldSinclair,becameAirMinister.Therewasalsoanelectoraltruce.IncontrasttotheUnitedStates,therewasnogeneralelectionduringthewar.Furthermore,atbyelections,themajorpartiesagreednottofieldcandidatesinseatstheydidnotalreadyhold.

Thisspiritofunityextendedtothenationatlarge.AlthoughthepropagandaimageofanationfullyunitedbehindthewareffortandpluckilydefyingHitler’sbombswasanexaggeration,itwasnotentirelybogus.Thewardidcreateasenseofcommonpurpose,eveniftherewasplentyofgrumblingabouthowfairlytheprivationsofwarwerebeingshared.Thewarrequiredthemobilisationofallthenation’sresourcesandmanpower,soitgavealmosteveryonearoletoplayinthewareffort.Asaresult,therewereopportunitiesfortalentedpeopletothrive,andpromotioninwartimedependedonability,notclass.ThewardidnotradicallyalterBritain’ssocialstructurebutitdidgenerateawidespreaddesiretoseeabetterworldbuiltoncetheconflictwasover.

DemandforWelfareReform

Thisaspirationexplainswhyadrygovernmentreportof1942,theBeveridgeReport,wasenormouslypopularandsoldover600,000copies.Beveridgeidentifiedfivetargetsforgovernmentaction:poverty,disease,unemployment,ignoranceandinadequatehousing.Thereportrecommendedthecreationofanationalhealthservice,themaintenanceoffullemploymentandacomprehensivewelfareschemetoprovidecoverageforeveryone‘fromthecradletothegrave’.Anopinionpollshowedthat86percentof

IntroductiontothemakingofmodernBritain1951-2007

theBritishpeoplewereinfavourofitsimplementation.Beveridge’sproposalsbecameanimportantpartofthepost-warconsensusinpartbecausethewarhadmadethemnecessary.ThescaleofGermanbombingintheBlitzhadexposedtheinadequacyofBritain’shospitalprovision.ThewartimegovernmentcreatedastatefundedEmergencyHospitalServiceinwhichdoctorsandnurseswerepaidbythegovernment,sothatpatientswerenotcharged.In1941theMinisterofHealthannouncedthat,afterthewar,‘acomprehensivehospitalservice’wouldbecreatedwhichwouldmaketreatment‘availabletoeverypersoninneedofit’.

WarandtheEconomy

Thewarradicallychangedacceptedviewsaboutthepartthatgovernmentscould,andshould,playinmanagingthenation’seconomy.Duringthe1930sTreasuryofficialshadbelievedthatgovernmentattemptstoregulatetheeconomywouldnotwork.Butinwartimetherewasnoalternative:resources,investmentandmanpowerhadtobedirectedtoensurethatwarproductionhadpriority.Rationingwasintroducedsothatscarcefoodsuppliescouldbesharedfairly.Majorsectorsoftheeconomy,suchascoalminesandrailways,werebroughtundergovernmentcontrolandmanpowerwassupervisedbyBevin’sministrytogiveprioritytowarindustriesandproduction.Theresultofthesepolicieswasthatunemployment(which,betweenthewars,hadneverfallenbelowamillion,andhadreachedthreemillionintheearly1930s)virtuallydisappeared.Thegovernment’swartimeeconomicmeasurescouldnotbesuccessfullyimplementedwithouttheco-operationofthetradeunions.Thisenhancedtheunions’statusandmadethemvirtuallyequalpartnerswithgovernmentandbusinessinthemanagementoftheeconomy.

CambridgeeconomistJohnMaynardKeyneshadarguedforsometimethattheproblemsoftheinter-waryears,inparticularhighunemployment,couldbeeliminatedbygovernmenteconomicmanagement.Notsurprisingly,bytheendofthewar,Keynes’sideasofdemandmanagementbecametheneweconomicorthodoxy.Furthermore,thewartimespiritofnationalunityreinforcedthenotionthatthegovernmentcouldandshouldrunimportantsectorsoftheeconomy.Thisappliedparticularlytotheservicesthateveryoneneeded,suchasgas,electricity,telephonesandpublictransport.Thecollectivespiritengenderedbythewarhelpedtomaketheideaofnationalisingtheseutilities–bringingthempermanentlyunderthecontrolofthestate–notonlyacceptablebutdesirable.

The1945GeneralElection

BecausethewarhadchangedthemoodandexpectationsoftheBritishpeople,the1945electionmanifestosofthetwomainpoliticalpartiesdidnotdifferverymuch.Bothpartiescommittedthemselvestothemaintenanceoffullemploymentand,influencedbytheBeveridgeReport,bothpromisedtocreateanextensivesocialsecurityandhealthsystem.Theresultoftheelection,however,wasasurprisetomostpeopleatthetime.DespiteChurchill’spersonalpopularity,theLabourPartywoninalandslide,gaininganoverallmajorityof146seats.TheConservativeswereblamedforthefailuresofthe1930s–highunemploymentandtheappeasementofHitler–andtheelectoratebelievedthattheLabourPartywasmorecommittedtobuildingthenewBritainthatthewartimemooddemanded.

Shockedbythescaleoftheirdefeat,theConservativePartyleadersdecidedtorethinktheirideologyandpolicies.RAButlerwasoneofthekeyfiguresinthisprocess,andheexplainedinhismemoirsthepurposeoftheConservatives’1947policydocument,TheIndustrialCharter:

Ourfirstpurposewastocounterthechargeandthefearthat...fullemploymentandtheWelfareStatewerenotsafeinourhands...TheCharterwas...firstandforemostanassurancethat,intheinterestsofefficiency,fullemploymentandsocialsecurity,modernConservatismwouldmaintainstrongcentralguidanceovertheoperationoftheeconomy.

IntroductiontothemakingofmodernBritain1951-2007

ThisexplainswhytherewassolittleConservativeoppositiontothereformmeasuresintroducedbytheLabourGovernment.

EstablishingaMixedEconomy

TheLabourGovernmentsof1945-51broughtsomeimportantsectorsoftheeconomydirectlyunderstatecontrolinaprocessknownasnationalisation.ThesesectorsincludedtheBankofEngland,coalmining,transport,telecommunications,electricity,gasandtheproductionofironandsteel.FormanyintheLabourParty,nationalisationofkeysectorsoftheeconomywaspartoftheirprogrammeofmakingBritain‘socialist’.AstheParty’s1945electionmanifestoproclaimed,‘TheLabourPartyisaSocialistParty,andproudofit.ItsultimatepurposeathomeistheestablishmentoftheSocialistCommonwealthofGreatBritain–free,democratic,efficient,public-spirited,itsmaterialresourcesorganisedintheserviceoftheBritishpeople.’Andyet,despitetheConservatives’ideologicalfaithinfreemarketeconomicsandintensedislikeofsocialism,theyofferedonlytokenresistancetothemajorityofLabour’sreforms.Thiswasbecause,notonlyhadKeynes’sviewsbeenacceptedbybothmainparties,buttherewasaconsensusthatmanyoftheseindustries(inparticular,coalandtransport)neededlevelsofinvestmentthatonlythegovernmentcouldprovide.Furthermore,bothpartiesacceptedthatsomenationalisedindustries,suchasgasandelectricity,producedservicesthatoughttobeavailabletoeveryonewherevertheylived.Thismeantthattheyneededtobeplannedandmanagedintheinterestsofthecommunityratherthanrunpurelyfortheprofitofshareholders.Indeed,itwastheConservative-dominatedgovernmentsoftheinter-waryearsthathadbegunthisprocessbyextendinggovernmentcontrolover,andinvestmentin,thecoalindustry,civilaviation,telecommunications,andtransportinLondon.Thegenerationofelectricityhadbeeninpublichandssince1926whenaConservativeGovernmenthadcreatedtheNationalGrid;andmostgasdistributionwasalreadyrunbymunicipalauthorities.Nationalisingtheseindustriesofferedthemostefficientwayofprovidingvitalservicestothewholecountry.TheConservativegovernmentsof1951-64madenoattempttoreturnanyoftheseindustriesandservicestoprivateownership,withtheexceptionofironandsteel.

TherewasafuriousrowwithintheLabourPartywhen,in1959-60,theleaderHughGaitskelltriedunsuccessfullytoremovetheopenendedcommitmenttonationalisationfromtheParty’sconstitution.Butthiswasadebateaboutsymbolsratherthansubstance.Onlytheleft-wingoftheLabourPartywantednationalisationgreatlyextended.AsGaitskellrealised,theywereoutoftouchwiththenationalconsensusthatBritainneededa‘mixedeconomy’:theindustriesnationalisedbythe1945-51LabourGovernmentshouldremainunderthecontrolofthestate,everythingelsewouldremaininprivatehands.

TheGoalofFullEmployment

In1944WinstonChurchill’swartimecoalitiongovernmentissuedaWhitePaper(anofficialsetofproposals)whichstated:‘theGovernmentacceptsasoneofitsprimaryaimsthemaintenanceofahighandstablelevelofemployment’.Thisassumed,forthefirsttime,thatfullemploymentwassomethingthatgovernmentscould,andshould,trytoachieve.ThatthiscommitmentshouldhavebeenmadebyaConservative-dominatedwartimecoalitionshowshowmuchtheSecondWorldWarhaddestroyedtheeconomicthinkingofthe1930s,whenTreasuryofficialshadassumedthatitwasneitherdesirable,norpossible,forgovernmentstomanageemploymentlevelsinthisway.

TheConservativesalsoacceptedtheneedtotreatthetradeunionsaspartofthepoliticalestablishmentandaslegitimatepartnersintheshapingofeconomic,especiallyindustrial,policy.WhenChurchillreturnedtoDowningStreetin1951,hewasdeterminedtopreserveindustrialpeace,evenifitmeantgivingintopotentiallyinflationarywagedemands.HeinstructedhisMinisterofLabourtoavoidconflictwiththeunions.Tworailstrikes,in1953and1954,wereavertedbycapitulationtothemen’stermsand,althoughthegovernmentwaspreparedtouseexistinglawtodealwithunofficialstrikesthatthreatened

IntroductiontothemakingofmodernBritain1951-2007

vitalservices,anynewlegislationthatriskedconfrontationwiththeTradesUnionCongresswasruledout.Thiswasbecause,astheMinisterwarnedin1955,‘anygovernmentinitiativeinthefieldofindustrialrelationsshouldcarrythegreatestpossiblemeasureofTUCapprovalandconcurrence.Unlesswecarrywithustheresponsibleelements,whoareatpresentinamajority,weruntheriskofunitingthewholemovementagainstus.’

TheWelfareState

TheLabourGovernmentencounteredsomeoppositionfromtheToriesinparliamentwhenitsetaboutcreatinganationalhealthservice.AlthoughtheConservativePartyhadacceptedtheprinciplesoftheBeveridgeReporttheywereworriedaboutthecost.Buttheprincipaloppositioncamefromthemedicalprofessionwhichfearedthat,inagovernment-runmedicalservice,politicsandmoney–ratherthanmedicalneed–woulddeterminepolicy.Also,mostfamilydoctors,whorantheirpracticesasprivately-ownedbusinesses,didnotwantthemtakenoverbythestate.TheMinisterofHealth,AneurinBevan,overcametheirresistancebymakingsomekeyconcessions.HeallowedtheNHShospitalstoacceptprivatepatientsandensuredthatGPsreceivedagenerousfeeforeverypatientontheirbooks.Bevan’ssuccessincreatingtheNationalHealthServicehasprovedtobethemostlastingachievementofthepost-warLabourGovernment.TheNHSmademedicalservicesavailabletoeveryoneand,initiallyatleast,thesewereallfree.

Inopposition,theConservativeshadcriticisedsupposedlywastefulexpenditureontheadministrationofthewelfaresystem,butingovernmenttheytreateditwithreverence.Pensionsandnationalassistancebenefitscontinuedtorise,anditisanindicationoftheuncontroversialnatureoftheNHSduringthisperiodthattheMinisterofHealthdidnotsitintheCabinetbetween1952and1962.

ImperialPolicy

Britainwasstillamajorimperialpowerin1945butthebulkoftheEmpirehadbeendismantledby1964.This,too,wasadevelopmentonwhichtherewassurprisinglylittledisagreementinBritain.Thepost-warLabourGovernmentgrantedindependencetoIndiaandPakistan,Ceylon(nowSriLanka),BurmaandPalestinebetween1947and1948.Onlyafewdie-hardToriesgrumbledineffectivelyaboutthisanditisprobablethat,hadaConservativegovernmentbeenelectedin1945,thesecountrieswouldstillhavebeengiventheirfreedom.Thiswasfortworeasons.Britain,virtuallybankruptaftertheSecondWorldWar,couldnotaffordtoretainthem.Norcoulditresistthepowerfuldemandsforindependencefromwithinthecountriesthemselves.Britain’sproblemsinIndiaweresummedupsuccinctlybyHughDalton,theChancelloroftheExchequer,inhisdiaryentryfor24thFebruary1947:‘Ifyouareinaplacewhereyouarenotwanted,andwhereyouhavenotgottheforce,orperhapsthewill,tosquashthosewhodon’twantyou,theonlythingtodoistocomeout.’

However,forabout15yearsafterthewartheleadersofbothmainpartiesbelievedthatBritain’sAfrican,CaribbeanandFarEasterncolonieswerenotreadyforindependence.Britainhadaduty,itwasthought,tobuilddemocraticpolitical,administrative,legal,economicandeducationalinstitutionsintheircoloniesbeforeindependencecouldbegranted.Thesehigh-mindedobjectiveswere,inthemindsofBritishpoliticians,reconcilablewithexploitingtheresourcesofthecoloniestohelpovercomeBritain’seconomicproblems.

Yetbythemid-1950sanumberoffactorshadcombinedtodisrupttheseaims,andtherapidwithdrawalfromthebulkofBritain’sremainingimperialpossessionsbecameirresistible.Thepolicyofsimultaneouslyexploitingthecolonieseconomicallywhileattemptingtodeveloptheircapacityforself-governmentmerelyfosteredthekindofnationalistresentmentagainstBritishrulethatDaltonhadobservedinIndia.Atthe

IntroductiontothemakingofmodernBritain1951-2007

sametime,BritainandotherWesternEuropeanimperialpowerscouldhardlyclaimtostandfor‘freedom’againstSoviet‘tyrannyandoppression’intheColdWarwhiledenyingindependencetotheircolonies.

WhenMacmillanbecamePrimeMinisterinJanuary1957,followingthedisastrousfailureofBritain’sforcefulattempttoreassertitscontrolovertheSuezCanalinEgypt,heimmediatelycalledforareviewofBritain’simperialpossessions.Hewantedtoknow‘whichterritoriesarelikelytobecomeripeforindependenceoverthenextfewyears–or,eveniftheyarenotreadyforit,willdemanditsoinsistentlythattheirclaimscannotbedenied’.MacmillanwastheprimeministerwhopresidedoverBritain’srapidwithdrawalfromthebulkofitsAfricanempireandfrommajorpossessionsintheCaribbean,theMediterraneanandtheFarEast.Thisimperialretreatencounteredsomedomesticopposition.Theright-wingoftheToryPartyfeltthatthewhitesettlersofKenyaandSouthernRhodesia(nowZimbabwe)werebeingabandoned,andtherewasleft-wingcriticismofsomeoftheheavy-handedpolicingofnationalistprotestinthecolonies.ButtheprinciplethatBritain’simperialdayswereoverwaswidelyaccepted,andthepublicatlargewasmostlyindifferenttothelossofthecolonies.

ForeignPolicy

NoBritishgovernment,whetherLabourorConservative,haslikedtoadmitthat,despitethelossofempire,Britainisanythingotherthanamajorpower.Thisexplainswhytherewasaconsensus,amongtheleadersofthemainpartiesatleast,thatBritainshouldretainitsindependentnuclearcapability.TheinitialdecisiontobuildaBritishnuclearbombmadesoundstrategicsense.In1946theUSCongresspassedtheMcMahonActforbiddingthesharingofAmericannuclearinformationandresearchwithanyotherpower,therebyendingthewartimeAnglo-Americanco-operationinthedevelopmentofthefirstnuclearbomb.TheLabourGovernmentwasfearfulthat,ifanyfutureUSgovernmentreturnedtoAmerica’spre-warisolationism,WesternEuropemighthavetofacethegrowingRussianthreatalone.AlthoughthisfearrecededoncetheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganisationwascreatedin1949,BritishgovernmentscontinuedtoinvestinnuclearweaponstechnologyandBritaintesteditsfirstatomicbombin1948anditsfirsthydrogenbombin1955.

InFebruary1960MacmillanhadanopportunitytoscraptheBritishbombwhenhisgovernmentdecidedtocancelBlueStreak,theindependentBritishmedium-rangemissilesystem,becauseitwastooexpensiveandvulnerabletoanenemypre-emptivestrike.Instead,MacmillandecidedtopurchaseaUSdeliverysystem,firsttheSkyboltmissileandthenthePolarissubmarinelaunchedmissile.ItispossibletoarguethatthisrelianceontheUSmakesnonsenseofanyBritishclaimtonuclearindependence.However,noBritishgovernmenthasbeenpreparedtorenouncethestatusthatmembershipofthenuclear‘club’confers.

Britain’smembershipofNATOisanotherissueonwhichthereisconsensus.ThismeansthatBritain’scloseidentificationwiththeUSAduringtheColdWarwaswidelyaccepted.Significantly,theoneoccasiononwhichBritishforeignpolicybecamehighlycontroversialwasin1956whenPrimeMinisterAnthonyEdenactedindefianceoftheUSAbyusingforcetoattempttorecovercontroloftheSuezCanal.

LimitsofConsensus

Despitetheconsensus,therewasstillplentyofdispute,disagreementanddebate.Politicalrhetoriccontinuedtobefierce.AneurinBevanin1948famouslydescribedtheToriesas‘lowerthanvermin’and,throughouttheperiod,theConservativesreferredtotheirLabouropponentsas‘socialists’inordertosuggestthattherewasanimportantideologicaldifferencebetweenthetwoparties.SomeissuesarousedstrongpassionsbothinWestminsterandthecountryatlarge.Capitalpunishment,thepolicecrackdownonhomosexualsintheearly1950s(malehomosexualactshadbeenillegalsince1885)andwhattodoaboutthegrowingnumbersofCommonwealthimmigrantsalldividedopinionsostarklythatgovernmentswerereluctanttocontemplatereform.

IntroductiontothemakingofmodernBritain1951-2007

TherewasalsosignificantdivisionoverhowBritainshouldreacttogrowingEuropeanunity.Havingstoodasidein1958whensixWesternEuropeannationsformedatradingblocknownas‘theCommonMarket’(theforerunneroftheEuropeanUnion),Britain’sdecisiontoapplyformembershipin1961provedcontroversial.TheFrenchpresident,CharlesdeGaulle,vetoedtheapplicationin1963butthisdidnotendtheargumentinBritainoverattitudestoEurope.

Itisalsoclearthattheconsensusitselfcameunderincreasingstraintowardstheendofthe1950s.Thefutureofsecondaryschooleducationisagoodexampleofthis.The1944EducationActwasbroadlywelcomedatthetimebutitsprovisionofacompetitiveexamination(takenattheageof11)whichdeterminedwhetherchildrenwenttoacademic‘grammar’schoolsorvocational‘modern’schoolscameunderincreasingattackduringthe1950s.Itscriticsclaimedthatthe‘11plus’examwasinefficientanddiscriminatory:toomanyofthenation’schildren,itwasargued,werebeingcondemnedtoasecond-classeducationonthebasisofasingleexamtakentooearlyinlife.

Finally,oneofthemainplanksoftheconsensus–thegovernment’smanagementoftheeconomy–alsobecameamatteroffiercedispute.Britain’sfailuretokeeppacewiththeeconomicdevelopmentofitsEuropeanrivalscausedthebreakdownoftherelationshipbetweengovernmentandtradeunions.CommunistcontroloftheElectriciansUnionbecameacausecélèbreandcontributedtotheincreasinglyhostilepublicperceptionoftradeunions.Strikesincreasedinfrequency.Thenumberofworkingdayslosttoindustrialactionrosefrom1.7millionin1951to5.7in1962.TUCoppositiontowage-restraintclashedwiththegovernment’sattemptstocontrolinflationbyanincomespolicy.Bytheearly1960sconfidencethatKeynesiandemandmanagementcouldmaintainfullemploymentandlowinflationhadbeeneroded.

DistinctivenessofMrButskell

Itwouldbewrongtosuggestthatthepost-warperiodwastheonlyperiodofBritishhistorywhentherewasaconsensus.Asetofsharedvaluesaboutnationaltraditions,freespeech,theruleoflawandthelegitimacyofelectedgovernmentsisvitaltothesuccessfulfunctioningofdemocracy.InthissenseBritainhaslongenjoyedconsensus.Butthepost-warperiodwasdistinctiveinthedegreetowhichitwasassumedthatgovernmentscould,andshould,takeresponsibilityforthemanagementofnationalaffairsforthepublicgood.ConfidenceinMrButskellstemmedfromthesharedexperienceofwartime,buthewasbeginningtolosehisglossbytheearly1960–longbeforeMrsThatcher’sfrontalassaultonhiminthe1980s.EveninhisheydayMrButskellwasnotuniversallyadmired(leastofallbyTheEconomistarticlewhichcoinedhisname),buthedoessymbolisethemoodofthepost-warperiod.

IntroductiontothemakingofmodernBritain1951-2007

Tasks

A. Answerthequestionsinfullsentencesanduseanyfurtherresearchtohelpyougivedetailedanswers.

1. WhatarethefourmainprinciplesofPost-Warconsensus?2. HowdidChurchillrunthecountryduringtheWar?Providespecificexamples3. WhatimpactdidthischangeinsystemhaveonBritain’ssocialstructure?4. Whatwerethe5areasidentifiedintheBeveridgereport?5. WhatdidtheMinisterforHealthannouncein1941?6. Whatdoesnationalisationmean?7. WhydidLabourwinthe1945election?8. Whatwasthebenefitofnationalisation?9. WhydidChurchillwanttoworkalongsideandwiththeunions?10. Whatisawelfarestate?11. WhydidBritainnotgrantindependencetoallofitscolonies?12. WhydidBritainneednuclearpower?13. WhatsuccessdidBritainhavewithnuclearpower?14. HowimportantwereKeynesandBeveridgeinforgingaconsensusinBritain?15. Onwhichissueswasconsensusstrongestandonwhichwasitweakestin1945-64?16. Hadconsensusbrokendownby1964?

B. CompletethekeyworddefinitionlistC. Youmustcompletethetimelineandfillitwithpolitical,economic,socialandforeignevents.

Makesureyouhaveakeyandatleast10exampleforeachfactorforthetimeperiod.(IfpossibleprintthetimelineoutonA3-thetimelinecannotbeeditedsocreateyourownifusingthecomputer)

D. MakealistofPrimeministers,ChancelloroftheExchequer’sandHomeSectariessince1945-1979includewhatpartytheyare.

TEXTBOOKforthecourse

https://www.amazon.co.uk/Oxford-AQA-History-Level-1951-2007/dp/0198354649/ref=sr_1_1?crid=3EHFHVVH66A1C&dchild=1&keywords=making+of+modern+britain+textbook&qid=1586165916&sprefix=making+of+modern%2Caps%2C172&sr=8-1

MAKESUREYOUDON’TJUSTPURCHASETHEREVISIONGUIDE

IntroductiontothemakingofmodernBritain1951-2007

Keywords:Notenoughtojustcopyadefinitionalsoputthewordintouse.Createanexample.

Imperial

Mixedeconomy

Freemarket

Keynesian

Welfarestate

Conservativeparty

Labourparty

Liberalparty

Radical

Extreme

Invaluable

Ideology

Socialism

Consensus

Deference

IntroductiontothemakingofmodernBritain1951-2007

Task2:Addatitleforeachparagraph.

Task1:Readeachparagraphonthe:

BackgroundtotheGermanEmpireof1871Underlinethekeyinformation.Beselective.

Task3:Summariseeachparagraphintwoorthreepoints.

MapofGermanyin1871

TherewasnosinglestatecalledGermanybefore1871.Untiltheearly1800s,theareawenowthinkofasGermanyhadbeenmadeupover100differentGermanstatesall looselygrouped together in the ‘Holy Roman Empire.’ This had been destroyed by the FrenchEmperorNapoleon in1806.FollowingNapoleon’sdefeat in1815, theEmperorofAustriainvited representatives from countries in Europe to a Congress (meeting) at Vienna tosettle the borders of the continent. The Congress of Vienna established 39 separateGermanstates,inanattempttocreatestabilityinthearea.

TherewasrivalryforinfluenceoverthesestatesbetweenPrussia,the largest of the states, and Austria, a German-speakingneighbour. Prussia had played a big part in the defeat of theFrenchandhadgainednew land in theRhineland,an importantindustrial area, at theViennaCongress.KingWilhelm of Prussiafollowing the direction of Otto von Bismarck, his Minister-President (chiefminister), took Prussia towar against Austria in1866. A year later the new ‘North German Confederation’ wasformed.ThisunitednorthernstatesunderthecontrolofPrussia.Berlin was its capital and King Wilhelm of Prussia was itsPresident. Bismarck became its Chancellor (chief minister) andcreated a constitution that served as a model for the GermanEmpire,formedin1871.

Following a furtherwar against the French, the Franco-PrussianWar of 1870-1871, this Confederation was extended to includethesouthernstatesofGermany.Therefore,on18 January1871,WilhelmwasproclaimedGermanKaiser (Emperor) in theHallofMirrors at the Palace of Versailles, near Paris, in France. ThenewlyunitedGermanEmpirewasknownastheSecondReich.

Kaiser Wilhelm ruled over 25 separate states, including Prussia, which was by far thelargest. Prussiamade up two-thirds of theReich (Empire).Bavaria was the next largeststate. The Reich also included the largely French-speaking Alsace-Loraine in the west, aDanishminorityinthenorth,andPolish-speakingareasinEastPrussia.

SincetheSecondReichhad‘officially’beenformedbyvoluntaryagreementofthedifferentstates, it was accepted these states would keep their own sovereignty (right of self-government)overinternalaffairs.ThismadethenewGermanyafederalstate.22ofthesememberstates(orLänder),includingBavaria,kepttheirownmonarchies.Indeed,thestateof Bavaria negotiated a considerable degree of autonomy (independence), including theright to maintain its own army. However, a new constitution was essential in order todefinethewaythenewlyunitedReichwouldbegoverned.

KEYTERMS:Constitution:Setofrulesforhowastate,orcountry,isgoverned.Federal:Systemofgovernmentinwhichdifferentstateskeepindependenceininternalaffairs(e.g.education,healthandlocalgovernment),butacceptcentralgovernmentformattersofcommonimportance(e.g.defenceandtrade).State:Anarea,forexampleacountry,controlledbyonegovernment.

HolyRomanEmpire:Empirefrom800-1806inwesternandcentralEurope,includingtheareawenowthinkofasGermany.ItwasruledoverbytheHolyRomanEmperor,althoughtheindividualstatesintheEmpirehadtheirownrulersandgovernment.SecondReich:‘Reich’meansEmpire.Foundedin1871itwasknownastheSecondReichtodistinguishitfromtheFirstReichoftheHolyRomanEmpire.

Wilhelm

Bismarck

Task2:Addatitleforeachparagraph.

Task1:Readeachparagraph.Underlinethekeyinformation.Beselective. Task3:Summariseeachparagraphintwoorthreepoints.

Sincetheearly1990s,Germanliberals, likethoseelsewhereinEurope,hadbeencallingfora ‘democraticconstitution.’Bythistheymeantapoliticalsysteminwhichpoweroftherulerandhisminsterswaslimitedandthatgavethepeoplesomecontrolovertheirowngovernment.TheGermanliberalswantedGermanytohaveanelectedparliament,chosenby‘thepeople’oratleastthewealthiestinsociety.Theliberalsbelievedthatthiswas theonlyway toprotectpeople’s freedom.Anelectedparliamentwould representthe people’s views, question minister’s policies, and ensure that taxes were properlyspent. Indeed, the liberals had supported Bismarck’s unification on the understandingthatsuchaconstitutionwouldbetheresult.

However, Bismarck who in 1871 became the Chancellor (chief minister of the Reichgovernment) was no liberal. He came from the traditional and aristocratic landownerJünkerclassofPrussia.HewasconservativeandcommittedtothePrussiantraditionofautocratic rule. He was deeply suspicious of ‘people power’, although he claimed tosupportconstitutionsandappearedtoagreewith liberals.Thiswas largelytogaintheirsupportinhispursuitofastrong,unitedGermany.

KEYTERMS:Conservative:Personaversetochangeorinnovationandholdingtraditionalvalues.Theysupportautocracy.Liberal:Personwhofavoursreform,isnotboundbytraditionalthinking,andistolerantoftheideasandbehaviourofothers.Theysupportdemocracy.

Autocratic:Apoliticalsystemwhereasinglepersonorsmallgrouphascompletepower.E.g.ahereditarymonarchoremperorwithultimateauthority.Democratic:Apoliticalsystemthatsupportspeople’sfreedomwithpowerheldbyelectedrepresentatives.E.g.peoplehavethefreedomtovoteinelectionsforaparliamentthatismadeupofdifferentpoliticalparties.

Task4:Answerthequestionstocheckyourunderstandingsofar.a)InwhatwaysdidPrussiadominatethenewlyunitedGermanEmpire?(Givethreeexamples)._______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________b)HowfarwastheGermanEmpireunitedin1871?(Tip:Considerhowfartherewaspoliticalandnationalunity).__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Task6:Addatitleforeachparagraph.

Task5:Readeachparagraphonthe:

1871ConstitutionUnderlinethekeyinformation.Beselective.

Task7:Summariseeachparagraphintwoorthreepoints.

The constitution of 1871 set out the way in which the newly united German Empirewouldbegoverned.TheKaiser (Emperor)ofGermanywasthehereditarymonarchandalwaystheKingofPrussia.HehadthepowertoappointanddismisstheChancellor.TheKaiser also had the power to summon and dissolve (shut down) the Reichstag. Hecontrolled foreign policy, could make treaties and alliances with other countries,commanded the army and could declare war and make peace. The Kaiser gave hisagreementtoalllaws.Hehadthefinalsayinanydisputeovertheconstitution.

The national government was made up of the Chancellor and other ministers. TheChancellorwasthechiefministerofthegovernment.HewasresponsibletotheEmperor,not the Reichstag. The Chancellor appointed and dismissed the other ministers ingovernment.He could ignore the viewsof theReichstag. The government put forwardbills(formalstatementsofaproposednewlaw)totheReichstag.BismarckhaddesignedtheconstitutiontosuithisrelationshipwiththeKaiser.Wilhelm,alreadyaged74whenhebecameEmperor,was generally happy to have a passive role and leave the task ofgoverningGermanytoBismarck.

The Reichstag (national Parliament) was made up of representatives from politicalparties.ThepartiesintheReichstagwerenotpartofthegovernment.Reichstagdeputieswere unpaid and elected every five years, unless the Reichstag was dissolved by theKaiser.Allmenover25yearsofagehadtherighttovoteinelections,whichisknownasuniversal male suffrage. The Reichstag had the power to approve or reject budgets,whichassessedtheraisingandspendingoftaxes.Italsohadthepowertoapprovebills,put forward by the government, to make them laws. Although the Reichstag couldquestionandrejectpotentiallaws,ithadnorealpowertoinitiateorchangelaws.ItalsodidnothavethepowertodemandthedismissaloftheChancellororanyotherminister.

Task8:Usingtwodifferentcolours,highlightexamplesofhowthe1871Constitutionwasautocraticanddemocratic.

Task10:Addatitleforeachparagraph.

Task9:Readeachparagraphonthe:

PoliticalPartiesUnderlinethekeyinformation.Beselective.

Task11:Summariseeachparagraphintwoorthreepoints.

The political parties that competed in the 1871Reichstagelectionsweredifferentfrommodernparties.They were not competing for the right to formgovernmentandrule thecountry.Theyweremore likepressure groups, representing and promoting theinterests of different classes and groups in society. Onthe right-wing were two major groups, the GermanConservative Party and Imperial Party. The GermanConservativeshaditsstrengthinPrussiaitself,amongstProtestant,aristocraticlandowners(Jünkers).Itwasthemost right-wing of the parties and detested theReichstag because it was elected by universal malesuffrage. The Imperial Party appealedmore broadly totheelitesacrossGermany.

The Centre Party (Zentrum) represented German Catholics from all social classes. Theparty was strong in the southern German states, particularly Bavaria, and also in theRhineland. The Catholic population was greater in these areas. The Zentrum wasdetermined to preserve the position of the Catholic Church, especially in education. Itwas conservative and favoured greater decentralisation (moving power away from thecentralgovernment),butitwasquiteliberalinitsattitudetosocialreform.

The liberal parties represented the Protestantmiddle-class. TheNational Liberal PartysupportedBismarckinaunifiedGermanyandcentralgovernment,althoughatoddswithhim in their supportof ademocratic constitution. To their leftwas theProgressParty.Progressivesbelievedinademocraticconstitution.TheyalsodislikedcentralgovernmentandmilitarismsolesssupportiveofBismarck.ProgressiveswantedtoextendthepowersoftheReichstag.

There were also socialist groups in 1871, but the Social Democratic Party was notfounded until 1875. This party represented the industrialworking-class. It supported areduction in the power of the wealthy and the extension of welfare reforms. On theextreme left,membersof thepartywantedatotaloverthrowoftheconstitutionandarepublic. However, most Social Democrats were prepared to work within the existingpoliticalsystem,inordertobringaboutbetterconditionsfortheworkingclass.

KEYTERM→Republic:Acountrywherepowerisheldbythepeopleortherepresentativestheyelect,ratherthanamonarchorEmperor.Electionresultsin1871:

Party SeatsNationalLiberalParty

125

CentreParty 63GermanConservativeParty

57

ProgressParty

46

ImperialParty

37

Socialistgroups

2

Others 52Total 382

Task12:Using the readingon the1871Constitution, label thediagram. Includeall thekeywords(seeright).

Keywords:• Appoints• Chancellor• Dismisses• Dissolves• Elects• Electorate(menover25)

• Government• Introducesbills• Kaiser(Emperor)• Otherministers• Passesorrejectsbills• Politicalparties• Reichstag• Summons.

Task13:UsingthereadingonPoliticalParties,labelwherethepartiesfitonthepoliticalline.Includeallofthepoliticalparties.Left-wingRight-wing

Politicalparties:• CentreParty• GermanConservativeParty

• ImperialParty• NationalLiberalParty

• SocialDemocraticParty.

SourceAPaintingofTheProclamationoftheGermanEmpirebyAntonvonWerner,madein1885forBismarck’s70thbirthday.Itshowstheceremonyof18January1871intheHallofMirrorsatthePalaceofVersailles,nearParis,inFrance.ThepaintingshowsKaiserWilhelmsurroundedbyotherGermanprincesonthestage.Armyofficers fromtheNorthGermanConfederationandthesouthernGermanstatesstandoppositethem.InthemiddleofthiscrowdBismarckisshowninawhiteuniform.Hedidnotactuallywherethisuniformattheceremony.Bismarckisholdingtheproclamation(publicannouncement)oftheGermanEmpire,whichhedidreadout.Therewerenocivilians(anyonewhoisnotamemberofthearmedforces)attheceremony. Task15:Whatdoesitsuggest?Task14:Whatdoyousee?

Task16:StudySourceA.WhatdoesthepaintingsuggestaboutthenewlyunitedGermanEmpire?

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Tips:Thinkabout…• Who(orwhodidnot)attendtheceremony?• Whatitsuggestsaboutthepeoplewithpower?• Whentheceremonytookplace?• Whereittookplace?• WhydiditnottakeplaceinGermany?

ExtractBAdaptedfromBloodandIron:TheRiseandFalloftheGermanEmpire(2021)byhistorianKatjaHoyer.

The political system that underpinned the Reich was an extremely fragile balancing act that tried toappease(satisfy)allinterestgroups.Naturally,Germanyhadtobesetupasafederalstatewithsignificantpowers for the 25 individual states, called Länder. However, Bismarck was also keen to preserve thecentral status of Prussia in the process, as he had promisedWilhelm. Another compromise had to befoundbetweendemocracyanddynasticpower.TheceremonyatVersailleswas intentionallysetupasashowofthelatter.DemocracywasembodiedintheReichstagwhereelectedrepresentativesofthepublictook their seats.Bismarckwascarefulnot togive theReichstag toomuchpowerashewascautious toavoidmob rule, asmostof theelites still saw it.Mostof theweaknessesof this set-up came from theinherentparadoxes (inconsistencies)of theGermanEmpire.Was itpossible tokeepall 25 states in theunionwithoutsacrificingPrussianpower?Howcantherebeademocracywithoutathreattotheelites’monopoly (hold)ondecisionmaking?Theseweredifficultbalancingacts thatwereskilfullymanagedbyBismarck.Differencesofregionalloyalties,culture,dialect,religion,historyand(increasingly)socialstatuswouldeventuallyfadeandbereplacedbyacarefullymanagedconceptofGermannationalidentity.

Task17:ReadExtractB.Underlinethreekeyphrasesthatarearguments(opinions)notfacts.Underlinenomorethanfivewordsforeach.

Task18:WhatisHoyer’soverallargumentonhowfartheGermanEmpirewasunitedin1871?Summarisethisintwosentences._______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________TextbookfortheA-level:SallyWaller,OxfordAQAHistory.TheQuestforPoliticalStability:Germany1871-1991,(OxfordUniversityPress,2015)ISBN-10:0198354681Recommendedsummerreading:KatjaHoyer,BloodandIron:TheRiseandFalloftheGermanEmpire,1871-1918,(TheHistoryPress,2021)ISBN-10:0750996226