Is the Casting of Utilitarian as Discordant with Arts...

Utilitarian as Discordant with Arts Education?52

Is the Casting of Utilitarianas Discordant with Arts Education

Philosophy Justified?1

Jeremy KopkasRiverwood International Charter School

Journal of Thought, Spring 2013

Introduction Theterm“utilitarian”hasanegativeconnotationinartseducation,especiallyamongthosewhojustifythearts’inclusioninthegeneralcur-riculumasaestheticeducation.Thosewhosupportthenotionthattheartsarevaluableinthegeneralcurriculumsayitissobecauseofthearts’connectiontoaesthetics.Supportersofaestheticeducationassertthattheartspromoteuniquelyartisticidealsinsteadofmereutilitariangoals.Thatis,theartsarenotahandmaidenforthepromotionofextra-artisticends.Thisparticularviewofthetermutilitarianhasledtoargumentsinthefieldresultinginpersistentpartisandivisions.Onegroupseestheartsassomethingdistinctive,separate,andworthyofstudyforitsownsake,whileanotherbelievestheartsoughttobeintegratedthroughoutthecurriculumortaughtasawaytofacilitatehigherorderthinkinginanotherdiscipline.Isthereanyhopeforreconciliation?Theremightbe.Ifreconciliationispossible,alteringthewayinwhichartseduca-torsgenerally,andaestheticeducatorsspecifically,understandandusethetermutilitarianisnecessary.TobegintheprocessofreconciliationIfirstofferabriefconceptualanalysisofhowthetermhasbeenusedinartseducationdiscourse.Thisanalysissimultaneouslyrevealshowthecastingofthetermbymanyartseducatorshaslimitedthescopeofdiscussionaboutitinthearts. Inthelate1950sartseducatorslookedtoaestheticstofurtherjustifyinclusioninthegeneralpublicschoolcurriculum.Theattempttojustify

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theartsbyemphasizingaestheticsinartseducationmeantunderminingwhatscholarsconsideredtobetheprevioustheoreticalunderpinning.Utilitarianwasthedescriptivelabelofpriorartseducationjustificationgivenbyartseducatorsespousingaestheticeducationwhosoughttojustifytheartsaspartofthegeneralschoolcurriculumonanewfooting.Thevocabularyusedhashadaparticularlyimportantroleinframingthedebatearoundaestheticeducation.ScholarssuchasElliotEisner,Maxine Greene, Charles Leonhard, Robert House, Bennett Reimer,andMichaelMark2assertthatartseducationfromthemid-twentiethcenturyoughttohaveanemphasisondevelopingaestheticexperiences,aestheticattitudes,andaestheticresponsiveness.Theyusedvocabularythatcastthepreviousjustificationasinconsistentwithwhattheysawastheprinciplesandvaluesofthearts.Intheirdiscourseonartseduca-tion,aestheticdoctrineswerebifurcatedwithutilitarianones. Althoughitmaybeafalsedichotomy,whatismoreproblematictomeishowbothtermshavebeenusedinthescholarship.Inparticular,andmoreimportantforthisarticle,utilitarianisatermthathasbeendisparagedtosuchanextentthatonedarenotsayitincertaincircles,especiallyamongproponentsofartseducation.Becauseoftheattempttosupplantso-calledutilitarianjustificationwithaestheticeducation,theformertermwaslookeduponwithscorn,andinthefieldofartseducationutilitarianisatermthathascontinuedtobespurned.Thepurposeofthispaperisnottogiveadefinitionofaestheticeducationoridentifythewaysinwhichitisunderstoodinartseducation. Instead,inthefirstpartofthispaperIelaborateonthewaysinwhich views and explanations of “utilitarian” cloud the discourse ofeducators.Thecruxoftheproblemliesinthewaysinwhichthetermsutilitarian,utility,andutilitarianismaredescribed,used,andunder-stoodtocharacterizehowartseducationhastraditionallybeenjustifiedinpubliceducationintheUnitedStates.Idonotpurporttohavethedefinitiveandfinalwordonthetopicofutilitarianviewsinrelationtoartseducation,nordoIadvanceanironcladdefinitionofwhat“utilitar-ian”oughttomean.Mytaskismuchsimpler.Thefirstaimofthispaperistoshowhowscholarshaveappliedthetermutilitarianinsuchawaythatrendersitproblematicforreadersandthefieldofartseducation,andtointimatewhyitmighthavebeenappliedthisway.Concurrentwithandfollowingtheoverviewoftheliteratureisananalysisoftheterm’suse.Finally,Isuggest,verybriefly,thattheremaybehopeforrecastingtheterm“utilitarian”inartseducationinanewandperhapsunexpectedlight.

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How Is Utilitarian Used in the Literature? Asappliedtoeducationgenerally,theterm“utilitarian”hasbeenexplainedashavingtodowithpracticalmattersandsocialusefulness.Thereisanemphasisonusefulendsdeterminedprimarilybyanindus-trializedmarket-basedeconomy.Forexample,HerbertKliebard,writingabouteducationduringtheprogressiveera,assertsthat

. . .modernforeignlanguagesweremoreusefulthanclassicalones,andsubjectslikesurveyingandnavigationneededaplacealongsidemasterpiecesofliteratureandformalgrammar.Modestsuccesseswereachievedhereandthereinchangingthecurriculumalongutilitarianlines.Inthenineteenthcentury,theacademy,apopular…formofsec-ondaryeducationthatincludedpracticalsubjects,becamethedominantformofsecondaryeducationinthecountry.3

NottoofarremovedfromthesameperiodoftimementionedinKliebard’swork,notedmusiceducatorWillEarhartlamentedthat

...shallwecontinuetobelievethatutilitarianthoughtandlabor,ifonlyspurredmorefeverishlysoastoproducemoretonnage,willbringaboutthemillenniumitsolonghaspromised?Dowenotknowthatself-interestbreedsself-interest,thatutilitarianismbreedsutilitarian-ism,evenaswarbreedswar?4

Alsofocusingonthesameperiodoftime,themusiceducationphiloso-pherReimerarguesthatduringtheprogressiveeducationmovement“socialandrecreationalactivitiesbecameanimportantpartofschool-ing, asdidvocationalandutilitarian training.”5Furthermore,musiceducationhistorianMarkarguesin“TheEvolutionofMusicEducationPhilosophyfromUtilitariantoAesthetic”that“Basic Conceptswasthephilosophicalculmination,intheUnitedStatesatleast,ofthousandsofyearsofutilitarianphilosophy.Severalauthorsdiscussedmusiceduca-tionphilosophyinutilitarianterms.”6Atleastsincetheprogressiveerathetermutilitarian(inbothgeneraleducationandmusiceducation)isconnectedwithsociallyandeconomicallypracticalinterests.Itisduringthiseraandlaterintothecenturythatsomeinartseducationconnotethetermasanathematothegoalsandvaluesofthearts. Eisnerisoneprominentexampleofanartseducatorwhoappliesan unfavorable emotive meaning to “utilitarian.” In espousing theaesthetic dimension in arts education, he criticizes the utilitarianperspectiveassomethingthatcausesstudentstomissoutonornotfullyunderstandtheaestheticexperience.Forhimanaestheticatti-tude“freesthemfromtheunrelentingdemandsofpracticality.”7GailBurnaford,ArnoldAprill,andCynthiaWeissalsodisparageso-called

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utilitarian approaches to arts education.Pushing the sentiments ofEisnerfurther,theyarguethat

...usingartsactivities,suchasgraphicorganizersormovementactivi-ties,nomatterhowcharmingoruseful,isnotthesamethingasseriouslyengagingintheprocessofart.Whenautilitarianapproachistaken,theotheracademicareasareoftengivenshortshriftaswell.Yes,musicuseshalfnotesandquarternotes,butpointingouttheexistenceoffractionsinmusicdoesn’tmakealessonmeaningfulmathinstruction.8

Thecastingofaestheticsinapositivelightwhileapplyinganunfa-vorableemotivemeaningto“utilitarian”isseen,again,inMark’swork.He speaks of the movement toward aesthetic education, specificallymusiceducationasaestheticeducation,assomethingthatisliberatingartseducationfromtherigidviewsofsocialefficiencyexpertsandad-ministrativeprogressives.Indoingso,Markclaimsaestheticeducationinvited“muchdeeperintrospection”thandidtheprecedingutilitarianjustification.9Inreferencetoutilitariannotionsofeducationhegoesontoassertthat“policymakerslostsightofthefactthatsuchskillsaresimplytoolsthatopenthegatetoeducation,theyarenotaneducationinthemselves.”10

LeannLogsdonalsoechoesthesesentimentsbyassertingthatutilitar-iangoalsaremoreextremethaninstrumentalonesbecausethediscourseamongartsadvocates“isshiftinginanexplicitlyutilitariandirection,withartseducationincreasinglyplacedintheserviceofrealizingmate-rialeconomicgoals.”11Iusetheterminmuchthesameway.12 Thesearejustafewexamplesthatshow,invaryingdegrees,thetermutilitarianashavinganegativeconnotation.Fortheseartseducatorsandscholarstheutilitarianisaviewthatplacestheartsinasubservi-entpositionfortheassistancetheymayprovidetoextra-artisticandpracticalhumanendeavors.Theseendeavorsrangefrompurportingtohelpstudentsimproveinmathematicstodevelopingproductivecitizens.13Simplyput,theutilitarianisincompatiblewithwhatartsadvocatessaytheartsaresupposedtoteach;atbestitassumestheartsonlyhaveinstrumentalvalue.Philosophicallyspeaking,thesescholarsappeartohaveimposedtheirreactiontothetermforthepurposeofelicitinganemotionalappeal,whichhasresultedinaviewofutilitarianthatdevi-atesfromameredescription.

Why Has Utilitarian Been Used This Way? Theemotivemeaningappliedbyartseducatorstothetermisim-portantbecausethisunfavorableconnotationofitsmeaning,asarguedbyWittgensteininhislaterworkPhilosophical Investigations,hascome

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about through itsuse, its ostensivedefinition.14Arts educatorshavemadeattemptstodemonstratethemeaningofutilitybycouplingitwithextra-artisticandpracticalendeavors.Theseostensivedescriptionsareproblematicintwoways.First,utilitarianisanabstractterm,sotryingtoshowwhatitmeansisdifficult.Second,ashasbeenshown,itsuseintheliteraturelimitsitapplication,aprobleminherentwithostensivedefinitions.Theseproblemshaveresultedinanunderstandingamongartseducatorsthatistroublesome.Itisbecauseoftheterm’sostensivedefinitionintheliteraturethatunderstandingisrestricted.Connotationandostensivedefinitionarekeydeterminantsinthenarrowconceptionofutilitarianamongartseducators. Artseducatorsuseutilitarianinsuchawaythatcorrelatesittoaviewthatsupportersofaestheticeducationseeastakingplacein,through,andtoartseducation.Thatis,opponentswhoargueagainstautilitarianframeworkintheartsareconcernedthatoutsideentitiesarethrustinguponartseducationnotionsofartanditsplaceinschoolsthat,totheformergroup,areproblematic.Theviewofgroupsoutsideofartseduca-tiondeterminingtheroleandstatusoftheartsintheschoolsiscriticizedbecause,accordingtothoseespousingaestheticeducation,itisimposedbythosewhodonotfullyunderstandthenatureofthearts.Tome,itisreallyaquestionofpower.Regardless,theresponsebyartseducatorstotheexternalinfluenceisboundupintheuseofthetermutilitarian. OneexampleofanostensivedefinitionisgivenbyBurnaford,Aprill,andWeiss.Forthemthemeaningofutilitarianisshownbysuggestingthat“musicuseshalfnotesandquarternotes,butpointingouttheexistenceoffractionsinmusicdoesn’tmakealessonmeaningfulmathinstruction.”15Theterm’sconnotationisseenintheworkofLogsdonwhoassertsthefieldismoving“inanexplicitlyutilitariandirection,withartseducationincreasinglyplacedintheserviceofrealizingmaterialeconomicgoals.”16Theseartseducatorsareobsessedwiththepracticalandtheextra-artisticaspectsoftheterm.Thisnegativeconnotationofutilitarianhascontributedtoaviewthattheautonomyoftheartsislimitedandtheagencyofartseducatorsisundermined.17Aconsequenceofthisisthatartseducatorsunderstandthetermonlyasitisusedintheartseducationliterature,andotherwaysofunderstandingthetermareobscured.Assuch,itsuseisreinforcedbyconfirmationbiases,perpetuatingthesameunfavorableemotivereaction.Theconscious,andrecurringsubconscious,usesofthewordareviewedasanaffronttothearts. Thetonewithwhichproponentsofartseducationdisparageutilitarianclaimsanddistancethemselvesfromtheideathattheartsmusthavepracticalandimmediatesocialfunctionsisunfortunate.Itisunfortu-natebecauseitunnecessarilylimitsthepossibilitiesofhowtheword

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utilitariancanbementioned,used,andunderstoodinartseducationdiscourse.Inotherwords,byframingthetermthewayartseducatorshave,thesescholarshaveboxeditinsothatitcanbeunderstoodonlycondescendingly. The way in which the aforementioned scholars’ vocabulary andtoneareusedtodescribeutilitarianleaveslittlewonderastowhyartseducationadvocatescontinuetocastitasdiscordantwithartseduca-tion.Buthowdidthisnegativeviewemerge?Isitpossibletorecastit?Howmightartseducatorsbemorepreciseinthelanguagetheyuse?Whyisutilitarianassociatedonlywiththepracticalandusefulinartseducationdiscourse? InthespiritofthelaterWittgenstein,theroleofthisconceptualandphilosophicalanalysis is todispelconfusion.18 Inordertodispelconfusion regarding the application of the terms utility, utilitarian,andutilitarianismbysomescholarsinartseducation,attheveryleastIproposeartseducatorsusemorepreciselanguageorthoroughlyandexplicitlyexplainwhatismeantwhenusingproblematicterms.There-fore,insteadofusingutilitarian,themoreappropriateterms,useful,extra-artistic,practicalorinstrumentalshouldbeusedfordescribingwhatartseducatorslament.19Veeringawayfromthemoreproblematictermofutilityrequiressomeawarenessoftheetymologyoftheword.

How Has Utilitarian Been Used outside of Arts Education? Negativeviewsamongartseducatorsregardingthetermutilitarianareinpartlinkedwithitsetymologyandcontext.TheLatintermutilitasroughlytranslatesto“usefulness.”AlthoughIamnotclearhowbroadlythetermwasapplied intheancientworldbeyondthe famousphrase“Utilitas, Venustas, Firmitas”oftheRomanarchitectVitruvius,itisclearthatfromveryearlyonitwaslinkedwithuse.20Thespecifickindofuseis not apparent. In the eighteenth century utility becomes associatedwithethicsthroughthewritingsofJeremyBenthamandJohnStuartMill.Mill,however,wasalsoaclassicaleconomist,anditisclearthathisethicaltheorywasassociatedwithhiseconomicthinking.AccordingtoJohnCassidy,evenforafree-marketthinkersuchasMilltherewasalsoamoralcomponenttoeconomics,andgovernmentsneededtointervenefromtimetotimeforthebenefitofthepublic.21Focusingjustoneconom-ics,utilityisseenasthesatisfactionorbenefitconsumersgetfromagoodorservice,whichisjudgedbythepreferencesofconsumers.Here,again,weseeutility’sattachmenttouse,butnowthereisalsoanassociationwithtastes.ItisthesetastesandpreferencesthatareimportantinthedevelopmentofMill’sethicaltheoryofutilitarianism.

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ItisthroughMill’sdevelopmentofBentham’snotionsofutilitarianethicaltheoryinthenineteenthcenturythatutilitarianisrevisedandpopularized.Bentham’soriginalwork,andMill’srevisionofit,becomesthebasisofanimportantdevelopmentinethicaltheory.Millcallsit“theUtilitarianorHappinesstheory.”22Milladdresseshiscriticsinchaptertwobynotingthatinhistimethetermhasbeen“misapplied…indis-paragement,butoccasionallyincompliment.”23BenthamandMillweresimilartootherBritishreformersofthetimeinthattheirintentwastoimprovesociety.Forthem,improvementwastobegeneratedbyprovidingaguideforcraftinglegalandsocialreformswiththegoalofmaximizinghumanhappinessandpleasure.Bentham’sandMill’sargument(clas-sicalutilitarianism)isthatlawsandactionsthatpromotehappinessandpleasurearegoodwhereasthosethatcausepainarenot.CriticsofBentham’sworkwereuncomfortablewiththehedonismitappearedtopromote,evenlabelingit“swinemorality.”MilladdressestheseconcernsandrevisessomeofBentham’sviewsbyarguingsomepleasuresareofahigherorder.Forexample,intellectualpleasureswereconsideredbetterthansensualpleasures.Thepointofallthisistosaythatthereisanotherviewoftheterm,anditistopromotehappiness. Forme,theshiftintheuseofthetermiswhatisbothpromisingandproblematicforartseducation.Fewartseducators,ifany,explicitlyrecognizetheconnectionbetweenutilityandethics.Onepossibleexcep-tionisagain,Logsdon.SheusesanelementoftheethicaltheoryinheranalysisoftheworkofMaryAnnStankiewicz,PatriciaAmburgy,andPaulBolinonmid-nineteenthcenturyarteducationwhileusing theterminterchangeablywithwhatispractical.Logsdonasserts,“drawinginstructionwasviewedasameanstoaneconomicend,[so]thepolicyphilosophicallysharesmorewiththe‘greatergood’thesisespousedbyutilitariansthanwithpragmatism’snotionofanindividual’sconsid-eredinquiryintoanarrayofpotentiallifeconsequences.”24Whilesheacknowledgestheutilitarianideaof“thegreatestgoodforthegreatestnumber,”itisnotclearwhethersheunderstandstheconnectionbetweentheethicaltheoryinitsfullness.Thatis,hasshetakenareductionistviewand, thereby, conflatedutilitarianethical theorywitheconomicusefulness?Ifthisisthecase,sheissurelynotalone,and,etymologicallyandcontextuallyspeaking,itisplaintoseehowartseducatorsconflatethetwo.Thisiswherethetermisproblematic. In themiddleof thenineteenthcenturywhenutilitarianethicaltheorywasbeingactivelypromotedbyMill,thetermsimultaneouslyretaineditsconnectiontopracticalityandusefulness.AccordingtotheOxford English Dictionary,W. S. Coleman in Our Woodlands (1859)writes “turning from the picturesque or romantic, to the utilitarian

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viewofthistree.”25AnearlieruseandoneclosertotheconnectiontoeconomicendscomesfromaSeptember3,1839,copyoftheMorning Herald:“Thecold‘philosophy’ofamoney-gettingutilitarianage.”26Lastlyisanexamplefrom1862thatsupposedlylinksMill’sphilosophywithpracticalends.B.BrodieinPsychological Inquirywritesof“themereutilitarian philosopher, having his views limited to some immediatepracticalresult.”27BenthamandMillwere,afterall,Britishreformerswhowantedtobringaboutimprovementtosociety,andnodoubtpartofhowtheythoughtthatmighthappenwasrootedinthepracticalanduseful.Buttoonlyassociateutilitarianwiththepracticalanduseful,especially ineconomic terms,whilealso stating that the“utilitarianphilosopher”limitshimselfto“immediatepracticalresult”missesthemarkofclassicalutilitarianism.28Fornow,theimmediatequestioniswhydidthisviewofutilitarianphilosophyemerge? Theanswer to thequestionof theutilitarian linkwithpracticaleconomicendscomesintwoparts.Thefirsthastodowiththenatureof theperiod inwhichthesenineteenthcenturyandearlytwentiethcenturyscholarsarewriting.Intheindustrializingmarket-basedNorthAtlanticworldtherewasandstillisacloseassociationamongsocialprogress,economicprosperity,andpleasure.Historicallytheconnectionwitheconomicprosperityhasitsrootsperhapsmoreinmyththanreal-ity,butbecauseofitspervasivenessincontemporarypoliticaldiscourseitiscompellingnonetheless.HoratioAlger,Jr.’sfirstragstorichesbook,Ragged Dick,waspublishedin1867,merelyfouryearsafterMill’sworktitledUtilitarianism.Oneveryrecentexampleisthe2006movieThe Pursuit of Happiness,whichwasinspiredbyatruestory.TheactorWillSmithportraysChrisGardner,astrugglingSanFranciscosalesman.BytheendofthemovietheherosaveshimselfandhissonfrompovertyanddespairbypersistingandworkinghardtobuildalucrativecareeronWallStreet.Beyondtheobviousmythabouthardwork,theunderlyingmessageinbothoftheseexamplesisthatmoneybringsaboutthegoodlifeandhappiness. ThesecondpartoftheanswertothequestionofwhydidtheeconomicusefulnessviewofutilitarianphilosophyemergecomesfromMillhimself.Hewas,afterall,afigurewhoembracedclassicaleconomictheory.Morefittinglyandinregardtoutilitarianethicaltheory,sometimescalledconsequentialism,Millpositsthat“whatevercanbeprovedtobegood,mustbeshowntobeameanstosomethingadmittedtobegoodwithoutproof.”29Theendgoodispleasure.Millarguesthat:

Utility,ortheGreatestHappinessPrinciple,holdsthatactionsarerightinproportionastheytendtopromotehappiness,wrongastheytendtoproducethereverseofhappiness.Byhappinessisintendedpleasure,

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andtheabsenceofpain;byunhappiness,pain,andtheprivationofpleasure.30

Hecontinues,

...accordingtotheGreatestHappinessPrinciple…theultimateend,withreferencetoandforthesakeofwhichallotherthingsaredesirable(whetherweareconsideringourowngoodorthatofotherpeople),isanexistenceexemptasfaraspossiblefrompain,andasrichaspossibleinenjoyments,bothinpointofquantityandquality.31

Milldriveshispointhomeagainbyarguingthat“theutilitariandoc-trineis,thathappinessisdesirable,andtheonlythingdesirable,asanend;allotherthingsbeingonlydesirableasmeanstothatend.”32Buthowdowedeterminewhetherparticularmeansleadtohappiness?Theanswertothisquestion iswherethetroublesets in fortheclassicalutilitarianviewandwherealinkhasbeenimpliedbetweeneconomicusefulnessandthisethicaltheory.Theso-calledutilitariancalculusisthemethodfordeterminingtheconsequencesofouractions.Theunitsofmeasurementarehedons(positiveunits)anddolors(negativeunits).Hedonsanddolorsaremeasuredinrelationtotheirduration,fruitful-ness, intensity, and likelihood.33The utilitarian calculus is clearly achallengetowrestlewithespeciallywhenonetakesintoconsiderationallthevariablesinvolved—amajordrawbackforutilitarianism.WhatIwanttodrawattentionto,however,ishowtheutilitariancalculusislikelytohaveinfluencedhowtheutilitarianisusedincommonparlance.Duetotheethicaltheory’srootsinimprovingsocietyandprovidingamethodfordoingsoitisnaturallylatchedontoforitsconcreteness.Inotherwords,theutilitariancalculus,forbetterorworse,isaneffectivetoolforconcreteevaluation.Theprocessofevaluatingaconsequenceinethicaltheoryisakintothecost-benefitanalysisofcomputingprofitinbusiness.Therefore,itisarelativelysimpletasktoapplyutilitarianethicalprinciplestomeasuringallsortsofpossibleends.Furthermore,moneyprovidesaconcreteyardstickformeasurement,andutilitariancalculusalsoaddsfueltotheargumentthatutilitarianismisconcernedwithpracticalends. Itisimportanttonote,however,thatithasnotcometomyattentionwhereMillintendsfortheconnectionbetweenmoneyandhappinesstobenecessitous.IreadMillassayingthatmoneycouldbringabouthap-piness,butitisonlyoneofanynumberofmeans.Itseemstomethatinoursocietyithasbecomethemostimportantmeanandconsequence.IalsoreadMillassomeonewhowasreallyconcernedwiththewellbeingofsocietyasawhole.AlthoughMilldoesnotlistspecificmeansthatarejustifiedinpursuingtheendofhappiness,hedoeswriteaboutwhatwe

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generallyoughttotakeintoconsiderationinthepursuitofhappiness.Hearguesthattheutilitarianstandard“isnottheagent’sowngreatesthappiness,butthegreatestamountofhappinessaltogether…Utilitari-anism,therefore,couldonlyattainitsendbythegeneralcultivationofnoblenessofcharacter.”34Hecontinuesbyassertingthatthe“spiritoftheethicsofutility[is]todoasyouwouldbedoneby,andtoloveyourneighbor as yourself.”35 For him, this idea is “the ideal perfection ofutilitarianmorality.”36TheprinciplesbehindMill’sutilitarianismaremuchmorenobleaimsthanthosewhoseeksolelymaterialgain.ThelabelofcoldpracticalutilitariancalculationisincongruentwithwhatMillassertsisthespiritofutilitarianism.Wheredoesthisleaveusinrelationtotheartsandarteducation? Whetherornottherewas/isaconsciousdivorcingofutilitarianfromitsconnectiontoethics,thecurrentuseofthetermhascorruptedourunderstandingofutilitarianism.Whatartseducatorslamentisseenintheirdiscourse.Theirdescriptionsandinterpretationsoftheutilitarianincommonparlanceultimatelyshowsartseducator’sdispleasurewiththecommodificationofthearts.WhatIsuggest,however,isthatartseduca-torsalterthejustificationdiscussion,andaddadimensiontoitscurrentbifurcatedstructure.Showthecommodificationoftheartsforwhatitis.Inotherwords,insteadoftryingtodrumupsupportfortheartsbyplay-ingthegamesetupandcontrolledbyneoliberallogic,alterittoshowthehiddenvalueswithinthislogic.InsteadofassertingeitherthatexposuretoMozartleadstohigherIQscores37orthatartsfundingshouldcontinuebasedontherationalethattheartsopensupwaysofuniquelyseeingtheworldnotaccessibleinothersubjects(theviewoftheaestheteandsomepostmodernthinkers38),artseducatorsshouldquestionthisdichotomy.Againstthecurrentmentalityofneoliberalismandarteducation’spreoc-cupationwithaesthetics,artseducatorscantakethisopportunitytoshiftthediscussionofjustificationfromoneaboutpracticalityandaestheticuniquenesstoonewhereaxiologyplaysaleadrole.

What Are the Problems and Possibilitiesof Rethinking Utilitarian?

Theideaofexaminingtherelationshipbetweentheartsandethicsisnotnew.Combiningutilitarianethicswithartseducationis,however,anareawheremoreworkcanbeundertaken.Thelackofresearchregardingutilitarianethicsandartseducationisdueinparttowhatwasarguedaboveinearliersectionsofthispaper.Utilitarian isatermthathasbeenunnecessarilylimitedinartseducationscholarship.Movingawayfromthecurrentlimitedviewofutilitariancanopenupnewdimensions

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forresearch.Manyquestionsemergeatthispoint.Forexample,isittrulypossibletolinktheartsandethics?Whatavenuesofphilosophicalanalysisemergetoshedlightonthepossibilityofintertwiningthetwo?Whataretheobjectionsandobstaclestoestablishingaphilosophybasedonutilitarianisminartseducation?Isutilitarianismaworthyethicalphilosophyforartseducation?Whatmightartseducationincorporatingelementsofutilitarianismlooklike? ArtsandethicshavebeenrelatedatleastasfarbackastheGreeks,andthisassociationextendstothepresentinworksbysuchwritersasMaxineGreeneandNoëlCarroll.39BothPlatoandAristotlecommentedonthevalueoftheartsinrelationtomorality.CuriouslyenoughMarkdrawsfromthisancientconnectionandlabelsit“utilitarian”alongthelinesofmereusefulness.40Thatis,heconflatesutilitarianwiththepracti-cal,somusicisameansfordevelopingcitizensofmorenoblecharacter.Hedoesnothowever,thoroughlyprobethecomponentofethicaltheorythatwasthebasisoftheseancients’analysis.Aristotle’svirtueethics,forexample,isatopicleftunexploredinartseducationscholarship.TheassociationmadebyMarkandotherscholarsregardingtheartsandmoralsismainlyalludedtoinaverybroadsense.Ideasarementioned,butlabelsarerarelyapplied.Perhapsthisisanaccidentaloversight.Itdoes,however,leaveopentoquestiontheextenttowhichartseducationscholarsmeantoexamineethicalconnectionsinanyotherwaythanasawaytocritiquethebigideasagainstabackdropoftheirperceptionofendeavorsthatareviewedasextra-artistic. InmoderntimesKantandSchillerconnectaestheticeducationwithethics.ForKantandSchiller“aestheticsandethicsareintertwined.”41Itiswiththesemodernthinkersthatboundariesbetweenethicsandaestheticsbegintobethoroughlyprobed.Theirworkintheareaofaxi-ologyisagoodstartingpointforestablishinghowonemightgoaboutmakinglikeconnectionsusingamorerobustutilitarianism.Whiletheirargumentsonethicsaredeontological,notconsequentialist,itistheirinsightintotheproblemsofseeingaconnectionbetweenartandethicsthatcouldbehelpfulinfurtherresearch.Forthepurposeofthelatersectionsofthispaperapossiblepathforreconciliationbringsusbacktotheprogressiveera,whichiswherecriticismsofutilitarianbyartseducatorscometothefore. Dewey’sideasofferhopeatreconcilingsomeofthedifferencesbe-tweenartandethics.ForDewey,experienceiscentral.Anditisinthisexperiencethattheartistandpercipientarelinkedinanintegratedwholewhichincludesnumerousdimensions,ofwhichtwoaretheethi-calandtheaesthetic.Dewey’sexperienceisanactiveunifiedprocessof “doing and undergoing,” which combines “outgoing and incoming

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energy” where there is “perception organically, sensory satisfaction,externalembodiment,anddynamicorganization.”42AccordingtoDewey,the“moralfunctionofartitselfistoremoveprejudice,doawaywiththescalesthatkeeptheeyefromseeing,tearawaytheveilsduetowontandcustom,perfectthepowertoperceive.”43Itisthisconnectionbetweenartandmoralitythatisboundupintheperceptualexperience.Inthistypeofexperiencetheartsareawayofseeingthatisakintotop-downperception.44It isthroughthiskindoftop-downrecognitionthattheparticipantintheartscanbegintoactivelybringtotheforepossibleconnectionsbetweenseeinghowwelookatandunderstandmoralsandhowweseeartinparticularcontexts.Themorevariedassociationsonecanmake,thegreaterthepotentialtogobeyondwhatweexpecttoseetoseeingsomethingelsethatmighthavebeenpreviouslyoverlooked.Aparticipantintheartsmaybeabletoseesomethingthatcouldbemissedbyanon-participant.ConsiderthepaintingThe Forest Has EyesbyBevDoolittle,forexample.Iamnotsuggestingthatseeingthehiddenfacesinthispaintingbringsaboutaheighteneddegreeofmoralityinthepercipient.WhatIamsuggestingisthatitisthroughtheartsthatanadditionalkindofperceptualexperienceopensupnewanddifferentexperiencestothepercipientthatsomeonenotinvolvedintheartsmaynotbeabletoincorporateintheirtop-downprocessing.Thisaddition-allyperceptualdimensionmayinturnleadtoamorecomprehensiveunderstandingofmoralityandart.Alongthislineofthought,Deweypointstotheimportanceofreconcilingartandethicsinhisdescriptionofanactiveandcultivatedsenseofappreciation.45Developmentofthisactiveandcultivatedsenseis“thechiefmatterwherevervaluesenterin,whetherintellectual,estheticormoral.”46Hegoesontoassertthat“whatisestheticallyadmirable,intellectuallyacceptableandmorallyapprovableisthesupremetasksettohumanbeingsbytheincidentsofexperience.”47ForDewey,“inlifethatistrulylife,everythingoverlapsandmerges.”48Artisnotintheserviceofmorality,norismoralityin-debtedtoart.So,whileDeweygivesartamoralfunction,hedoesnotlimitarttothis.Instead,IreadDeweyassomeonewhoseesaestheticsandethicscontributingtoanintegratedwhole.Itisanexperienceaspartofanintegratedwholethatholdsmuchpromiseforreconcilingartseducationandutilitarianism. Deweyassertsthat“consequencesissuefromeveryexperience,andtheyarethesourceofourinterestinwhatispresent.”49Inasimilarvein,Deweystatesthat“mindiscapacitytoreferpresentconditionstofutureresults,andfutureconsequencestopresentconditions.”50ADeweyanexperiencethattakesintoaccountconsequencesisalsocapableofbring-ingtogetherindividualpreferences.Whatweshouldbeaskingishow

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wecanengenderthesetypesofexperiences,intheirpluralisticrichness,inschools.WhatIamassertinghereisthatDeweydoesnotaskustoignoreMill.Thatis,theexperientialistviewandtheconsequentialistperspectivepossesadegreeofcomplimentarityinanintegratedwhole.Therearepointsofcompatibilityinthetwoviews.Critics,however,maydisagreewiththeclaimthatDeweyannotionsofanexperiencecanbeusedtosupportconsequentialistethicalthought.Howcanitbethatartseducationhasasitsconsequencehappinesswhilesimultaneouslybeingconcernedwiththemeanstoanynumberofpossibleends,theymaysay.Muchmoreneedstobesystematicallyworkedoutonthisidea,butbeforetheinevitablecriticismarrives,itmightbehelpfultoruminateonthisproposalthatisapromptforconsiderationasawayoutofthecurrentimpasse.Thatis,Dewey’sideasontheeducativeexperiencecan,insomecases,becompatiblewithconsequentialism.Itisclearthat,forDewey,themeansmatter,buthemovesbeyondthistakebysuggestingtheendsmat-tertoo.Hewrites“sincewedonotanticipateresultsasmereintellectualonlookers,butaspersonsconcernedintheoutcome,wearepartakersintheprocesswhichproducestheresult.Weintervenetobringaboutthisresultorthat.”51Meansandendsareimportantinartseducation,andmeansneednotnecessarilybelimitedtotheimmediatelypractical. Frommyperspective, thehopeforadvancingartseducationdis-courseincorporatingelementsofutilitarianismistosynthesizeaspectsof Deweyan experientialism with it. Pure utilitarianism as a loneframeworkforartseducation,however,isproblematic.Accountingforeachandeveryhedonanddolorassociatedwith theproductionofaschoolplay,letalonedoingthisonanationalscale,wouldbeunwieldy.Utilitarianismalsohastheproblemoftryingtoovercomethefactthatsomeunsavorymeanscanbejustifiedaslongastheendisachieved.Yetitishardtoimagineschoolswithoutformalinstructionintheartsnothavinganeffectonthehappinessandwellbeingofmany.Onecouldmaketheargumentthatremovingartsfromtheschoolsmightresultingreaterhappinessforsocietyasawhole,butprovingitwouldbeasdifficultasitsopposite.Undoubtedlytheformerargumentshouldrelyonsomematerialeconomicconcerns,butrelianceonsuchstatementswouldnotgenuinelybeinthespiritofMill.Neitherwoulditbeinthespiritofhumanity,whichhasbeenparticipatinginexperienceswithartsinceprehistory. Whatartseducatorshavechafedatiswhattheyinterpretastheoverlyrationalelementsofutilitarianismwhich,tothem,drownouttheemotionalaspectsoflife,keycomponentsofartisticcreationandperception.Whatismissed,however,isthattheutilitarianviewisnotcoldlyrational.Itisverymuchinspiredbyoneofapproximatelyfiveor

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sixbasicemotionsofhumans,happiness.WhatIamsuggesting,then,isthatbroadexperiencesthatincludetheartsandethics,wherehap-pinessisaresult,arecentraltolearninginthearts.Thisisnottosaythathappinessistheonlyworthyemotionintheartsbut,thinkingmorebroadly,ifstudentshavetheopportunitytoexploretheartsandtocomeintocontactwitharangeofhumanemotions,theconsequenceoftheseexperiencesisan“activeandcultivated”pleasure.Furthermore,artisticexperiences,bothintheperceivingandthecreating,canalsoinduceastateof“flow”asproposedbyMihalyCsikszentmihalyi.Forhim,hap-pinessisachievedwhensomeoneiscompletelyabsorbedinaparticularactivitythatisbothchallengingandrequiresadegreeofskill.52Inthiswayhappiness isbothcentraland important in theshort termasacomponentpartinanartsexperiencewhilesimultaneouslyexistingasanextra-artisticendforademocraticsocietyaswellasaworthypartoftheartisticexperienceinthelongrun.Unionofaneducativeexperienceandthearts,wherehappinessisbothmeansandanendoflearningandisalsoethicallydesirable,ispossible. Utilitarianismintheartsclassisnothavingstudentspaintpicturesofthecountry’sflaginordertoinstillasenseofprideinthenation-state.First,thisisanideafoistedonthestudentfromtheteacher,and,second,itisaleaptothinkthatnationalismnecessarilypromoteshap-piness.Finally,thisnarrowconceptionofutilitarianisonethatadvancestheviewtheartsareintheserviceofasociallypracticalgoalsuchaspatriotism. Furthermore, the tastes and preferences of the studentsareextremelyrestricted,anditisdifficulttofindhowquestionsaboutmoralitycanbeworkedthroughwithaprojectsuchasthis.Abetterexampleofincorporatingutilitarianethicalideasintheartscurriculum,andspecifictosecondaryeducation,mightbebeginningtheyearwithallowingstudentsinthedramaclass,betteryettheschool,tocreateaproductionoftheirownmaking,perhapsonethatwrestleswithnotionsofhappinessandmorality.Thestudentswouldhavetheresponsibilitiesofwritingthescreenplay(anddoingtheresearchthatcomesalongwithdevelopingthetopic,creatingcharacters,andadvancingastoryline,etc.),casting,setdesignandconstruction,directing,managing,andpromot-ing.Whilethereisnotaguaranteethathappiness,thecommongood,ordeterminingrightfromwrongforallparticipantsinvolvedinthisexperienceistheconsequence,itmightbepossibletoreflectonwhatconstituteshappinessoverthecourseoftheprojectandatitstermina-tion.Happinessandflowsurveysthatcurrentlyexistcouldbemodifiedforthestudentsparticipatingintheprojectaswellasforthosewhoattendtheperformance.Tastesandpreferencescouldbequalitativelydiscussed,aswellasattemptsmadetoemployutilitariancalculusto

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measuretheintensity,duration,andgenerativequalitiesofthehap-piness.Regardless,weoughttokeep inmindthathappinesshasaninfluenceoneachofus.DavidMeyerscitesresearchtothiseffectthatestablishestheimportanceofhappinesstoourexistence.Hereferences“TheInfluenceofPositiveAffectonDecision-MakingStrategies”byAliceIsenandBarbaraMeans,whoarguethat“peoplewhoarehappy…makedecisionsmoreeasily,”andin“Mood,Misattribution,andJudgmentsofWell-Being:InformativeandDirectiveFunctionsofAffectiveStates,”Norbert Schwarz and Gerald Clore show that those who are happy“reportgreatersatisfactionwiththeirwholelives.”53WhileitmaybedifficulttogosofarasMillbyassertinghappinessistheonlyintrinsicgood,workingtowardhappinessandwellbeingisaworthygoal.

Conclusion Ifanethicaltheorysuchasutilitarianism/consequentialismistohaveanypromiseinartseducation,manyproblemsandquestionsmustbeovercomeandansweredusingsoundreasoningandsystematicanalysis.Whilethisisnotataskforartsadvocatestotakeonlightly,ithasthepotentialtogeneratemeaningfuldialogue.Inadditiontousingclassicalutilitarianismasabasisforevaluationandanalysis,theconsequentialistworkofG.E.Moore,forexample,mayextendtheconversationevenfurther.Inanycase,itishightimetomovethejustificationconversationintheartsfromitsdichotomousdiscussionbetweenpracticalityandaestheticstoonethatincludesanethicaldimensionusingaspecificmodel.Thereisaneedtobreakfreefromthepostmodernaestheticistthoughtabouttheartswhereartissetapartasauniquedomainuntoitself.Finally,areartseducatorsjustifiedincastingutilitarianasdiscordantwiththearts?Perhaps,butmaybeinonlyoneuseoftheterm.Moretothepoint,artseducatorsareresponsibleforframingtheconversationaboututilityinsuchamannerthatitunnecessarilylimitspotentialconversationssuchastherelationoftheartsandethics.Ihopetheviewspresentedherebegintoalterthecurrentviewofthetermutilitarianandrevealpossiblenewdirectionsinresearchandunderstanding.

Notes 1ThisarticleisaversionofmypaperthatwaspartofapaneldiscussionattheSoutheastPhilosophyofEducationSociety,Birmingham,AL,February10-11,2012. 2SeeCharlesLeonhardandRobertHouse,Foundations and Principles of Music Education(NewYork:McGraw-HillBookCompany,1959);BennettReimer,A Philosophy of Music Education(EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall,1970);

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ElliottW.Eisner,The Educational Imagination: On the Design and Evaluationof School Programs(NewYork:Macmillan,1979);MichaelMark,“AHistoricalInterpretationofAestheticEducation,”Journal of Aesthetic Education 33(4),Winter1999,7-15;andMaxineGreene,Variations on a Blue Guitar: The Lincoln Center Institute Lectures on Aesthetic Education(NewYork:TeachersCollegePress,2001). 3HerbartM.Kliebard,“WhatHappenedtoAmericanSchoolingintheFirstPartoftheTwentiethCentury?”inLearning and Teaching the Ways of Knowing: Part II of the 84th Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education(Chicago:theNationalSocietyfortheStudyofEducation,1985),1-22,4. 4WillEarhart,“FundamentalsinMusicValues,”inJournal of Proceedings of the Music Supervisors National Conference,TwentiethYear,ed.PaulJ.Weaver(Privatelyprinted,1927),35-39,37. 5BennettReimer,APhilosophyofMusicEducation(EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall,Inc.,1970),7. 6MichaelMark,“TheEvolutionofMusicEducationPhilosophyfromUtilitar-iantoAesthetic.”Journal of Research in Music Education, 30(1),Spring1982,15-21,18. 7ElliotEisner,“WhatDoChildrenLearnWhenTheyPaint,”inReimagin-ing Schools: The Selected Work of Elliot Eisner(NewYork:Routledge,2005),60-67,66. 8GailBurnaford,ArnoldAprill,andCynthiaWeiss,eds.“ArtsIntegration:WhatIsItandWhyDoIt?”inRenaissance in the Classroom: Arts Integration and Meaningful Learning(NewYork:Routledge,2001),1-21,16. 9MichaelMark,“HistoricalInterpretation,”9. 10Ibid.,12. 11LeannLogsdon,“Re-imaginingArts-centeredInquiryasPragmaticIn-strumentalism”(Ph.D.diss.,GeorgiaStateUniversity,2011),34.LogsdonarguesthatLoisHetlandconflatesinstrumentalismandutilitarianism.Iagree.Ialsothinkthatmanypeopleusethetwotermssynonymously. 12JeremyKopkas,“Soundings:MusicalAestheticsinMusicEducationDis-coursefrom1907to1958”(Ph.D.diss.,GeorgiaStateUniversity,2011),passim. 13Inhertestimonybeforeacongressionalsubcommittee,JuneM.Hinckley,aformerpresidentoftheMENC,theNationalAssociationforMusicEducation,statedthat“wehaveagrowingbodyofresearchthattellsusthattheseexperi-encesofmakingmusicandplayingmusicstimulatesmorethanjusttheirmusicaltalent,itstimulatestheirintellectaswell.Dr.FrancisRauscherandGordonShawattheUniversityofCaliforniaatIrvine,havedoneavarietyofstudiesthatshowtheimpactofmakingmusicinanorganized,concrete,sequentiallearningmanner,andtheimpactonspatial,temporallearningabilitywhichrelatestomathskills.”Congress,HouseofRepresentatives,CommitteeonEducationandtheWorkforce,Elementary and Secondary Education Act—Educating Diverse Populations: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Early Childhood, Youth and Families,106thCong.,1stsess.,15July1999.EdwardBaileyBirge,whoseworkiswidelyquotedinmusiceducationliterature,assertedthatmusiceducationisnecessaryfor,andrelatedto,democracyintheUnitedStates:itspublicsanctionbeinggiveninBostonin1838,and,accordingtohim,musicisabletosustain

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ademocraticsocietybecause“throughvocalmusicyousetinmotionamightypowerwhichsilently,butsurely,intheend,willharmonize,refine,andelevateawholecommunity.”Theideaofmusicbecomingpartoftheschooldaywasdis-cussedbytheBostonSchoolCommitteein1838.EdwardBaileyBirge,History of Public School Music in the United States(NewYork:OliverDitsonCo.1928;reprintWashintonD.C.:MusicEducatorsNationalConference,1966),47. 14 Kenny,Anthony, ed., The Wittgenstein Reader (Oxford, UK: BlackwellPublishers,1994),55.TheexamplesgivenbyWittgensteinareconcretetermsbecausemoreabstracttermslikeutilityrevealtheproblemsthatostensive,ordemonstrable,definitionshave. 15Burnaford,Aprill,andWeiss,Renaissance in the Classroom,16. 16Logsdon,“Re-imaginingArts-centeredInquiry,”34 17InthecaseofmusiceducationthisargumentisgivenbyMichaelMarkinMichaelMark,“HistoricalInterpretation,”7-15. 18“Philosophymayinnowayinterferewiththeactualuseoflanguage;itcanintheendonlydescribeit.”Kenny,The Wittgenstein Reader,269. 19Regardingtheterminstrumentalthereisalsoapotentialproblem,whichisidentifiedbyJohnDeweyinArt as Experience.Inartseducationliteratureinstrumentalmaybeappliedinthenarrowsense,whichalignswithhowutilitar-ianisunderstood,andinbroadsense.Deweyexplainsthenarrowsenseas“theprocessofcontributingtosomenarrow,ifnotbase,officeofefficacy.”Inthebroadsensetheinstrumentalcarrieswithittheideathatcontinualcontemplationofaworkofartisaprocessofrenewaland“re-educationofvision.”Attheriskofbecomingmiredinanidenticalproblemitissimplyenoughtounderstandthatiftheterminstrumentalisadoptedbymusiceducators’theiruseofitintheseinstanceswouldbeinthelimitedsenseratherthanthebroadideaproposedbyJohnDewey.JohnDewey,Art as Experience(NewYork:TheBerkleyPublishingGroup,1934/2005),145. 20ThisLatinphraseroughlytranslatesarchitecturallytofunction,beauty,andstructure. 21JohnCassidy,How Markets Fail: The Logic of Economic Calamities(NewYork:Farrar,Straus&Giroux,2009),34. 22JohnStuartMill,Utilitarianism and On Liberty: Including Mill’s ‘Essay on Bentham’ and Selections from the Writings of Jeremy Bentham and John Austin,2ded.ed.MaryWarnock(Malden,MA:BlackwellPublishing1861/2003),183. 23Ibid.Inthesecondchapterheaddressesanumberofmisinterpretationsoftheterm.Inonespothemeansthatitwasdisparagedbecauseofthecon-temporaryviewbyreligiousleadersandotherscholarsthatitwasahedonisticphilosophy,butthisisnotalwaysthecase. 24Logsdon,“Re-imaginingArts-centeredInquiry,”2011. 25Oxford English Dictionary,electronicedition,(Oxford,UK:OxfordUni-versityPress,2012). 26Ibid. 27Ibid. 28 IdisagreewithBrodie’sassessmentofutilitarianismbut it isnotthepointheretodelveintowhy.MyviewsastowhyBrodieisoffthemarkemergelaterinthearticle.

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29Mill,Utilitarianism,184. 30Ibid.,186. 31Ibid.,190. 32Ibid.,210. 33ForadecentexplanationofeachoftheseideasseeBarbaraMacKinnon,Eth-ics: Theory and Contemporary Issues,6thed.(Belmont,CA:Wadsworth,2009). 34Mill,Utilitarianism,189-190. 35Ibid.,194. 36Ibid. 37FrancisRauscher,GordonShaw,andKatherineKy,“MusicandSpatialTaskPerformance,”Nature, 365 (October1993):611.This is the studyJuneHinckleycitedinhertestimonybeforetheSubcommitteeonEarlyChildhood,YouthandFamiliesibid. 38FromtheperspectiveoftheaestheteMonroeBearsdleyassertsthattheartsareaso-called“functionclass.”Thatis,“thereissomethingthataestheticobjectscandothatotherthingscannotdo,ordoascompletelyorfully.”MonroeBeardsley,Aesthetics: Problems in the Philosophy of Criticism(NewYork:Harcourt,Brace&Company,1958),526.Regardingthepostmodernviewpoint,FredricJamesonsum-marizessomeofAntoineCampagnon’sLes Cinq Paradoxes de la Modernité(Paris,1990)bystatingthat“massculture(letussay,popart)amountssimplytothecomingtoconsciousnessandawakeningofaprofoundlyinauthenticarttoitsowndeepcomplicitywiththemarketsystemassuchandtothecommodityform…thepostmodernhasthusforCompagnonandothersatleastoneimaginablypositivefunction:tocleansethemoderntraditionofitsanti-ortrans-aestheticmotives,topurifyitofwhateverwasprototypicalorhistorical,orevencollective,init,toreturnartisticproductiontothedisinterestedaestheticactivitythatacertainbourgeoistradition(butnotthatoftheartiststhemselves)alwaysattributedtoit.”FredricJameson,The Cultural Turn: Selected Writings on the Postmodern, 1983-1998(NewYork:Verso,1998),118,120. 39 See Maxine Greene, Variations on a Blue Guitar: The Lincoln Center Institute Lectures on Aesthetic Education(NewYork:TeachersCollegePress,2001).GreenealsofoundedTheMaxineGreeneCenterforAestheticEducation,thepurposeofwhichis“togenerateinquiry,imagination,andthecreationofartworksbydiversepeople.Ithastodosowithasenseofthedeficienciesinourworldandadesiretorepair,whereverpossible.Justice,equality,freedom–theseareasimportanttousasthearts,andwebelievetheycaninfuseeachother,perhapsmakingsomedifferenceatatroubledtime.”MaxineGreene,http://www.maxinegreene.org/index.html.CarrolladdressessomeofthechallengesoflinkingartandaestheticsinNoëlCarroll,“ArtandEthicalCriticism:AnOverviewofRecentDirectionsofResearch,”Ethics110,no.2(January2000):350-387.SeealsoNoëlCarroll,“AttheCrossroadsofEthicsandAesthetics,”Philosophy and Literature, 34(1),April2010,248-259. 40MichaelMark,“TheEvolutionofMusicEducationPhilosophyfromUtili-tariantoAesthetic,”15-21. 41ZviTauber,“AestheticEducationforMorality:SchillerandKant.”Journal of Aesthetic Education, 40(3),Fall2006,22-47,22.

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42Dewey,Art as Experience,50-53,57. 43Ibid.,338. 44 Psychology’s notion of top-down perception is the cognitive processesinvolvedinsortingoutthephysiologicalstimulus(bottom-up)fromourenviron-mentwhichreliesonmemory,expectation,andthought. 45JoAnnBoydson,ed.,John Dewey The Later Works, 1925-1953,vol.4:1929,The Quest for Certainty: A Study of the Relation of Knowledge and Action,byJohnDewey,withanintroductionbyStephenToulmin(Carbondale,IL:SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress1929/1988),209. 46Ibid. 47Ibid. 48Dewey,Art as Experience,17. 49Boydson,John Dewey The Later Works,203. 50JohnDewey,Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education(NewYork:TheFreePress,1916/1997),103. 51Ibid.,102. 52MihalyCsikszentmihalyi,Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience(NewYork:Harper&Row,1990),andFinding Flow: The Psychology of Engage-ment With Everyday Life(NewYork:BasicBooks,1998). 53AliceIsenandBarbaraMeans,“TheInfluenceofPositiveAffectonDeci-sionMakingStrategy,”Social Cognition, 2(1),March1983,18-31;referencedinDavidG.Meyers,Psychology,5thed.(NewYork:WorthPublishers,1998),406,andNorbertSchwarzandGeraldClore“Mood,Misattribution,andJudgmentsofWell-Being:InformativeandDirectiveFunctionsofAffectiveStates,”Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(3),September1983,513-523;referencedinMeyers,Psychology,406.

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