Key to Variation

Key to Variation

“No two people speak exactly the same.” (Holmes, 127 c)

AND no one person speaks exactly the same all the time.

1/14

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987, p. 287. 2/14

Dialect

vs

Language

Schematic Dialect

Continuum

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987, p. 25. 3/14

Dialect Continua in Europe

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987, p. 25. 4/14

Dialect Chain: Understanding your Neighbors

“The [vernacular] varieties of French spoken in the border towns and villages of Italy, Spain, and Switzerland, have more in common with the language of the next village than the language of Paris. From one village and town to the next there is a chain or continuum.”

5/14

Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson,

pp 137-138.

What is a Language?

“So a language can be thought of as a

collection of dialects that are usually

linguistically similar, used by different

social groups who choose to say they

are speakers of one language which

functions to unite and represent them

to other groups.”

6/14

Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 138.

Social and Regional Accent Variation

Regional variation

Highest class: RP

Lowest class:

local accents

So

cia

l var

iatio

n

7/14Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 139.

British Social Dialect Vocabulary 1 (1950s)

U non-Uhave a bath take a bathbike, bicycle cycleluncheon dinnerriding horse ridingsick illknave jackmad mentallooking-glass mirrorwriting-paper note paperjam preserve

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987, p. 39. From A.S.C. Ross, 1954. 8/14

U non-Uwireless radiotable-napkin serviettelavatory-paper toilet-paperrich wealthyvegetables greenspudding sweettelegram wireEngland BritainScotch Scottish

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987, p. 39. From A.S.C. Ross, 1954. 9/14

British Social Dialect Vocabulary 2 (1950s)

Syntax Differences and Dialect

(a) I’ve not washed the dishes yet today.(b) I haven’t washed the dishes yet today.

[Both standard]

(c) They have got along well for many years.(d) They have gotten along well for many

years.[Regional Variation]

(e) I don’t have any money.(f) I don’t have no money.

[Social Variation]10/14

[ h ]-Dropping

11/14Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 146.

-ing / -in Table 6.2: Percentage of vernacular [in] pronunciation for four social groups in speech communities in Britain, America, and Australia

Social group1 1 2 3 4

Norwich 31 42 91 100

West Yorkshire 5 34 61 83

New York 7 32 45 75

Brisbane 17 31 49 63

Note 1: 1 is the highest group; 4 the lowest. Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 146.

Post-Vocalic [ r ]

13/14Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 148.

Vernacular 3rd Person Present Tense (she walks / she walk)

14/14Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 152.