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1
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR
AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT: A STUDY IN THE
CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES IN
PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
NORAZLAN BIN HASBULLAH
FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND ACCOUNTANCYUNIVERSITY OF MALAYA
JULY 2008
2
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR
AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT: A STUDY IN THE
CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES IN
PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
NORAZLAN BIN HASBULLAH
Submitted to the Graduate School of BusinessFaculty of Business and Accountancy
University of Malaya, in partial fulfilmentof the requirements for the Degree ofMaster of Business Administration
JULY 2008
3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This thesis has always been interesting, exciting often challenging experience especially
in exposing me to a new paradigm of questing for knowledge. I wish to take this
opportunity to thank individuals, of whom without, might not lead to the possibility of
this research to be realised.
First of all, I am deeply indebted to my supervisor Puan Sharmila Jayasingam for her
patient guidance, fruitful discussions, encouragement and excellent advice throughout
this study.
I am very grateful to the Government of Malaysia and The Co-operative College of
Malaysia for giving me countless support, opportunities, and encouragement for me to
escalate my career development by pursuing MBA in the University Malaya.
My heartfelt appreciation to Dr. Sharifah Faridah Syed Alwi and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ananda
Kumar Palaniappan for sharing their expertise and knowledge in the Research
Methodology course that really helps me through the writing of this research.
Special thanks are also dedicated to all the lecturers in UMGSB for their expertise in
providing me with continuous and persistent process of learning that greatly enriched my
knowledge.
I am also thankful to all the staff at UMGSB, colleagues, friends for their collaboration
and valuable assistance throughout my studies in UM and in this research.
4
I also appreciate the contributions of the co-operatives that allowed their employees to
spend their precious time and valuable efforts in filling the questionnaires.
Finally, I take this opportunity to express my profound gratitude to my parents, my wife
and two sisters for their continuous love and encouragement, for always believing in me,
and for never failing to give full support.
This research is dedicated to Co-operative Societies in Malaysia.
5
PREFACE
Employees commitment are very crucial to support the overall growth of the
organizations, thus leaders should take close attention on the level of employees
commitment to ensure that continuous contributions can be sustained throughout the
career stage of employees in the organization.
This research aims to investigate the relationship that exists between leadership
behaviour and organizational commitment. In addition to that, the study tries to examine
various employees’ commitment level in the co-operatives and to understand further on
which type of commitment that the employees are currently engaging themselves with.
Thus leaders can create strategies to improve commitment that are found to be lacking in
their employees.
Chapter One will discuss on the background of co-operatives movement, the problem
statement, the turnover rate in co-operatives, the objectives of the research and the
limitations encountered during the investigation of this research.
Chapter Two describes about various reviews on past literatures and excellent work of
most prominent researcher that explained about leadership behaviour, commitment and
their relationship.
6
Chapter Three explains the research methodology, development of hypotheses, data
collections and types of data analysis that are going to be carried out.
Chapter Four are the computations of the findings on the analyses that have been carried
out. This chapter will also take a look on whether there are any significant differences
between various types of leader’s behaviour and the relationship with employee’s
commitment. Furthermore, investigations are carried out to see whether exist any style of
leaders that can best promote the commitment of employees. Examinations on tenure are
also carried out to see if there are any differences in the perception of leadership and the
commitment between new employees and experienced employees.
Chapter Five consists of the discussion on the findings in chapter four. Various issues of
leadership and commitment are going to be discussed and elaborated further in these
sections.
Chapter Six will wrap up with the conclusion and recommendations on this investigation.
The findings of the research are expected to give awareness and guidelines to co-
operative leaders and to consider various leadership approaches on how to improve the
commitment of the employees.
7
ABSTRACT
This research was carried out with the intention of examining the relationship between
leadership behaviour and organizational commitment in co-operative societies. Various
past literatures supported the relationship between leadership and commitment where
leader’s style do have influence on employee’s commitment. 360 samples were collected
from various co-operatives located in Peninsular Malaysia. Walk in was done in selective
co-operatives to have some guidelines and discussions with employees and leaders.
Apart from Autocratic and Participative Leader’s behaviour, this paper is also intended to
examine if nurturant task leadership developed by Sinha (1980) can be applied in co-
operative societies. The nurturant – task has been found suitable for Indian organizations
(Ansari, 1986, 1990; Sinha, 1980, 1994) and due to the similarities between Indian and
Malaysian organization, the nurturant task can be applied in Malaysia.
The dependent variables of employees commitment was examined using Meyer and
Allen’s (1997) Three Component Model of employee commitment (affective, normative
and continuance).
Factor analysis was carried out prior to the analysis to suit the Malaysia setting.
Respondents have similar understanding of Nurturant Task and Participative where these
two variables are later merged in the analysis part to become one. These variables were
name as Nurturant Task + Participative (NTP).
8
Regression analysis was analyzed that showed mixed results of leadership style. NTP has
inverse relation with Affective Commitment, while autocratic leaders showed no
significant relationship. However, NTP and Autocratic leaders both showed positive
significant results with normative and continuance commitment of employees.
Tenure was found to be high among new and experienced employees if the leaders
adopted high level of NTP behaviour. Experienced employees possessed more stable high
commitment regardless of leaders behaviour, however new employees commitment are
totally dependent on the leader’s NTP behaviour.
Overall findings from this study suggest, autocratic and NTP do play important roles in
determining the levels of employee’s commitment. Leaders should consider in matching
both leadership styles based on the situation of their subordinate. NTP was also found to
be significant in promoting new employees commitment. Since no similar research has
been done in co-operatives, this finding may contribute to the understanding and
improvement of employee’s commitment in co-operative societies in Malaysia.
9
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i
PREFACE iii
ABSTRACT v
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of Co-operative in Malaysia 1
1.2 Problem Statement 2
1.3 Research Questions 9
1.4 Objectives of the Research 10
1.5 Significance of the research 10
1.6 Limitations of This Research 11
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 13
2.1 Definition of Leadership 13
2.2 General Approaches in Leadership Research 16
2.2.1 Power Influence Approach 16
2.2.2 Behaviour Approach 18
2.2.3 Trait Approach 20
2.2.4 Situational Approach 21
2.3 The Importance of Leadership 25
2.4 Introduction to Organizational Commitment 28
2.4.1 Affective Commitment 29
2.4.2 Continuance Commitment 30
2.4.3 Normative commitment 31
2.5 The importance of Organizational Commitment 32
2.6 Leadership and Organizational Commitment 33
2.7 Effective Leadership Styles in Malaysia 36
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2.8 Nurturant – Task (NT) Leadership in Malaysia 38
2.9 Comparison between leadership style in this study 41
and similar previous studies
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 44
3.1 Hypothesis 44
3.1.1 Affective Commitment 443.1.2 Continuance Commitment 45
3.1.3 Normative Commitment 46
3.1.4 Tenure As A Moderator On The Relationship Between 47
Leadership Behaviour and Organizational Commitment
3.2 Framework of leadership behaviour and organizational 51
commitment
3.3 Method 52
3.3.1 Sample and Data Collection 52
3.4 Measures 53
3.4.1 Independent Measures 53
3.4.2 Dependent Measures 54
3.5 Data Analysis 56
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS 57
4.1 Frequency Analysis 57
4.2 Factor Analysis 59
4.2.1 Factor Analysis on Leadership Behaviour 60
4.2.2 Factor Analysis on Organizational Commitment 62
4.3 Reliability Analysis Results 64
4.4 Descriptive Analysis 65
4.4.1 Descriptive Analysis of Leadership Behaviour 65
4.4.2 Descriptive Analysis of Organizational Commitment 65
11
4.5 Intercorrelations among variables 66
4.6 Regression Analysis 67
4.6.1 Regression Between Leadership Behaviour 68
and Affective Commitment
4.6.1.a Hypotheses Results of the Relationship between 69
Leadership Behaviour and Affective Commitment
4.6.2 Regression Between Leadership Behaviour 70
and Continuance Commitment
4.6.2.a Hypotheses Results of the Relationship Between 71
Leadership Behaviour and
Continuance Commitment
4.6.3 Regression Between Leadership Behaviour 72
and Normative Commitment
4.6.3.a Hypotheses Results of The Relationship 73
Between Leadership Behaviour and
Normative Commitment
4.7 Hierarchical regression Analysis With Tenure As Moderator 76
4.7.1 Moderating Effect of Tenure Between 79
Leaders Behaviour and Normative Commitment
4.7.2 Moderating Effect of Tenure Between
Leaders Behaviour and Continuance Commitment 79
4.8 Hypotheses Results in Summary 85
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSIONS 87
5.1 Leadership Behaviour and Organizational Commitment 87
5.2 The Effect Of Tenure Between The Relationship of 95
Leadership Behaviour and Organizational Commitment
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 99
12
6.1 Recommendations for Future Research 104
6.2 Implications 105
REFERENCES 106
LIST OF APPENDICES 124
13
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 : Voluntarily Turnover by Co-operatives 3Employees from 1996 – 1999
Table 1.2 : Comparisons between Voluntary Turnover 4and Laid Off among Co-operativesEmployees from 1996 – 1999
Table 2.1 : French and Raven Power Taxonomy 17
Table 2.2 : Summary of Situational Leadership Models 23
Table 2.3 : Summary of major classifications of leadership style in previous 41Studies
Table 2.4 : Present investigation of Leadership Style 43
Table 3.1 : Hypotheses in Summary 49
Table 3.2 : Hypotheses in summary of the effect of Tenure 50Between The Relationship of LeadershipBehaviour and Organizational Commitment
Table 3.3 : Model of leadership behaviour and organizational commitment 51
Table 3.4 : Independent measurements 53
Table 3.5 : Dependent Measurements 55
Table 4.1 : Profile of respondents 58
Table 4.2 : Factor analysis results of Leadership Behaviour 61
Table 4.3 : Factor analysis results of Organizational Commitment 63
Table 4.4 : Reliability Coefficients for the major variables 65
Table 4.5 : Descriptive for the major variables 66
Table 4.6 : Intercorrelations among variables 67
Table 4.7 : Results of regression Analysis 75
Table 4.8 : Hierarchical Regression Results Using Tenure as a Moderator 81
14
in the Relationship between Leadership Behaviourand Normative Commitment
Table 4.9 : Regression Results Using Tenure as a Moderator 83in the Relationship between Leaders Behaviourand Continuance Commitment
Table 4.10 : Hypotheses Results in Summary 86
Table 4.11 : Hypotheses Results in summary of the effect 86of Tenure Between The Relationship of LeadershipBehaviour and Organizational Commitment
15
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1 : Moderating Effect of Tenure on the 82
Relationship between Tenure on NTP and
Normative Commitment
Figure 4.2 : Moderating Effect of Tenure on the 84
Relationship between Tenure on NTP and
Continuance Commitment
16
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX A : Demographic Profile 124
APPENDIX B : Factor Analysis 127
APPENDIX C : Reliability Analysis 129
APPENDIX D : Descriptive Analysis 132
APPENDIX E : Correlation Analysis 133
APPENDIX F : Regression Analysis 134
APPENDIX G : Moderating Effect of Tenure between 136Leadership Behaviour and Commitment
17
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this study is to investigate and to gain better understanding of the
relationships between the perception of leadership behaviours and organizational
commitment among co-operative employees in Malaysia. At present, very little empirical
work on leadership behaviours has been devoted to the co-operative, especially in
exploring the perception of employees towards their leaders and whether this perception
will lead to strong influence on the employee’s commitment in their working
environment. This study is dedicated to fill in a new dimension of leaders-employee
relationship and it is specifically addressed to the co-operative sectors which are now
declared as the third sector of growth engine in Malaysia’s economy.
1.1 Background of Co-operative in Malaysia
Co-operative or co-op is an association voluntarily united by persons who seeks to meet
common goals, social economic uplifting, cultural needs and aspiration through a jointly
owned and democratically controlled organization (International Co-operative
Alliance's).Co-operative are build on principles and values such as self-help, self
responsibility, democracy, equality, equity and solidarity. The major underlying reasons
why there is a need to form co-operatives was to set free the poor and indebted farmers
from the traditional money lenders who provided credit at very high interest rates. Co-
operative in Malaysia are governed by the Co-operative Act 1993 and the supervisory
18
body for the co-operative is the Department of Co-operative Development which is now
known as the Co-operative Commission of Malaysia. (effective of 1st January 2008)
Started in 1922 in Malaysia with a thrift and loan activities, co-operative has now
expanded into various sizes and forms of businesses such as banking, finance and credit,
construction, multipurpose, transportation, consume, industries, service, plantation and
housing. As at June 2007, there were 5,004 types of co-operative with 6.06 million
membership, 7.8 billion worth of shares and 42.5 billion in assets. 1,912 from this
amount were school co-operatives. (Department of Co-operative Development)
1.2 Problem Statement
Research done by Indar Kaur, Sushila, Rafiah and Rahimah (2005) on 204 co-operatives
has evidenced that for the period of 1996 to 1999, employees of the co-operative who
quit the job exceeded those who were laid off by the co-operatives resulting from the
economic crisis that happened in 1997. The highest turnover happened in 1998 where 284
employees quit their job while only 34 were laid off. Further on, it was also remarked that
co-operative are weak in term of planning workforce, training needs and employees
development. Table 1.1 and 1.2 below explains the voluntary turnover rate that happened
in co-operatives between 1996-1999.
19
Table 1.1
Voluntarily Turnover by Co-operatives Employees from 1996 – 1999
Year 1996 1997 1998 1999
% No. % No % No % No
Executive 7.3 16 6.8 19 6.0 17 7.7 15
Non Executive 21.5 47 14.3 40 32.4 92 12.8 25
Operations 71.2 156 78.9 221 61.6 175 79.5 155
Total 219 280 284 195
Total
Employees 2351 2416 2481 2485
% of
voluntarily
turnover
9.3 11.59 11.45 7.85
It was evidenced that turnover among operations staff was the highest which was in
between 61 percent to 80 percent. Non executive turnover was in the range of 12.8
percent to 32.4 percent while Executive level recorded voluntarily turnover of about 6
percent to 7.7 percent in 1996 to 1999.
20
Table 1.2
Comparisons between Voluntary Turnover and Laid Off among Co-operatives
Employees from 1996 – 1999
Year 1996 1997 1998 1999
Types of
Turnover
Volunteer Laid
Off
Volunteer Laid
Off
Volunteer Laid
Off
Volunteer Laid
Off
No. of
Employees
involved
219 9 280 14 284 34 195 21
Total
employees
involved
228 294 318 216
Total
employees
2351 2416 2481 2485
% of
turnover
9.7% 12.2% 12.8% 8.7%
Based on the table 1.2 above, it was clearly observed that the number of employees who
voluntarily quit their job exceeded those who were laid off.
Due to no research done on update figure of turnover, a brief discussion with random co-
operatives leader was done in the period of study to understand the scenario that
happened in their organizations. According to them, the situation of staff turnover still
21
occurred in the organizations and the figure still persistent until today. It is a normal
occurrence for co-operatives, where the leaders explained that, employees quit finding a
better job in other organizations. Some of them also mentioned that co-operative is a base
for employees to gain experience before moving on to other organizations. However no
exit interview was done to understand further the situation.
Reichheld (1996) argued that developing employees who are loyal to the organization
will pay off in more satisfied and loyal customers. Committed employees are believed to
dedicate more of their time, energy and talents to the organization than those who are not
committed. This reflects an individual’s willingness to work towards and accept
organizational goals (Reichers, 1985). In other words, committed employees are more
likely to be better service quality performers due to their willingness to engage in
discretionary effort beyond the normal call of duty.
As an entity that was built on democracy and members trust, leaders of the co-operatives
that comprises the board members and managers should play active roles to bring about
change in the organization by successful delivering activities that are beneficial to the
entire members based on the co-operative values and principles. The sustaining of the co-
operatives in the challenging environment really depends on the credibility of the leaders
to manage the co-ops and the employees well. If members are satisfied with the service,
this will increase their loyalty and eventually will continue to give their support and stay
committed with the co-operatives.
22
Managing employees are the most important elements as their skills, attitude and
knowledge should be developed since this group of people are the one who involved
directly with members of the co-operatives. Zeithaml, Parasuraman and Berry (1990),
contends that customers enter a service encounter with pre-established expectations. If
those expectations are not met, a poor service quality evaluation is likely to be happened.
Although it is the individual employee who either performs or fails to perform an
organizational task, it is within the organization’s power to influence how successfully
this will be done (Cummings & Schwab, 1973). The employee’s commitment to the
organization and its long-term goal of excellence in service delivery is, however, strongly
influenced by managerial action (Zeithaml et. al, (1990) ; Young, 1991).
An organization which is truly concerned on giving the best to the customers in term of
service excellence needs managers who rise above than only managing. They need a
leader who can shape the whole culture of the organization in term of vision and
cultivating the spirit of teamwork among employees to enhance their performance.
Leaders in co-operatives should possess the behaviour that could shape the motivation of
their workforce in achieving the desired results of the organization. The quality of
leadership provided by middle management will thus strongly influence the level of
service quality provided by employees at the lower organizational levels (Zethaml et. al
(1990).
23
Prakash (2001) argued that in orders for co-operative to be successful, the features of
management such as accountability, transparency, the ability to predict and being
supportive need to be introduced. Strong relationship among leaders and subordinates
will create committed workforce that will drive the organization towards success and will
reduce the cost of training resulted from frequent turnovers. According to him, co-
operatives should be led and managed by energetic, professional and dynamic persons.
Business should be conducted in accordance with modern management principles and at
the same time, within the framework of Co-operatives Principles and Values attached to
them. Co-operatives need to have dedicated and professionally competent business
managers and leaders. (Prakash, 2005)
According to Yaakob (2006), managers in co-operatives has less capacity to immerse
themselves in the surrounding group and culture completely, they are weak in the sense
of carrying out required tasks with a degree of persistence and precision. Managers in
less successful co-operatives are also found lacking the ability to act fast and to enact
situations, lack the challenge orientation style in delivering responsibilities and lack of
the priority on the task orientation and output generation.
Report released by the Department of Co-operative Development, as at 31st December
2006, explained that there were about 339 co-operatives who have been detected not to
be active which amounted to 6.89% of the total registered co-operatives. 174 co-
operatives from this amount was found to be dormant.
24
Shenoy & Mohamed (1994) stated that co-operative cannot operate well due to the
condition where there were no effectiveness in the management and administration of co-
operative, shallow of knowledge and experience in the aspect of finance and technical.
Pradit (1992) has identified several problems associated with human resource
management in the co-operative movement. To name a few :
1. Weakness and lack of skills in planning and management among board members
and co-operative employees.
2. Lack of qualified and dedicated co-operative leaders
3. Lack of education and training among co-operative members and low salary
package.
Based on this statement of problems, this research are carried out to investigate whether
there is a significant correlations between the behaviour leaders indulge in co-ops and the
commitment of employees towards their organization.
At present, not many research have attempted to investigate employee’s commitment in
the co-operative societies and whether leadership behaviour has any influence on co-
operative employee commitment. Prior to this research, an examination on manager’s
behaviour was done in co-operatives. However, managers are the one who rated their
own leadership style and were not based on employees perceptions on their leaders
behaviour. If the manager evaluated their own leadership style, the results might only be
25
an advantage to one side where there will be an occurrence of bias during the evaluation
process. The true leadership behaviours were not reflected in this case. In addition to this,
no evidenced on employees commitment was observed, thus the questions of whether
leadership behaviour as any relation with employees commitment were still not answered
This study is intended to explain how the employees perceived their leaders behaviour
and how it leads to employee’s commitment in co-operatives. The study tries to capture
actual feelings, experiences and perceptions of employees towards their leaders and to
identify which leadership behaviour are the most appropriate to suit the working
conditions of employees in co-operatives. The implications of this studies will perhaps
lead to new theoretical contributions to co-operative societies and the findings will be of
utmost useful for respective parties to take necessary actions to rectify the recurring
commitments in the organizations.
1.3. Research Questions
1. Is there any significant relationship between leader’s behaviour and organizational
commitment of co-operatives employee?
2. Which types of organizational commitment are most descriptive of the co-operative
employees? Affective, continuance or normative commitment?
3. Does tenure have any influence on the relationship between leaders behaviour and
employees commitment?
26
1.4 Objectives of the Research
The objectives of this research are to:
1. Determine the relationship of different leadership behaviour on employee’s
commitment.
2. To identify which type of commitments the employees of co-operatives are
currently engaged with.
3. To determine if the relationship between leader behaviour and organizational
commitment is moderated by tenure.
1.5 Significance of the research
There has been tremendous discussion about leadership behaviours and the findings in
this research would generate new findings in terms of theoretical contributions to enrich
the existing literature on leadership. This research will enhance further understanding on
leadership behaviour and its relations towards organizational commitment pertaining to
the co-operative in Peninsular Malaysia. It will also help to answers questions of
leadership behaviour from the standpoint of the employees and how seriously are they
committed with their organizations. The significance of this research is intended to help
co-operative movement to establish system that can promote to a better employees
commitment in co-operative movement and to enable co-operative leaders to adopt style
that best promote the commitment of the employees. This research will also help the Co-
27
operative College of Malaysia to establish training courses in the field of leadership for
the co-operative leaders and also employees of the co-operative
1.6 Limitations of This Research
This research is carried out particularly in the areas of connecting leadership behaviours
and employees commitment. However more research can be done to determine other
factors that may significantly affect employee’s commitment in the co-operative
movement for example succession planning, promotion, training, salaries, volumes of job
responsibilities, other benefits received and such.
Due to the fact that the respondents were from different background, education level,
positions and they were scattered by different geographical area, few respondents were
not able to fill in the questionnaire without the existence of assistance and guidance.
The questionnaires were posted by mail with self envelope to the respondents all over
Peninsular Malaysia. This approach is costly and requires funding to reach to bigger size
of respondents. Respondents are also unaware of the urgency of the questionnaire to be
return back.
In addition to that, few co-operatives may require various level of approval before the
questionnaire is passed down to the employees to be filled in. This process will take
longer time than it is expected to be completed.
28
Co-operative movement are also unique in terms of their size, background, locations,
membership, and are classified in several business sectors such as banking, multipurpose,
retailing, agriculture, housing and such. More time is needed if research is to be carried
out rigorously in every sector.
29
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Definition of Leadership
Leadership issues has received various attentions and interests across decades,
boundaries, cultures, nations and has been studied extensively in various contexts and
theoretical foundation by most well known researchers. The reasons behind inspiring
leaders who build great empires, who have loyal followers that are willing to devote their
lives to their leaders, to the extend of conspiracy of murdering their own leaders have
intensify the investigations on what makes a leader, why people emerge to become a
leader and how these leaders become effective.
The term leadership is a relatively recent addition to the English language and it was used
only for about two hundred years ago, although the term leader, from which it was
derived, appeared as early as A.D 1300 (Stogdill, 1974).
Different people will interpret leadership differently based on the individual perspective.
According to Stogdill (1974), “there are almost as many definitions of leadership as there
are persons who have attempted to define the concept.”
30
Leadership has been defined in terms of individual traits, behaviour, influence over other
people, interaction patterns, role relationships, occupation of an administrative position,
and perception by others regarding legitimacy of influence. (Yukl, 2006).
Stogdill (1974, p.4) defines leadership behaviour as which leaders use to influence a
group of people towards the achievement of goals. Leadership is an interaction between
two or more members of a group that often involves a structuring or restructuring of the
situation and the perceptions and expectations of members (Bass, 1990, p. 19) and is
concerned with three things; leaders, followers and their interactions (Dansereau,
Yammarino & Markham, 1995). Some other definitions are as follows:
1. Leadership is “the behaviour of an individual when he is directing the activities
of a group toward a shared goal.” (Hemphill & Coons, 1957, p.7)
2. Leadership is “a particular type of power relationship characterized by a group
member’s perception that another group member has the right to prescribe
behaviour patterns for the former regarding his activity as a group member.”
(Janda, 1960, p. 358)
3. Leadership is “interpersonal influence, exercised in a situation, and directed
through the communication process, toward the attainment of a specific goal or
goals.” (Tannenbaum, Weschler & Massarik, 1961, p. 24)
4. Leadership is “an interaction between persons in which one presents information
of a sort and in such a manner that the other becomes convinced that his outcome
31
will be improved if he behaves in the manner suggested or desired” (Jacobs,
1970, p.232)
5. Leadership is “the initiation and maintenance of structure in expectation and
interaction” (Stogdill, 1974, p.411)
6. Leadership is “the influential increment over and above mechanical compliance
with the routine directives of the organization.” (Katz & Kahn, 1978, p.528)
7. Leadership is “the process of influencing the activities of an organized group
toward goal achievement.” (Roach & Behling 1984, p.46)
8. Leadership is the “the process of influencing employees to work toward the
achievement of objectives”. (Lussier,1990)
9. Leadership is “the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals”
(Robbins,1993)
10. Leadership as an interpersonal process through which a leader directs the
activities of individuals or groups towards the purposeful pursuance of given
objectives within a particular situation by means of communication. (Gerber, Nel
and Van Dyk, 1996)
11. Leadership as the behaviour of an individual when that person is directing and
coordinating the activities of a group toward the accomplishment of a shared goal
(Rowden, 2000)
Difference concept between researchers in their field study of leadership will lead to
difference interpretation of the results and meaning. However, in particular, it has been
argued that follower perceptions are critical because only those who are perceived as
32
leaders are allowed the discretion and influence to lead effectively (Lord & Maher,
1993). Thus, leaders can only be effective only if followers are willing to be led.
2.2 General Approaches in Leadership Research
Depending on the researcher’s conceptions and preferences, most leadership studies has
been carried out in various ways. Nearly all leadership research can be classified into one
of the following approaches (Yukl, 1989)
1. Power Influence Approach
2. Behaviour Approach
3. Trait Approach
4. Situational Approach
2.2.1 Power Influence Approach
The researcher’s approach to explain leadership effectiveness in terms of the amount of
power possessed by a leader, type of power and how power is exercised to influence
subordinates, peers, superiors and people outside the organizations.
Most research on the consequences of using different types of power relies upon the
power taxonomy developed by French and Raven (1959). Podsakoff and Schriesheim
33
found that expert and referent power were relatively correlated with subordinate
satisfaction and performance in major studies. The legitimate, reward and coercive power
sometimes resulted in lower satisfaction and performance and other times did not affect
these criteria. The results suggest that effective leaders rely more on expert and referent
power to influence subordinates than ineffective leaders. Table 2.1 exhibit French and
Raven Power Taxonomy consisting major sources of power.
Table 2.1
French and Raven Power Taxonomy
French and Raven Power Taxonomy
Reward Power The target person complies in order to obtain rewards he or she
believes are controlled by the agent
Coercive power The target person complies in order to avoid punishments he or she
believes are controlled by the agent
Legitimate power The target person complies because he or she believes the agent has
the right to make the request and the target person has the obligation
to comply
Expert power The target person complies because he or she believes that the agent
has special knowledge about the best way to do something
Referent power The target person complies because he or she admires or identifies
with the agent and wants to gain the agent’s approval
A leader with substantial reward and punishment power is more likely to obtain
subordinate compliance with requests and orders, even when the leader makes no explicit
34
promises or threats (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn & Snoek, 1964). Warren (1968) found that
expert, referent and legitimate power were correlated positively with attitudinal
commitment by subordinates, where reward and coercive power were correlated with
behaviour compliance. In a study by Thambain and Gemmill (1974), the primary reason
given for compliance was the leader’s legitimate power and reward power was also
important reason for compliance, even though neither type of power was associated with
commitment.
Podsakoff, Todor, Grover and Huber (1984) concluded that positive reward behaviour
contingent upon subordinate performance leads to higher subordinate satisfaction and
performance. Some leader behaviour research also suggests that contingent punishment
can have a positive effect on subordinate performance when used in combination with
rewards (Arvey & Ivancevich, 1980; Podsakoff, Todor & Skov, 1982). A more likely
conclusion is that effective leaders use a mix of different types of power (Kotter, 1982).
2.2.2 Behaviour Approach
This research emphasizes on what leaders and managers actually do on the job, not how
they look to others (Halpin & Winer, 1957; Hemphill & Coons, 1957). Hundreds of
studies over the last three decades have examined the correlation between questionnaire
measures of leadership behaviour and measures of subordinate satisfaction and
performance.
35
Behaviour approach tries to examine leaders in the context of how they portray their
behaviour in the organization that in turn increase the effectiveness of the organization as
a whole. The most popular leadership study of Michigan and Ohio State leadership
studies took this approach by focusing on two main factors which are the consideration
and initiation of structure. The result of this was, leaders were not necessarily born but
effective leadership style can be taught. (Saal & Knight, 1988).
Blake, Shepard, and Mouton (1964) further developed theories on two-factor model of
leadership behaviour similar to that foundation at Ohio State and Michigan. The two
factors were named “concern for people” and “concern for output.” This studies exhibit
behaviours that fall into the two primary categories either task or people. The outcome of
this research was primarily descriptive and helped to classify leaders based on their
behaviour.
Research on leader behaviour have not been consistent and inconclusive due to inaccurate
measures, problems in determining causality in questionnaire studies, design weaknesses
in experimental studies and inattention to situational moderator variables (Yukl, 1989).
Some distortion is the tendency of some respondents to attribute desirable behaviour to a
leader who is perceived to be effective, even though the behaviour was not actually
observed. (Green & Mitchell, 1979; Lord, Binning, Rush & Thomas, 1978; Mitchell,
Larson & Green, 1977).
36
2.2.3 Trait Approach
Trait approach emphasized the personal attributes and internal qualities of which a person
is born (Bernard, 1926). Traits research has been review at various times by different
scholars (Bass, 1981; Lord, Devader & Alliger, 1986; Mann, 1959; Stogdill, 1948, 1974)
Thoughts of traits theory was if traits can be differentiated between leaders and followers,
thus successful leaders can be positioned. This research put solely on the idea that leaders
were born, not made. Hundred of trait studies were conducted but this research effort
failed to link any special traits that guarantee the success of leadership. One flaw of this
theory is the lacking of situational factors that can influence the level of leader’s
effectiveness.
Stogdill (1948, p. 64) concluded that a person does not become a leader by virtue of the
possession of some combinations of traits the pattern of personal characteristics of the
leaders must bear some relevant relationship to the characteristics, activities and goal of
the followers.
The early studies failed to support that a person must possess some particular set of traits
to become effective leaders and there were a weak correlation between leader intelligence
and leader effectiveness (Ghiselli, 1966; Stogdill, 1974). A leader with certain traits may
be effective in one situation but failed on the other. Thus traits cannot be accessed as a
single factor that guarantees the successful of leaders.
37
Stogdill (1974, p.72) noted that the view of leadership is entirely situational in origin and
that no personal characteristics are predictive of leadership. It is recognized that certain
traits increase the likelihood that a leader will be effective, but they do not guarantee
effectiveness, and the relative importance of different traits is dependent on the nature of
the leadership situation (Bass, 1981).
2.2.4 Situational Approach
Situational approach emphasized on the importance of situational factors such as the
leader’s authority and discretion, the nature of the work performed, subordinate ability
and motivation, the external environment and the role requirements imposed on a
manager by subordinates and outsiders.
The situational approach helps to deal with the issue on how leaders can mix the
interaction of leader’s traits, behaviours and situation which the leader issues. These
contingency theory opens the possibility that leadership could be different in every aspect
of situation (Saal & Knight, 1988).
The first and perhaps most popular, situational theory was the Contingency Theory of
Leadership Effectiveness' developed by Fred E. Fiedler" (Bedeian Arthur & Glueck, 1983
). This theory explains that group performance is a result of interaction of two factors.
These factors are known as leadership style and situational favorableness. . In Fiedler's
model, leadership effectiveness is the result of interaction between the style of the leader
and the characteristics of the environment in which the leader works" (Gray, Jerry &
38
Starke, 1988). Fiedler’s concept of situational combines between the leader and member
relations, task structure and position power. Fiedler came up with eight classifications of
situational favour based on the measure of either high or low. He then developed the
Least Preferred Co-worker questionnaires to measure leadership styles.
Another contingency model deals with the interaction between the goals of the follower
and the leaders (House & Mitchell, 1974) where leaders are responsible to help their
followers to develop behaviour that enable them to achieve their goals and the
organizational outcome.
Hersey and Blancard’s situational leadership theory explains the effectiveness of task and
relation behaviour is contingent on subordinate maturity depending on a subordinate’s
confidence and skill particular to a given task. (Yukl, 1989)
Leadership substitute’s theory identifies aspects of the situation that make leadership
behaviour by hierarchical leaders redundant or irrelevant. Various characteristics of the
subordinates, task and organization serve as substitutes for leadership and / or
neutralizers of its effects. (Yukl, 1989)
The Vroom-Yetton theory described what leaders should do given certain circumstances
with regard to the level of involvement of followers in making decisions. The Vroom-
Yetton model is a decision making tree that enables a leader to examine a situation and
determine which style or level of involvement to engage. This model identifies five styles
along a continuum ranging from autocratic to consultative to group-based.
39
Another theory that emerged out from this was the leader-member exchange theory
(Graen, 1976). This theory explains the nature of the relationship between leaders and
followers within two groups of in-group and the out-group and how leaders maintain
their position in the group.
The Cognitive resource theory examines the conditions under which cognitive resources
such as intelligence, experience and technical expertise are related to group performance.
Situational variables, such as interpersonal stress, group support and task complexity
determines whether leaders can enhance the group performance. Table 2.2 explained the
summary of various situational leadership model.
Table 2.2
Summary of Situational Leadership Models
Summary of Situational Leadership Models
Situational
Model
Leader Traits Leader
Behaviour
Situational
Variables
Intervening
Variables
Validation
Results
Path-goal
theory
None Instrumental,
supportive,
participative,
achievement
Many aspects Expectancies,
valences, role
ambiguity
Many studies,
partial support
Hersey &
Blanchard
situational
leadership
None Task and
relations
Subordinate
maturity
None Few studies,
inconclusive
Leadership None Instrumental, Many aspects None Few studies,
40
substitutes supportive inconclusive
Vroom-Yetton
model
None Decision
procedures
Many aspects Decision
quality and
acceptance
Few studies,
most
supportive
LPC
Contigency
model
LPC None Task structure,
L-M relations,
position power
None Many studies,
partial support
Cognitive
resource
theory
Intelligence,
experience
Directive Stress, group
support, task
complexity
None Few studies,
inconclusive
Behavioural scientists agree that not all situational leadership theories are useful. McCall
(1977) contends that the hectic, fragmented pace of managerial work and the relative lack
of control over it by managers makes it impossible to apply complex theories that specify
the optimal behaviour for every type of situation. Managers are so busy dealing with
problems that they don’t have time to stop and analyze the situation with a complicated
model. McCall also questions the common underlying assumption of a single “best way”
for the manager to act within a given situation. Leaders face an immense variety of
rapidly changing situations, and several different patterns of behaviour may be equally
effective in a given situation. In general, the research suffers from lack of accurate
measures and reliance on weak research designs that do not permit strong inferences
about direction of causality (Korman & Tanofsky, 1975); Schriesheim & Kerr, 1977)
41
2.3 The Importance of Leadership
History has proven that leaders play a major role in the success of an organization. It is
important for leaders to ensure collective efforts are energized towards the achievement
of the organizational mission and vision. From a heavy battle in war ground to the extend
of family institutions, leaders act as a captain who commands and navigate the direction
towards a certain point of accomplishing desired goals. Extensive research has been done
by past researchers on the importance of leader’s contribution towards moving the
organization, motivating the most important assets in the organization, the employees.
(Bass, 1990; Collins & Porras, 1996; Manz & Sims, 1991; Sarros & Woodman, 1993).
Bennis and Nanus (1985) argue that a business short on capital can borrow money, and
one with a poor location can move. But a business short on leadership has little chance
for survival.
Some writers argue that leadership is a major determinant of organizational effectiveness
(e.g. Chandler, 1962; Katz & Kahn, 1978, Peters & Waterman, 1982), whereas other
writers express doubts that leaders have any substantial influence on the performance of
their organization (e.g., Meindl, Ehrlich, & Dukerich, 1985; Pfeffer, 1977).
Bass (1990) suggested that leadership is the single most critical factor in the success or
failure of an organization since managers are the one who may strengthen or weaken the
self determination and efficacy belief of the employees by providing them access to
resource, information, support and opportunity (Kanter,1977).
42
Leadership is a matter of concern to anyone who needs encouragement, motivation,
inspiration and such. Even there are no consensus on what makes a good leader (Russ–
Eft,1999) and previous broad work on leadership research suggested that there are many
appropriate ways to lead or styles of leadership, leaders should adapt the most suitable
styles to acquire the commitment and participation from the employees. That means,
understanding employee’s situation is very crucial to decide on which styles that can fit
the interactions between them without risking on the organizational goals. The abilities of
the leader to manage employees commitment can help further to reduce the complexity
and the constant changes in the business surroundings. One of the greatest changes in our
business world is the transformation of an industrial-based economy into an information-
based economy” (Wilson, George, & Wellins, 1994, p. 18). Gebert and Steinkamp (1991)
argue that there is a close relationship between the economic success of an organization
and leadership style used. McDonough and Barczak (1991) noted that leadership style
influences the speed of product development, not only in taking ideas to market, but also
in responding quickly to changes internally and externally, organizations are being forced
to move faster (Stalk & Hout, 1990). Therefore, capitalizing on the talents and intellectual
potential of employees is increasingly important for organizational success (Wriston,
1990).
Niehoff, Enz, and Grover (1990) strongly urged that the overall management culture and
management style driven by top management actions are strongly related to the degree of
employee commitment. Sullivan (1994) on the other hand suggests that a working
environment encouraging participation, mentoring and training has to be created for joint
43
decision making. Participative group management (Likert, 1961) is believed to achieve
higher productivity, greater involvement of employees and so, better relations in an
organization as manager’s focus on the needs and expectations of subordinates to
establish and maintain effective work groups. Participation in decision making is defined
as the degree to which an employee is able to influence decisions concerning his/her job
(Teas, Wacker, & Hughes, R.E 1979).
Tosi and Tosi (1970), Long (19780) and DeCotiis and Summers (1987) have shown that
employees who participate in decisions which involve them reported relatively higher
levels of organizational commitment.
Several thousand empirical studies have been conducted on leader traits, behaviour,
power and situational variables as predictors of leadership effectiveness, most likely there
were no accurate answer on what profile that makes a great leader. There were no
consistent definition on understanding what causes people to act certain ways in their
workplace and which leadership style is most effective in a given situation and most of
the results are contradictory and inconclusive suggesting that there are many appropriate
ways to lead or styles of leadership.. This helps to further clarify why leadership is one of
the most widely studied to understand that leadership can eventually be trained, improved
and perhaps great leaders can be created in the future
What is most important is that to be a successful leaders, the main necessity is to
facilitate, understand, having adequate knowledge on the uniqueness of each individual
44
that are being led, developing these individuals potentials and organizing positive
interactions that can stimulate the motivations between leaders and followers relationship
which the final result will leads to not only the individual goals but the desired outcomes
of the organizations entirely. Kur (1995) believes that effectiveness in leading is directly
related to the leader’s way of thinking about him, subordinates, organization and
environment.
2.4 Introduction to Organizational Commitment
Commitment is a construct that seeks to explain consistencies involving attitudes, beliefs
and behaviour and “involves behavioural choices and implies a rejection of feasible
alternative courses of action” (Hulin, 1991, p. 488). According to Werkmeister (1967),
commitment is a manifestation of the individual’s own self, and reflects value standards
that are basic to the individual’s existence as a person. Commitment reflects the relative
strength of an individual’s identification with and involvement in that organisation
(Steers, 1997; Mowday, R.T, Steers, R.M, Porter, L.W (1979). According to this
definition, organizational commitment has three basic components
1) A strong belief in and acceptance of the organization’s goals and values
(identification)
2) A willingness to exert a considerable effort on behalf of the organization
(involvement)
45
3) And a strong intent or desire to remain with the organization (loyalty).
Meyer & Allen (1991) suggested three different types of organizational commitment as
listed below:
2.4.1 Affective Commitment
Refers to employee’s emotional attachment, identification with, and involvement in the
organization. Employees with a strong affective commitment stay with the organization
because they want to.
The processes leading to the development of AC are taken from exchange principles
(Mottaz, 1988; Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982). An organization typically provides
rewards or punishments at its disposal in return for the contributions its employees make
or fail to make, and the employees commit themselves to the organization in return for
the rewards received or the punishments avoided.
According to Ko, Price and Mueller (1997) Researchers anticipate that met expectations,
work involvement, and positive affectivity will increase AC, whereas negative affectivity
will decrease it. In addition, the literature indicates that the environment in which
organizations operate influences the employees' orientations. Therefore, researchers
expect that external job opportunity will decrease AC, whereas social support from
spouse, parents, and friends outside work will increase it.
46
2.4.2 Continuance Commitment
Refers to employee’s point of view of whether the costs of leaving the organization are
greater than of the costs of staying. Employees who perceive that the costs of leaving the
organization are greater than the costs of staying remain because they need to.
Anything that increases the cost associated with leaving the organization can lead to the
development of CC (Meyer & Allen, 1991). Self-investment is the amount of valuable
resources—such as effort, time, and energy—that an employee has spent in the
organization for its well-being (Allen & Meyer, 1990). Increased effort and energy by
employees will increase their CC, because leaving the organization will result in the loss
of the valuable resources spent for the organization. The lack of transferability of job
skills and knowledge will also increase the costs of leaving the organization, because it
makes it difficult for employees to find alternative jobs that fit (Becker, 1960).
If employees move to another organization, it may disrupt the social relationships they
have and increase the psychological ' 'cost of making new friends and learning to get
along with new working associates" (Becker, 1964). According to Becker (1960), the
lack of external job opportunities increases the costs associated with leaving the
organization. Therefore, the fewer available alternative jobs in the environment, the
greater will be the employees' CC to their current employer.
47
2.4.3 Normative commitment
Refers to employees feelings of obligation to the organization. Employees with high
levels of normative commitment stay with the organization because they feel they ought
to.
On the basis of the works of Wiener (1982) and Scholl (1981), Meyer and Allen (1991)
suggested that two mechanisms, socialization and exchange, play a key role in the
development of NC. According to Wiener (1982), NC develops as a result of normative
beliefs that are internalized through pre-entry (familial and cultural) and post entry
(organizational) socialization processes. Therefore, a commitment norm, which is
labelled as internalized normative beliefs by Wiener, is examined as a possible
determinant of NC.
The second mechanism that is operative in the development of NC is the principle of
exchange, or what is called a norm of reciprocity by Scholl (1981). According to this
principle, NC develops through the receipt of rewards from the organization that instil a
sense of moral obligation to reciprocate with commitment.
Organizational commitment depends on the perception of employees (Eisenberger
Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986). Steers (1997) shows that if the employee finds
the organization to be more supportive, a higher level of organizational commitment will
result and the direct effort to induce commitment can produce long-term benefits for the
organization (Liu, Chiu and Fellows, 2007).
48
2.5 The importance of Organizational Commitment
Most previous research has suggested that organizational commitment is more strongly
related to turnover, organizational citizenship behaviours and reduced absenteeism than is
job satisfaction (Koch & Steers, 1978; Parasuraman, 1982; Porter, Steers, Mowday, &
Boulian, 1974; Steers, 1977; Eby, Freeman, Rush, & Lance, 1999; Tett & Meyer, 1993;
Watson & Papamarcos, 2002), an as employees intention to quit is inversely related to the
organizational commitment (Angle & Perry,1981), this will result to lower levels of
turnover when there are higher level of organizational commitments and high
commitment facilitates loyalty so as stable workforce can be sustained despite external
environment changes. Liu, Chiu and Fellows (2007) claimed that individuals who are
motivated would be more committed to their tasks and, hence, perform better.
Wiener and Vardi (1980) also reported that there is a positive correlation between
commitment and job performance. Organizations benefit from a committed workforce
because committed employees tend to be absent less often, to make positive contributions
and to stay with the organization (DeCotiis & Summers, 1987; Beck & Wilson, 2000;
Bishop & Scott, 2000).
According to Meyer and Allen (1997), a committed employee is the one who stays with
the organisation through thick and thin, attends work regularly, puts in a full day (and
maybe more), protects company’s assets, shares company goals and others. Thus, having
a committed workforce would be an added advantage to an organisation.
49
Kanter (1968) believes commitment to an organization also relates to the profit from
participating, and the cost of leaving the organization, such as loss of prestige and
stability of a working environment. On the other hand, Marsh and Mannari (1977) focus
on the moral responsibility one attaches to the organization as a result of commitment.
Sarantinos (2007) alleges that commitment is directly tied to the psychological contract,
which, in essence, describes the implicit agreement between employees and the
organisation with regards to their reciprocal obligations and perceived expectations. The
most important factor in determining an individual’s motivation is the psychological
contract, defined as the set of expectations between an employee and some implicit
components of an organization, i.e. pay, dignity, opportunities. In return, the organization
demands loyalty and commitment (Schein, 1980)
2.6 Leadership and Organizational Commitment
Several studies found a positive relationship between leadership behaviour and
organizational commitment (Kraut, 1970; Newman, 1974; Alley & Gould, 1975; Porter,
Campon & Smith, 1976; Gilsson and Durick, 1988; Savery, 1994; Zeffane, 1994; Wilson,
1995; Agarwal, De Carlo, & Yyas, 1999 ; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990 ; Mc Neese – Smith
1999 ; Rai & Sinha 2000 ; Yousef 2000; Bycio, Hackett & Allen,1995).
50
Leaders should understand that the issue of employees commitment is a crucial element
to be addressed to (Tushman and O’Reilly; Nadler, 1997; Limerick, Cunnington &
Crowther, 1998). Organizational commitment is influenced by the job environment
created by the employee’s supervisor. This organizational environment, together with the
employee’s ability and motivation, will largely determine eventual performance
(Cummings and Schwabs, 1973). According to Stum (1999), employee commitment
reflects the quality of the leadership in the organization.
The study by Eisenberger et al. (1986) showed that employees’ organizational
commitment is strongly influenced by perceived (generalized) organizational support.
Employees are more likely to feel an obligation to return the supportive behaviour in
terms of affective commitment (Shore & Wayne, 1993). Further, Mottaz’s (1988) study
of 1,385 employees from various occupations found that employees who perceived a
friendly and supportive relationship with their co-workers and supervisors had a strong,
positive commitment to their respective organizations. Employees who believe their
superiors are considerate leaders will be more committed to their organizations than those
who do not perceive their managers as such (Johnston, Parasuraman, Futrell, &
Black,1990). Supervisory consideration refers to leader behaviours concerned with
promoting the comfort and wellbeing of subordinates (Schriesheim & Stogdill (1975)
Employees may interpret the support provided by their employer as a demonstration of
commitment towards them (Eisenberger et al., 1986; Rhoades and Eisenberger, 2002;
Shore and Shore, 1995), which in turn tend to enhance their commitment to the
51
organization. Tharenou (1993) showed that support from one’s direct supervisor led to
less absence among subordinates. Pelz (1952) presented data suggesting that at least in
large groups, employees were more satisfied with superiors who identified closely with
higher management and assisted them in goal attainment.
Loui (1995) examined the relationship between the broad construct of organizational
commitment and the outcome measures of supervisory trust, job involvement, and job
satisfaction. In all three areas, Loui (1995) reported positive relationships with
organizational commitment. More specifically, perceived trust in the supervisor, an
ability to be involved with the job, and feelings of job satisfaction were major
determinants of organizational commitment.
Effective leaders are expected to generate higher levels of organizational commitment, as
Shamir, House and Arthur (1993) phrased, “Their art is to manufacture ethics to give life
through commitment to the spirit of the organization (p. 583)”.
In nine studies involving 2,734 persons, Dunham, Grube, & Castaneda (1994) examined
how participatory management and supervisory feedback influenced employee levels of
affective, continuance, and normative commitment. The researchers found that when
supervisors provided feedback about performance and allowed employees to participate
in decision-making, employee levels of affective commitment was stronger than both
continuance and normative. That is, employees indicated staying with the organization
was more related to wanting to, rather than needing to or feeling they ought to.
52
In another study involving 763 employees, Becker (1992) examined whether employees’
commitment to different constituencies or to the overall organization were better
predictors of job satisfaction, intention to quit, and prosocial behaviour. He discovered
that employees' commitment to top management, supervisors, and work groups
contributed significantly beyond commitment to the organization.
Kent and Chelladurai (2001) found that individualised consideration has positive
correlation with both affective commitment (r = 0.475, p < 0.001) and normative
commitment (r = .354, p < 0.001).
According to Yousef (2000), those who perceive their superior as adopting consultative
or participative leadership behaviour are more committed to their organization. Mathieu
and Zajac (1990, p. 180) suggested that a supervisor who provides more accurate and
timely types of communication enhances the work environment and thereby is likely to
increase employees’ commitment to the organization.
2.7 Effective Leadership Styles in Malaysia
There is no true answer on what type of leadership is regarded as effective in Malaysia.
Leaders have to suit their style based on situation and should be in line with the condition
of their employees. Managers in a high context culture like Malaysia have to spend time
in building personal relationship that may transcend the workplace (Abdullah, 1994)
where maintaining relationships is much more important than performing a task.
Abdullah (1996) further recommends that a paternal style of leadership would fit. The
53
values of mutual obligation require the leader to give their employees some form of
protection in exchange for their loyalty and commitment. McLaren and Rashid (2002)
and Ahmad (2001) appear to support the notion of paternalism in Malaysian context.
Lim (1998) reported that the Malays are slightly more hierarchy-oriented toward building
relationships with a sense of responsibility to help friends, relatives and neighbors
through network that are not necessarily business related.
Gill (1998) conducted comparison of leadership behaviour of managers in the UK, USA
and Southeast Asia. He concluded that Southeast Asia Managers were more directive,
less delegating, more transactional and more laissez fair in terms of leadership behaviour
than were the US and UK managers. However contrary to that, Saufi, Wafa and Hamzah
(2002) reported a significant relationship between uncertainty avoidance and participative
leadership style. However ethnic different was apparent: Malay and Indian managers
preferred to be led in the participative style whereas Chinese managers preferred the
delegative style. Govindan (2000) reports that preferred styles of Malaysian are
consultative and participative leadership. Kennedy and Mansor (2000) found that
Malaysian managers rated the dimensions of decisiveness, team integration, diplomacy,
modesty, humane orientation, and autonomy as being more important contributors to
effective leadership than managers in most other countries. Alip (2003) found that
commitment was higher with the use of expert, referent, connection and legitimate power
than reward, coercion and information power.
54
2.8 Nurturant – Task (NT) Leadership in Malaysia
With regards to no single style that has been found as effective, another style that is said
to be fit with the Malaysian context are the nurturant – task which was developed by
Sinha (1980). The nurturant – task was developed in India as a result of 25 years of
research (Ansari, 1990; Bhal & Ansari, 2000; Sinha, 1980, 1994). The nurturant – task
has been advocated as suitable for Indian organizations (Ansari, 1986, 1990; Sinha, 1980,
1994) and due to the similarities between Indian and Malaysian organization, the
nurturant task is regarded another style that can adopted well here in Malaysia. The
nurturant-task style—conceptualized as a task-and-efficiency-oriented leadership with a
blend of nurturance was developed as a contingency model to fit the Indian subordinates
(Ansari, Aafaqi & Jayasingam, 2000)
According to Ansari, Ahmad and Aafaqi (2004), the similarities between both
subordinates are both depend excessively on their superior, with whom they want to
cultivate a personalized rather than contractual work relationship. They readily accept the
authority of their superior and yield to his or her demands. The subordinates are willing
to work extra hard as a part of their efforts to maintain a personalized relationship with
the superior (Abdullah, 1996; Sinha 1994). Under these circumstances, an NT leader is
likely to be more effective than other leaders (Ansari, 1986, 1990, Sinha, 1980, 1994).
The NT style has received meaningful support from empirical studies conducted in India
(for details, see such reviews as those of Ansari, 1986, 1987, 1990; Ansari & Shukla,
55
1987; Bhal & Ansari, 2000; Sinha, 1980; 1983; 1994). Some of the major findings are
summarized as follows. (a) The NT style is perceived as distinctly different from other
styles, such as autocratic, bureaucratic, or participative. (b) It has a positive impact on
several indicators of effectiveness such as commitment, facets of job satisfaction, and
perceived effectiveness. (c) NT leaders earn more favorable ratings on the evaluation of
the leader and attributions of leadership than the autocratic one. Interestingly, on some
occasions, they receive even higher ratings than participative leaders.
NT model states that an effective leader is one who carries his or her subordinates toward
a shared goal. Leading means more than serving. Before leading the leader must cater to
the needs and expectations of the subordinates. Only then will the subordinates follow the
directives. However they must not stop at meeting the subordinates needs and keeping
them happy. They must lead them. Only then can they be called effective. (Sinha, 1994,
p.102). That means “leading: part of the role requires the leader to be task oriented. In the
same vein, the NT leader cares for his or her subordinates, shows affection, takes
personal interest in their well being and above all, is committed to their growth (Sinha,
1980, p. 55).
The leader, however, makes his or her nurturance contingent on the subordinate’s task
accomplishment. NT leaders are effective for those subordinates who want to maintain
dependency, a personalized relationship and a status differential. The leader helps his or
her subordinates grow up, mature and assume greater responsibility. Once the
subordinates reach a reasonable level of maturity, they generate pressure on the leader to
56
shift to the participative style, the NT style is considered to be a forerunner of the P style
in the reciprocal influence processes between a leader and his/her subordinates. The
uniqueness of the NT model is the priority attached to productivity over job satisfaction
(Ansari et. al, 2004). It assumes that meaningful and lasting job satisfaction has a
precondition, the productivity of the organization. (Porter & Lawler, 1968).
Nurturant task is associated with task-oriented (with a blend of nurturance), discipline
minded, tough leadership style with a personalized approach. The NT is believe to be
successful in leading Malaysian subordinates due to the similarities in the characteristics
with the Indian subordinates, who posses traditional values but have an international
outlook (Kennedy, 2002).
Task orientation get the work done but might cause resistance to build up. A blend of the
two is more likely to render a leader effective (Sinha, 1994, p. 103)
This study tries to examine whether exists significant relationship of the nurturant task,
participative and autocratic style of leadership with employees organizational
commitment in the co-operatives.
57
2.9 Comparison between leadership style in this study and similar previous
studies
This research intends to investigate three leadership behaviour which are the nurturant-
task, participative and autocratic. Table 2.3 below summarizes major classifications of
leadership style in previous studies to fit the purpose of this study while Table 2.4 is the
summary of leadership behaviour that are going to be investigated in this study.
Table 2.3
Summary of major classifications of leadership style in previous studies
Leadership Style Autocratic
Lewin, K., Lippitt, R. and White,
R.K (1939)
Leader makes the decision and closely supervises
Likert (1967)This system utilizes an autocratic, top-downapproach to leadership. Employee evaluation isbased on punishment and occasionally on rewards.Downward communication is predominant andthere is little lateral interaction or teamwork. Bothcontrol and decision making reside at the top levelof the organization
Vroom and Yetton (1973) Manager makes decision
Bass and Valenzi (1974) Direction
Muna (1980) Own decision
Ali (1993) Own decision
58
Leadership Style Participative
Likert (1967) This system makes extensive use of
employer participation, involvement and
groups. The groups are highly involved in
setting goals, making decisions, improving
methods and appraising results.
Communication occurs both laterally and
vertically.
Vroom and Yetton (1973) Manager shares problem with group;
makes own decision
Bass and Valenzi (1974)Participation
Muna (1980) Delegation of decision to subordinates
Ali (1993) Participative
The present study tries to investigate further on leadership style based on the literature
that was developed by prior research. The leadership styles are similar to the one that has
been discussed thoroughly as below.
59
Table 2.4 Present investigation of Leadership Style
Leadership Style Present Investigation
Autocratic Leader’s make decision alone and closely supervise. Subordinate have
no direct influence on decisions
Participative Manager shares problem and decision making with group
Nurturant Task Nurturant task is associated with task-oriented ( with a blend of
nurturance), discipline minded, tough leadership style with a
personalized approach
60
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Hypothesis
The nurturant task style of task and efficiency leadership with nurturance was found
effective in the Indian setting (Ansari, 1990, Bhal & Ansari, 2000; Sinha, 1980, 1994).
Based on the literature review above (Abdullah, 1994; Hofstede, 1994), it indicates that
the Malaysian workforce carries very similar work values as those Indian setting.
However, Likert and Likert (1976) argue that the participative style is more productive in
any culture. Thus:
3.1.1 Affective Commitment
Affective Commitment can be associated with those work experiences that satisfy
employees need to be comfortable in their relationship with the organization and to feel
competent in their work role (Allen & Meyer, 1990, p.4). Employees whose experiences
within the organization are consistent with their expectations and satisfy their basic needs
tend to develop a stronger affective attachment to the organization than do those whose
experiences are less satisfying. Previous research on affective commitment suggests that
the experiences of the employee in the work environment, to some extend, organizational
and personal characteristics, are associated with affective commitment (Allen and
Meyer,1990 : Meyer & Allen, 1991 : Mathieu & Zajac, 1990) Thus :
61
H1a: There is a significant positive relationship between Nurturant Task
(NT) style and affective commitment
H1b: There is a significant positive relationship between Participative style
and affective commitment
H1c: There is a significant negative relationship between Autocratic style
and affective commitment
3.1.2 Continuance Commitment
Continuance commitment is recognized by the relevant investments made by the
employees of the organization and perceived employment alternatives (Allen & Meyer,
1990; Meyer & Allen, 1984, 1997). It is considered as the factor that the employee felt
they had invested themselves in for example in organization based skills, education and
pensions as well as perceptions of self investment, that employees might forfeit by
leaving the organization (Whitener & Walz, 1993). Continuance commitment also refers
to employees perception about the transferability of their skills (Allen & Meyer, 1990)
and education (Lee, Ashford, Walsh & Mowday, R, 1992), investment in the community
and the likelihood that the employee would have to move to another geographical area if
they were to leave the organization (Allen & Meyer, 1990). Thus:
H2a: There is a significant positive relationship between Nurturant Task
(NT) style and continuance commitment
62
H2b: There is a significant positive relationship between Participative style
and continuance commitment
H2c: There is a significant negative relationship between Autocratic style
and continuance commitment
3.1.3 Normative Commitment
Normative commitment is the sense of obligation. Feelings arising from the
internalization of normative pressures exerted on an individual prior to entry (e.g.,
familial or cultural socialization) or following entry (e.g., organizational socialization).
normative commitment develops as the result of socialization experiences that emphasize
the appropriateness of remaining loyal to one's employer (Wiener, 1982) or through the
receipt of benefits (e.g., tuition payments or skills training) that create within the
employee a sense of obligation to reciprocate (Scholl,1981)Individuals that value loyalty
will show greater normative commitment to the work organizations. Previous research
has also focused on the extend to which an employee believes that the organization
expects loyalty (Meyer et al., 1990) and the employee’s general sense of obligation
towards others (Meyer et al. 1993). Therefore:
H3a: There is a significant positive relationship between Nurturant Task
(NT) style and normative commitment.
H3b: There is a significant positive relationship between Participative style
and normative commitment
63
H3c: There is a significant negative relationship between Autocratic style
and commitment
3.1.4 Tenure As A Moderator On The Relationship Between Leadership
Behaviour and Organizational Commitment
Tenure could function as predictors of commitment primarily because of their roles as
surrogate measures of investment in the organization. Tenure could be indicative of non-
transferable investments, such as close working relationships with co-workers, retirement
investments, career investments, and skills unique to that particular organization (Allen
and Meyer, 1990)
Mowday et. al (1982) contended not only the organizational commitment is a
development process containing three different stages, but also that the determinants of
organizational commitment vary according to the different stages. Employees in the late
career stage find it increasingly difficult to leave their organization voluntarily, owing to
the investments of time and energy which they have made.
Findings by Yousef (1998) supports that subordinates’ personal attributes such as age,
gender, education, experience, national culture, tenure in present organization and marital
status have a significant relationship with leadership style where 63 percents who prefer
consultative leadership style were more than 30 years of age and had up to ten years of
experience in their present organization.
64
In a study of Japanese industrial workers, Tao, Takagi, Ishida and Masuda (1998) found
that organisational tenure predicted internalisation. Consistent with other researchers,
Hawkins (1998) found a statistically significant positive correlation of r = 0.25 between
the organisational commitment and tenure of 202 high school principals. Colbert and
Kwon (2000) found a significant relationship (r = 0.11, p < 0.05) between tenure and
organisational commitment. They found that employees with a longer tenure had a higher
degree of organisational commitment than that of their counterparts.
Stevens, Beyer and Trice (1978) found that several worker characteristics predict
organizational commitment; the total number of years the worker had been in the
organization was positively related to commitment.
Overall, for various types of organizations, tenure have generally been reported to be
positively associated with commitment (Hall, Schneider & Nygren, 1970; Lee, 1971;
Sheldon, 1971; Hrebiniak, 1974)
H4a: The effect of NTP on affective commitment is greater among new employees
compared to experienced employees.
H4b: The effect of NTP on normative commitment is greater among new employees
compared to experienced employees
H4c: The effect of NTP on continuance commitment is greater among new
employees compared to experienced employees
65
H4d: The effect of Autocratic on affective commitment is greater among new
employees compared to experienced employees.
H4e: The effect of Autocratic on normative commitment is greater among new
employees compared to experienced employees
H4f: The effect of Autocratic on continuance commitment is greater among new
employees compared to experienced employees
The hypotheses in testing in present study can be summarized as table 3.1 below
Table 3.1
Hypotheses in Summary
Item Nurturant Task Participative Autocratic
Affective
Commitment
H1a
Significant (+)
H1b
Significant (+)
H1c
Significant (-)
Continuance
Commitment
H2a
Significant (+)
H2b
Significant (+)
H2c
Significant (-)
Normative
Commitment
H3a
Significant (+)
H3b
Significant (+)
H3c
Significant (-)
66
Table 3.2
Hypotheses in summary of the effect of Tenure Between
The Relationship of Leadership Behaviour and
Organizational Commitment
Item AC NC CC
NTP
Autocratic
H4a
Significant
H4d
H4b
Significant
H4e
H4c
Significant
H4f
Significant Significant Significant
3.2 Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework of this research can be summarized as table 3.2 below
Table 3.3
Framework of leadership behaviour and organizational commitment
N(
P
A
C
Leaders Behaviour
urturant Task (NT)10 items)
articipative (10 items)
utocratic (10 items) N
ModeratingVariable
Tenure
OrganizationalCommitment
Affective (6 items)
ontinuance (6 items)
67
ormative (6 items)
68
3.3. Method
3.3.1 Sample and Data Collection
The sample for this study is the employees in co-operatives throughout Peninsular
Malaysia excluding school co-operatives. To obtain representativeness and
generalizability of the findings, co-operatives were selected by using simple random
sampling technique to participate in this study. Database of all registered co-operatives in
Peninsular Malaysia were obtained from the Department of Co-operative Development.
With the assistance of the Co-operative College of Malaysia, databases are later sorted
out to find active co-operatives and who employed at least one employee. 600
questionnaires were posted with self address envelope to co-operative employees in every
state of Peninsular Malaysia. Walk in to co-operatives were also done especially in Klang
Valley to increase the respondent size. The completion of these questionnaires was
entirely voluntary and responses were anonymous. Cover letter was attached with the
questionnaire explaining the objective of the study and encouraged them to participate in
the study. 382 questionnaires were collected and 20 questionnaires were excluded due to
missing and incomplete answers. Total returned and usable questionnaires analyzed were
362 which resulted in 60.3% response rate.
69
3.4 Measures
3.4.1 Independent Measures
Questionnaire developed by (Ansari, 1990; Bhal & Ansari, 2000; Sinha, 1994) were
adopted to measure the leadership behaviours of the co-operative leaders. The scale
consisted of three dimensions of behaviour – nurturant-task (10 items), participative (10
items) and autocratic (10 items). The respondents were asked to indicate their opinion on
a 5-point scale (1= strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3= neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly
agree). Table 3.3 is the summary of the independent measurements.
Table 3.4
Independent measurements
Independent Measures
Instruments Variables Scales
Single Statement Items
(Ansari, 1990; Bhal &
Ansari, 2000; Sinha, 1994)
Leadership Behaviour
Nurturant-Task
Participative
Autocratic
70
3.4.2 Dependent Measures
3.4.2.1 Meyer & Allen’s (1997) Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ)
To study the employees commitment in this research, the framework that was designed
by Meyer & Allen (1991) to measure three different types of organizational commitment
will be used as listed below:
a. Affective Commitment
Refers to employee’s emotional attachment, identification with, and involvement in the
organization. Employees with a strong affective commitment stay with the organization
because they want to.
b. Continuance Commitment
Refers to employee’s point of view of whether the costs of leaving the organization are
greater than of the costs of staying. Employees who perceive that the costs of leaving the
organization are greater than the costs of staying remain because they need to.
71
c. Normative commitment
Refers to employees feelings of obligation to the organization. Employees with high
levels of normative commitment stay with the organization because they feel they ought
to.
The scale consisted of three dimensions of commitment – affective (6 items), continuance
(6 items) and normative (6 items).The respondents were asked to indicate their opinion
on a 5-point scale (1= strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3= neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly
agree). Table 3.4 exhibit the summary of dependent measurements.
Table 3.5
Dependent Measurements
Dependent Measures
Instruments Variables Scales
OCQ
Meyer & Allen’s (1997)
Organizational
Commitment
1. Affective Commitment
2. Continuance Commitment
3. Normative Commitment
72
3.5 Data Analysis
All statistical analyses will be carried out using the SPSS statistical computer package,
Version 15. The analysis that are going to be examined in the study will include:
1. Factor analysis – To measure whether the questionnaire contributes significantly
to the factor which they measure and to group item accordingly to the factor they
measure.
2. Cronbach Alpha – To view the reliability of the measurement.
3. Frequency analysis – To analyze the pattern of respondent’s background.
4. Descriptive analysis – To analyze what are the perceptions of employees towards
their leaders behaviour and what type of commitment are they currently involved
with.
5. Correlation – To see whether exists relationship between leaders behaviour and
organizational commitment.
6. Regression – To analyze how much of leaders behaviour will explain employees
commitment in the co-operatives
73
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS
4.1 Frequency Analysis
Respondents for the present study were 362 individuals working in different co-
operatives throughout Peninsular Malaysia. From this individuals 234 respondents were
female, while the rest comprised of male respondents. Of the subjects, only 3 percent
were represented by the age of less than 20 years, while 53.3 percent came from 21-30
years of age. On the other hand, 27.9 percent were from 31 to 40 years of age. Majority
of the respondents were Malay amounted about 97 percent. There were proportionate
amount between single and married respondents. About 51.7 percent of the respondents
completed their education up to form five and completed their Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia as
compared to a smaller number of respondents who pursued higher educations. 258 of the
employees being surveyed were employed as administrative and clerical positions,
followed by 64 respondents working as executives, 13 respondents as assistant manager
and only 10 respondents were working as manager. About 40.9 percent had less than 3
years of experience in their present occupation, while 27.6 percent have been working
with the present organization for more than ten years. 78.7 percent of the respondents
were employed by co-operatives that had been in establishment for more than 16 years,
while only 11.6 percent were employed by co-operatives which have been in operations
below than 10 years. Table 4.1 displays the main characteristics of the sample.
74
Table 4.1
Profile of respondents
Frequency Percent
Gender
Male 128 35.4
Female 234 64.6
Age
Less than 20 years 11 3.0
21 – 30 years 193 53.3
31-40 years 101 27.9
41 – 50 years 47 13.0
More than 51 10 2.8
Race
Malay 351 97.0
Chinese 3 0.8
Indian 8 2.2
Marital Status
Single 168 46.4
Married 194 53.6
Education Level
Primary school 2 0.6
LCE/SRP/PMR 6 1.7
MCE/SPM/SPMV 187 51.7
HSC/STPM 26 7.2
Diploma 78 21.5
Degree 43 11.9
Post graduate 15 4.1
Others5 1.4
75
Current Job Position
Administrative/clerical 258 71.3
Technician 3 0.8
Executive/Senior executive 64 17.7
Assistant manager 13 3.6
Manager/Senior manager 10 2.8
Others 14 3.9
Tenure
Less than 3 years 148 40.9
4 - 6 years 75 20.7
7 – 10 years 39 10.8
More than 10 years 100 27.6
Co-op Establishment
Less than 10 years 42 11.6
11-15 years 35 9.7
More than 16 years 285 78.7
4.2 Factor Analysis
Variable that were use to examine leaders behaviour and organizational commitment
comprised several items in the questionnaire. In order to determine whether the questions
put forth in the questionnaire contribute significantly to the factor which they measure,
factor analysis was conducted. Furthermore, this analysis was utilized to reduce the data
to the required scales. Varimax rotation were included to reduced the effect of cross
loadings in initial component matrix.
76
The generally accepted criteria for factor analysis is eigenvalues of greater than 1.0 and
item loading of greater than 0.30 (Coakes & Steeds, 2007). The variable items (questions)
that failed to exceed 0.30 were suppressed from consideration..
4.2.1 Factor Analysis on Leadership Behaviour
For the first factor loading on leaders behaviour, KMO measures sampling adequacy of
.894 which is far greater than .6 and Barthlett’ Test of Sphericity showed Chi square of
1738.704 with a significant indication. Originally the scale of leadership was classified as
Nurturant Task, Participative and Autocratic. However it was later deduced to two factor
whereby Nurturant Task and Participative variable has merged to load into factor one to
become Nurturant Task + Participative (NTP). This is due to the fact of the similarity of
the nature of these two variables. Besides that, autocratic variables were loaded into
factor two with six items out of originally ten. Table 4.2 illustrates the factor analysis
results of leadership behaviour
77
Rotated Component Matrix
.721
.672
.685
.743
.639
.501
.782
.645
.684
.511
.795
.784
.749
.469
.656
P1
N1
p2
n2
f2
f3
p4
f4
p5
f5
p6
n6
p7
f8
f9
1 2
Component
Table 4.2
Factor analysis results of Leadership Behaviour
P = Participative
N = Nurturant Task
F = Autocratic
78
4.2.2 Factor Analysis on Organizational Commitment
Factor loading was next carried out on the Organizational Commitment scale. KMO was
amounted about .835 which is again higher than .6 and Barthlett’ Test of Sphericity
showed Chi square of 1800.418 with a significant indication.
Originally, the variables were categorized as Affective Commitment, Continuance
Commitment and Normative Commitment with six items each. After factor loading was
carried out, the three variables remain accordingly in it category. The variable items
(questions) that failed to exceed 0.30 were suppressed from consideration. Normative
Commitment was categorized in factor one with 5 items, Affective Commitment in
Factor 2 with only 3 items, while Normative Commitment in Factor 3 with 4 items. Table
4.3 below illustrates the results of the factor analysis.
79
Rotated Component Matrix
.855
.887
.856
.435 .676
.736
.668
.700
.738
.778
.774
.860
.718
AC3
AC4
AC5
CC3
CC4
CC5
CC6
NC2
NC3
NC4
NC5
NC6
1 2 3
Component
Table 4.3
Factor analysis results of Organizational Commitment
AC = Affective Commitment
CC = Continuance Commitment
NC = Normative Commitment
80
4.3 Reliability Analysis Results
To measure the consistency of the scale, Cronbach’s alpha was used as a measure of
reliability. Allen and Meyer (1990) reported the reliability of the affective commitment
scale as 0.87, continuance commitment scale as 0.75 and the normative commitment
scale as 0.79. Dunham, Grube and Castaneda (1994) found alpha ranges of 0.74 to 0.87
for affective, 0.73 to 0.81 for continuance and 0.67 to 0.78 for normative commitment.
Cohen (1996) discovered alphas of 0.79 for affective, 0.69 for continuance and 0.65 for
normative commitment.
After factor loading was carried out, most of the variables showed an acceptable range of
reliability. Basically, reliability coefficients of 0.7 or more are considered adequate
(Cronbach, 1951; Nunnally, 1978). Nevertheless, it is important to mention that this may
decrease to 0.6 in exploratory research (Hair, Black, Babin, Rolph, Anderson & Tatham ,
2006; Robinson, Shaver, & Wrightsman, 1991), which fits in the specific study. The
scales exhibiting reliability values of greater than 0.7 can be accepted straightaway. The
cronbach alpha for all three commitment scales was consistent with previous studies
(Meyer & Allen, 1984; Meyer et. al, 1989). It can therefore be concluded that the
constructs are reliable for exploratory research purposes as illustrated by Table 4.4.
81
Table 4.4
Reliability Coefficients for the major variables
Variable Number of items Cronbach Alpha
Nurturant Task + Participative (NTP) 9 .89
Autocratic 6 .60
Affective Commitment (AC) 3 .84
Continuance Commitment (CC) 4 .73
Normative Commitment (NC) 5 .86
4.4 Descriptive Analysis
4.4.1. Descriptive Analysis of Leadership Behaviour
It was observed that between two leadership behaviours that are being investigated, the
respondents viewed their superior to behave more on nurturing task and participative as
compared to autocratic. However both behaviour are considered high and acceptable by
the employees.
4.4.2 Descriptive Analysis of Organizational Commitment
However with regards to this perceptions of leader’s behaviour, employees felt that their
identification and emotionally attached with the organization which was represented by
affective commitment was relatively low. This indicates that, there were an inverse
relations between nurturing task and participative with their identification and attachment
with the organizations. Normative commitment was perceived to be indulged the most
by the respondents followed by continuance commitment. Normative component refers to
employees’ feelings of obligation to remain with the organization or being loyal to the
82
organizations. Standard deviations were noticed to be small which represents that the data
are well dispersed and closely distributed to the mean. Table 4.5 illustrates the findings.
Table 4.5
Descriptive for the major variables
Variable Mean Standard Deviation
Nurturant Task + Participative (NT+P) 3.5884 .66382
Autocratic 3.4590 .52479
Affective Commitment (AC) 2.4742 .86702
Continuance Commitment (CC) 3.3108 .71884
Normative Commitment (NC) 3.5149 .71815
4.5 Intercorrelations among variables
It has been evidenced that, there is a significant (p<0.01) positive correlation between
NTP with NC and CC, however it was noticed that the relationship between NTP and AC
was significantly negative correlated (p= 0.13). The correlation with autocratic style of
leadership is also significant (p<0.01) between the relationship with NC and CC,
however there is no significant relationship (p=0.158) between autocratic and AC. Table
4.6 present the intercorrelations among variables being investigated.
83
Table 4.6
Intercorrelations among variables
NTP Autocratic NC AC CC
NTP 1
Autocratic .053 1
NC .361** .257** 1
AC -.130* .074 -.091 1
CC .197** .217** .547** .020 1
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
4.6 Regression Analysis
Leadership Behaviour variables were computed based on two separate independent
variables of Nurturant Task + Participative (NTP) and autocratic variables to see each
effect on commitment.
On the dependent variables side, each organizational commitment were included and
tested separately based on the factor loadings that has been performed earlier. In addition
to that, all three variables were computed together to create an organizational
commitment variable to see the entire interactions and to support the hypotheses that has
been developed earlier.
Overall, both independent variable of Leadership Behaviour were significant on
organizational commitment with p<0.01 and together explained 10.4 % on Organizational
84
Commitment. Other factors remain unexplained. The findings of hypotheses are as
follows :
4.6.1 Regression between Leadership Behaviour and Affective Commitment
Leadership behaviour of NTP showed negative significant relationship on Affective
commitment with p <0.05, however Autocratic leadership showed no significant
interaction (p>0.05). Leadership behaviour only explained R2 change of 2.4 % (p<0.05)
on Affective Commitment which is very low. Relatively, even though this amount is
significant, however it is observed that other factor contributes more than leader
behaviour in explaining the low affective commitment in the co-operatives. In this
scenario, it showed that affective commitment is low when NTP is high, which may be
explained perhaps by the literature that affective commitment depends on the attitude of
the employees whether their personal goal are congruent with the organizational goals.
In this case, employees who achieve affective commitment are most probably
independent individuals who are confident enough to determine their future. Overbearing
and supportive leadership style will negatively affect them. Autocratic on the other hand,
does not give any interactions with the needs of feeling affectionate in the co-operatives.
Thus this findings explored that leadership behaviour has minimum interactions on
affective commitment of employees.
85
4.6.1.a Hypotheses Results of the Relationship between Leadership Behaviour and
Affective Commitment
H1a: There is a positive significant relationship between Nurturant Task (NT) style and
affective commitment
Nurturant task is said to promote affective commitment where it can escalate the
affectionate and involvement of employees in co-operatives. However results has
shown that leadership of Nurturant Task style is inconsistent with their emotional
attachment. Thus :
Findings = H1a is rejected (p < 0.05)
H1b: There is a significant positive relationship between Participative style and
affective commitment
Participative style was hypothesized to be positive related with affective
commitment. However, results have shown that there is a mismatch between their
emotional attachments with this types of leadership. Thus:
Findings = H1b is rejected (p<0.05)
86
H1c: There is a significant negative relationship between Autocratic style and affective
commitment
Autocratic was presumed to be hypothesized as providing negative directions to
affective commitment. However in this study, it was shown that autocratic does
not portray any relationship with affective commitment. Thus
Findings = H1c is rejected (p >0.05)
4.6.2 Regression between Leadership Behaviour and Continuance Commitment
NTP and Autocratic showed significant explanation on Continuance Commitment with
R2 change of 8.2 % (p<0.01). Employees perceived that both style are relevant to
promote to their continuance commitment behaviour in co-operatives which lead to the
rejection of negative autocratic behaviour on the early assumptions. The findings of this
regression showed that there are other 91.8% unexplained factors that contribute to
continuance commitment.
87
4.6.2.a Hypotheses Results of the Relationship Between Leadership Behaviour and
Continuance Commitment
H2a: There is a significant positive relationship between Nurturant Task (NT) style and
continuance commitment
Nurturant Task of leadership style is another element where employees believe it
can support their continuity with the co-operative. Thus :
Findings = H2a is accepted (p<0.01)
H2b: There is a significant positive relationship between Participative style and
continuance commitment
Participative style of leadership was found to be positive significant with
continuance commitment. The findings showed that employees believed
participative style can contribute to their continuance in the co-operatives. Thus
Findings = H2b is accepted (p<0.01)
88
H2c: There is a significant negative relationship between Autocratic style and
continuance commitment
Autocratic leaders who have direct control was earlier presumed to be negative
relationship on continuance. However, the results showed otherwise. Employees
believe that the existence of autocratic is important for their continuity. Thus:
Findings = H2c is rejected (p<0.01)
4.6.3 Regression between Leadership Behaviour and Normative Commitment
Both NTP and Autocratic showed significant explanation on Normative Continuance
with R2 change of 18.7 % (p<0.01). This shows that employees perceived the needs of
having both NTP and Autocratic style of leadership to be loyal in the co-operatives.
However there are other 82.3% unexplained factors that contribute to normative
commitment.
89
4.6.3.a Hypotheses Results of The Relationship Between Leadership Behaviour and
Normative Commitment
H3a: There is a significant positive relationship between Nurturant Task (NT) style and
normative commitment.
Leaders who nurture their employees and at the same time ensuring task to be
completed was found to be stimulating the interests of employees to stay with the
organizations. The results showed the same direction. Thus :
Findings = H3a is accepted (p<0.01)
H3b: There is a significant positive relationship between Participative style and
normative commitment
Participative style of leadership was found to be contributing to employee’s
loyalty towards their organizations. Thus:
Findings = H3b is accepted (p<0.01)
90
H3c: There is no significant negative relationship between Autocratic style and
normative commitment
Autocratic leaders was said to reduce the commitment of employees. However in
this finding, it showed inverse relations where employees perceived that there is a
need of autocratic style for them to be loyal. Thus:
Findings = H3c is rejected (p<0.01)
Based on the analysis of regressions, it was observed that mixed results of behaviour
resembles significant association with organizational commitment. This means that in
every level of commitment, employee perceive the needs of having the existence both
leadership behaviour to perform their duties in the organizations. Thus the early
assumptions that autocratic was hypothesized to be negative correlated was rejected then
to this acceptance of employees on this leadership style. However, it is noticed that there
were negative relationship between NTP and AC which remarked that the higher the
leader’s portrayed nurturing task and participative, the lower the affective commitment
that are going to be displayed by the employees.
The other observation was that even though AC was not affected by Autocratic
behaviour, on the other hand the overall Organizational Commitment were explained by
higher autocratic type of behaviour as compared to NTP. This relates to autocratic
explained more on employee’s commitment. This scenario was also noted in accordance
91
with the high level of mean on NTP and low mean on affective commitment as discussed
earlier. Table 4.7 exhibit the results of regression analysis.
Table 4.7
Results of regression Analysis
AC NC CC OC
Beta
NTP
Autocratic
-1.75*
1.34
.377**
.326**
.201**
.284**
.134**
.248**
F Value
R2
Adjusted R2
4.320*
.024
.018
41.319**
.187
.183
15.978**
.082
.077
20.876**
.104
.099
* p<0.05, ** p < 0.01
NT+P = Nurturant Task + Participative
AC = Affective Commitment
NC = Normative Commitment
CC = Continuance Commitment
OC = Organizational Commitment
92
4.7 Hierarchical regression Analysis With Tenure As Moderator
The findings of the hierarchical regression are as follows:
H4a: The effect of NTP on affective commitment is greater among new employees
compared to experienced employees.
NTP style on affective commitment can instil greater commitment among new
employees. However the results of the findings showed that there is no significant
effect of this relationship. Thus
Findings = H4a is rejected (p>0.05)
H4b: The effect of NTP on normative commitment is greater among new employees
compared to experienced employees
This study has showed that NTP has greater effect among new employees as
compared to experienced employees. Employees will increase their commitment,
if the leaders possess high NTP and visa versa. Thus:
Findings= H4b is accepted (p<0.05*)
93
H4c: The effect of NTP on continuance commitment is greater among new employees
compared to experienced employees
New employees find it there is a necessity to stay with the organizations, if the
leaders posses high NTP on them. Thus:
Findings= H4c is accepted (p<0.01**)
H4d: The effect of Autocratic on affective commitment is greater among new
employees compared to experienced employees.
Autocratic style of leadership has found not to be significant to ensure the
affective commitment among new employees. Thus:
Findings= H4d is rejected (p>0.05)
H4e: The effect of Autocratic on normative commitment is greater among new
employees compared to experienced employees
Findings lead to autocratic style of leadership has no significant effect on
normative commitment among new employees. Thus:
Findings= H4e is rejected (p>0.05)
94
H4f: The effect of Autocratic on continuance commitment is greater among new
employees compared to experienced employees
Autocratic style does not contribute to the continuance commitment among new
employees. Thus:
Findings= H4f is rejected (p>0.05)
95
4.7.1 Moderating Effect of Tenure between Leaders Behaviour and Normative
Commitment
There is a significant moderating effect of tenure (p < 0.05) in the relationship between
leader’s behaviour and normative commitment. Based on Table 4.8 and Figure 4.1, it is
clear that NTP has greater effect among new employees compared to experienced ones.
This is especially obvious in situation where the leader has low NTP. When a leader
displays low NTP, normative commitment among new employee is much lower than
experienced employees. As the leader increases the NTP, the commitment level of new
employees increase as well.
4.7.2 Moderating Effect of Tenure Between Leaders Behaviour and Continuance
Commitment
The moderating effect of tenure is also significant (<0.01) in the relationship between
leaders and continuance commitment. Based on Table 4.9 and Figure 4.2, it can be
simplify that NTP has greater effect among new employees as compared to experienced
employees. Again, the situation is obvious in situation where the leader exhibit low NTP.
When leaders displays low NTP, continuance commitment among new employees will is
much lower than experienced workers. As the leader increases the NTP level, the
commitment level of new employees increase dramatically.
96
On the other hand, it was evidenced that autocratic style of leadership does not contribute
to any of the commitment of employees. Thus it can be concluded that for employees to
be loyal to the organization and continue servicing their effort, NTP style of leadership
are more dominant than autocratic. Employees perceived that leaders who have high NTP
style will reflect more conducive environment by supporting the employees to progress
their career stage.
97
Coefficientsa
1.034 .286 3.614 .000
.377 .052 .349 7.319 .000
.326 .065 .238 4.997 .000
1.120 .291 3.842 .000
.377 .051 .349 7.326 .000
.320 .065 .234 4.904 .000
-.104 .070 -.071 -1.483 .139
1.731 .451 3.835 .000
.235 .083 .217 2.821 .005
.291 .100 .213 2.924 .004
-1.098 .582 -.745 -1.886 .060
.228 .106 .579 2.159 .031
.050 .131 .120 .382 .702
(Constant)
NTP
autocratic
dummytenure
NTPdummytenure
autocraticdummytenure
(Constant)
NTP
autocratic
dummytenure
NTPdummytenure
autocraticdummytenure
(Constant)
NTP
autocratic
dummytenure
NTPdummytenure
autocraticdummytenure
Model
1
2
3
B Std. Error
UnstandardizedCoefficients
Beta
StandardizedCoefficients
t Sig.
Dependent Variable: NCa.
Table 4.8
Hierarchical Regression Results Using Tenure as a Moderator in the Relationship
between Leadership Behaviour and Normative Commitment
*p <0.05, **p<0.01
98
Nurturant Task + Participative
HighModerateLow
No
rma
tiv
eC
on
tin
ua
nc
e
3.80
3.60
3.40
3.20
3.00
2.80
Experienced
Newly Employed
Tenure
Figure 4.1
Moderating Effect of Tenure on the Relationship between Tenure on NTP and
Normative Commitment
99
Table 4.9
Regression Results Using Tenure as a Moderator in the Relationship between
Leaders Behaviour and Continuance Commitment
Coefficientsa
1.605 .304 5.273 .000
.201 .055 .186 3.671 .000
.284 .069 .208 4.099 .000
1.636 .311 5.265 .000
.201 .055 .186 3.665 .000
.282 .070 .206 4.055 .000
-.038 .075 -.026 -.513 .608
2.547 .475 5.360 .000
-.062 .088 -.057 -.706 .481
.292 .105 .213 2.788 .006
-1.498 .613 -1.015 -2.443 .015
.423 .111 1.073 3.804 .000
-.017 .138 -.042 -.126 .900
(Constant)
NTP
autocratic
dummytenure
NTPdummytenure
autocraticdummytenure
(Constant)
NTP
autocratic
dummytenure
NTPdummytenure
autocraticdummytenure
(Constant)
NTP
autocratic
dummytenure
NTPdummytenure
autocraticdummytenure
Model
1
2
3
B Std. Error
UnstandardizedCoefficients
Beta
StandardizedCoefficients
t Sig.
Dependent Variable: CCa.
*p <0.05, **p<0.01
100
Nurturant Task + Participative
HighModerateLow
Co
nti
nu
an
ce
Co
mm
itm
en
t
3.60
3.40
3.20
3.00
Experienced
Newly Employed
Tenure
Figure 4.2
Moderating Effect of Tenure on the Relationship between Tenure on NTP and
Continuance Commitment
101
4.8 Hypotheses Results in Summary
Hypothesis testing is summarized based on the above findings. Table 4.10 exhibit the
hypotheses results in summary of the correlations. Prior to the results, the early
assumptions of autocratic were to have negative relationship on most of commitment.
However it was observed that the findings have remarked autocratic as part of leadership
behaviour and it has been accepted by the employees as another style apart from NTP
that can contribute to their commitment. Thus most of autocratic hypotheses has been
rejected due to this acceptance.
Table 4.11 exhibits the summary of tenure as moderating factor on the relationship
between leadership behaviour and organizational commitment. It was found out to be that
new employees will chart up their continuance and normative commitment if they found
their leaders to possess high level of NTP and otherwise if the NTP is low. Autocratic
leaders have found not to be significant with employees commitment. On the other hand,
leader’s style of NTP does not contribute to employee’s affective commitment. Thus
NTP style does not promote to any involvement and identification with co-operatives.
102
Table 4.10Hypotheses Results in Summary
Variables NurturantTask
Participative Autocratic
AffectiveCommitment
H1aReject
(p<0.05)
H1bReject
(p<0.05)
H1cReject
(p>0.05)
ContinuanceCommitment
H2aAccept
(p<0.01)
H2bAccept
(p<0.01)
H2cReject
(p<0.01)
NormativeCommitment
H3aAccept
(p<0.01)
H3bAccept
(p<0.01)
H3cReject
(p<0.01)
Table 4.11Hypotheses Results in summary of the effect of Tenure Between The Relationship of
Leadership Behaviour and Organizational Commitment
Item AC NC CC
NTP
Autocratic
H4a
Reject
(p>0.05)
H4d
H4b
Significant
(p<0.05)
H4e
H4c
Significant
(p<0.01)
H4f
Reject Reject Reject
(p>0.05) (p>0.05) (p>0.05)
103
CHAPTER 5: Discussions
5.1 Leadership Behaviour and Organizational Commitment
The findings have suggested that there is a significant relationship between leadership
behaviour and organizational commitment. Thus the present study also supported the
findings made in previous similar research (Kraut, 1970; Newman, 1974; Alley & Gould,
1975; Porter, Campon & Smith, 1976; Gilsson & Durick, 1988; Savery, 1994; Zeffane,
1994; Wilson, 1995; Agarwal, De Carlo, & Yyas, 1999 ; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990 ; Mc
Neese – Smith 1999 ; Rai & Sinha 2000 ; Yousef 2002; Bycio, Hackett & Allen,1995;
Tosi & Tosi 1970; Decotiis & Summer, 1977).
It was evidenced that the Affective Commitment scored the lowest mean among all
commitment and the relationship with leaders’ behaviour was significant but only
explained 2.4 % on this commitment. Thus the effect of leaders behaviour on affective
commitment tends to be very weak which explained that there are other 97.6% factors
that contributed to affective commitment were still remain unexplained. Low conditions
on Affective Commitment would suggest that the work experiences do not satisfy the
employees need to be comfortable with the organization and the employees felt that their
experiences in the organizations are not consistent with their expectations (Allen &
Meyer, 1990, p.4; Beck & Wilson, 1995). When employees are dissatisfied at work, they
are less committed and will look for other opportunities to quit. If opportunities are
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unavailable, they may emotionally or mentally “withdraw” from the organization. (Lok &
Crawford, 2003, Bullis & Bach, 1989; Cheney & Tompkins, 1987).
On the same note, it was evidenced that NTP has significant negative relationship with
affective commitment (p<0.05). Thus, it can be concluded that, when employees
increases their emotional attachment with co-operatives, they prefer leaders to maintain
low NTP style. This situation is rather unique and needs leaders’ careful attention on why
this situation happened. According to Bass (1985), leaders who accompanied their task
with clarification and encouragement might contribute to employees’ perceptions about
their supervisors relations oriented leadership behaviours and their commitment to the
organizations. However, if employees perceived that leaders who accompanied their task
style based on disapproval or reprimand, it might detract from employee’s perception
about their supervisor’s relations oriented leadership behaviours or detract from
organizational commitment. The recognition of their work and status within the
organization helps meet the employees’ socio-emotional needs, that is, their needs for
esteem, approval and affiliation (Shore & Shore, 1995; Eisenberger, Huntingdon,
Hutchinson & Sowa, 1986 ; Robinson, Kraatz, & Rousseau, 1994).
Thus, at times when leaders nurture their employees, it is important to take into
consideration on the value of the relationship that is developed on that point of time
especially when employees perform their tasks. Leaders may be able to improve their
task oriented leadership behaviour by using language that is both clarifying and
encouraging.
105
This may also seems to suggest that Raudsepp (1977) argues the employee’s attitude
towards their job is self-directing and they are normally quite happy when given limited
supervision. They know they are part of a team, but they still prefer the company to have
confidence in their capabilities so that they can earn greater independence.
Given the absence of significant relationship of autocratic on affective commitment
(p>0.05), it was not possible to conclude whether this leadership behaviour was perceived
as either contributing or detracting from employees perceptions about their supervisors
on organizational commitment.
Mowday et al. (1982) described affective commitment as ‘‘a mind-set in which
individuals consider the extent to which their own values and goals are congruent with
those of the organization’’ (p. 26). In this model, a person can become committed without
making an overt pledge; if a person develops sufficient set of strong and positive attitudes
or sense of goal congruence, then at some point that person is committed. Employees
will posses high affective commitment to their organizations as an exchange for the
rewards they received or the punishments avoided (Mottaz, 1988; Mowday et al., 1982).
Employee’s feelings and evaluations in social interactions flow from their assessments of
the fairness of their outcomes when dealing with others such as their leaders. (Adam
1965; Walster, Walster & Berscheid, 1978). If organizational outcomes are positive it is
inferred that everything is going well, including the management and supervision
(Greenberg, 2004). However, concerns about leadership qualities become more salient
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when organizational outcomes are perceived and experienced as unfavorable or more
negative. Organizations can shape how favorable personal outcomes are and one such
outcome important to employees is how fair or unfair the outcomes (e.g. Salary,
promotion, etc.) that they received, referred to distributive justice (Deutsch, 1985)
Under such circumstances in which outcomes are perceived as unfair, employees will be
motivated to attend more closely to how their direct supervisor or leader acts toward
them. In this process, employees will be focused on evaluating whether their leader is
motivated to promote their well-being and interest, their sense of attachment to the
organization, and to treat them in a respectful and just way (Brockner & Wiesenfeld,
1996; Tyler 1999).
To explain further on this relationship, Fuller, Barnett, Hester and Relyea (2003) refer to
Tyler’s (1999) social identity theory, according to which individuals feel recognized
within an organization when their employer values their contributions to the functioning
of the organization. Filling these needs contributes to building the employees’ social
identity, which in turn is likely to enhance their sense of belonging to and pride in the
organization (Meyer & Allen, 1991). Managers in particular can exert a crucial influence
on the individual’s willingness to work towards and accept organizational goals, and to
engage in discretionary effort (Bemowski, 1990).
This scenario can be further explained by Vroom’s Model of expectancy theory. Vroom's
(1964, 1995) recognizes the forces within individuals in the environment which affect an
107
individual's behaviour. It assumes that the employee can decide how much effort he puts
in, depending on his motivation, which equals the product of valence (attractiveness of a
reward), expectancy (how much a person believes that their effort will result in success)
and instrumentality (belief that success will lead to reward). Schein (1980) believes the
most important factor in determining an individual's motivation is the psychological
contract, defined as the set of expectations between an employee and some implicit
components of an organization, i.e. pay, dignity, opportunities. In return, the organization
demands loyalty and commitment.
Continuance commitment resumed to be high (p<0.01) due to the consideration that the
employees felt that they had invested considerable amount effort, time, and energy that
employees might forfeit by leaving the organization (Whitener & Walz, 1993 ; Allen &
Meyer, 1990; Lee 1992; Meyer, Bobocel & Allen, 1991) and they find it is better to stay
if there is lack of job transferability, skills and knowledge that the cost will be higher if
they leave the organizations (Becker, 1960) and it may disrupt the social relationship that
has been built with present organizations and it will increase new cost of making new
friends with new working associates (Becker, 1964). In this study, it was found that
experienced employees possessed high continuance commitment reflected by the high
level of mean as compared to new employees. However, new employees will increase
their continuance commitment if they found that leaders possess high NTP.
The highest commitment portrayed by the respondents are normative commitment
(p<0.01) where there is a need to exhibit high loyalty to their employers (Wiener, 1982)
108
due to the conditions of the receipts of benefits that they have obtained while remaining
in the current organizations (Scholl, 1981). This can be suggested that the employees of
co-operatives are loyal to their organizations. Experienced employees showed that they
are more loyal in these study due to the reflection of mean, however to inculcate these
commitment on new employees, leaders should possess high NTP.
The present study tries to propose if NTP leadership style is more dominant than any
other style. The findings of this research however lead to a mix style of leaders on
organizational commitment. It was observed that employees perceived their leaders as
possessing NTP type of leadership behaviour, and at the same time, autocratic leaders
was also significant in promoting the commitment of employees especially on the
continuance (p<0.01) and normative (p<0.01) type of commitment. This seems to
suggest that both the NTP and autocratic style of leadership are well accepted and
expected by the employees and it finally leads to their commitment in the organizations.
The underlying reasons of why employees in co-operatives accepted both styles of
leaderships were perhaps due to the uniqueness of Malaysian culture as compared to the
Western countries. Here in Malaysia, for example as according to Asma (2002), observes
that “Malaysia has often been described as a mine field of cultural sensitivities due to its
diverse racial and ethnic composition. In explaining about culture, Hofstede’s (1980)
classic model found four dimensions of culture, namely power distance, individualism-
collectivism, masculinity-femininity and uncertainty avoidance.
109
Hofstede (1991) describes Malaysian culture as relatively high in power distance, high in
uncertainty avoidance and high in collectivism. Power distance is defined by Hofstede as
“the extent to which the members of a society accept that power in institutions and
organizations is distributed unequally” (1985, p. 348). The construct tends to be
identified in particular with the willingness of the less powerful members of a society to
accept their lower status and authority roles vis-à-vis the more power powerful members
(Adler, 1991). Specific to the organization context, members of high power distance
cultures are more likely to be accepting of, and comfortable with, structured authority
relationships than are members of low power distance cultures (Hofstede,1991).
Study by Hofstede (1991) also suggested that Malaysia is also high in terms of
uncertainty avoidance index. Uncertainty avoidance is referred to as “the society’s
tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. It try to reduce the possibility of such situations
by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures. According to him, Malaysia’s
combination of high scores on power distance and uncertainty avoidance will thus create
societies that are highly oriented with laws, rules, regulations and control in order to
minimize the amount of uncertainty. When this two dimension are combined, it creates a
condition where leaders have virtually ultimate power and authority and the rules, laws
and regulations developed by those in power, reinforce their own leadership and control.
This explanations suggested to the findings on why autocratic were also accepted by
employees in the co-operatives
Collectivism, according to Hofstede, “stands for a preference for a tightly knit social
framework in which individuals can expect their in-group to look after them, in exchange
110
for unquestioning loyalty” (Hofstede, 1980). This statement also is closely connected to
this research findings that normative commitment scores very high as compared to other
type of commitment. Normative commitment is referred to the conditions whereby
employees remain obligated with the organizations and it is also strongly connected to as
loyalty of the employees towards their employers. Abdullah (1992a, 1992b, 1996) noted
that Malaysian workers are group oriented, respect elders and hierarchy, emphasize
loyalty and consensus, conform to the wishes of a paternalistic leader and are concerned
with harmony in relationships. Malay or Bumiputra culture’s respect for the elders,
seniority, the values of a hierarchical society and, in part, the Muslim faith (Asma, 1996;
Hofstede, 1980; Renwick & Witham, 1997). According to the Malay adat (customs), age
and leadership is valued; the older person is respected; one respects one’s parents
(Norazit, 1998). Singelis, Triandis, Bhawuk, & Gelfand (1995) refer to this combination
of collectivism and high power distance as vertical collectivism. They describe it as a
culture within which one perceives themselves as part of a group while being accepting
of power/status inequalities within the group.
Based on the previous explanations, it is clear that co-operatives employees viewed their
leaders to behave in a mix leadership styles and it was accepted as this style was
significant to explain the normative and continuance commitment in the organizations.
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5.2 The Effect Of Tenure Between The Relationship of Leadership Behaviour
and Organizational Commitment
There appears to be some evidence that tenure and years of experience are positively
associated with commitment. Previous studies have indicated that position tenure
(Gregersen & Black, 1992; Mottaz, 1988) and organizational tenure (Mathieu & Hamel,
1989; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990) have positive effects on commitment.
It was evidenced that the moderating variables of tenure are significant on the normative
and continuance commitment to explain the relationship between leader’s behaviour and
organizational commitment. NTP leaders have earned favourable ratings on the
moderating evaluation rather than the autocratic one. This has supported the findings by
Ansari (1986, 1987, 1990), Ansari & Shukla (1987), Bhal & Ansari (2000) and Sinha
(1980, 1983, 1994).
It can be observed that NTP has greater effect among new employees as compared to
experienced employees on continuance commitment of (p<0.01) and normative
commitment of (p<0.05). It leads to the understanding that new employees will increase
their commitment, if their superior increased their NTP style from low to high.
Comparatively, experienced employees portrayed more stable condition on both the
continuance and normative commitment. Even if they perceived the leaders to be
possessing low NTP, both commitments, remain to be high. This means that, new
employees, due to the conditions of new working environment and having less of
112
experienced and low readiness, really appreciate leaders who could provide more
guidelines and be more supportive as compared to their older counterparts.
However it is also noticed that, both employees, new and experienced will prefer to
remain their commitment at the highest level, if they feel that the leaders were adopting
high NTP styles which seems to suggest that supportive management behaviours affect
organizational commitment (Porter et al., 1974; Mowday et al., 1982; Beck & Wilson,
1997; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990).
Experienced workers are thought to be more satisfied and committed, partially as a result
of their having better positions and also having cognitively justified their remaining in an
organization (Meyer & Allen, 1974). The length of service in an organization is
positively related to the level of internalization of organizational values, which results in
greater commitment from the individual (Allen & Meyer, 1990; Hellriegel, Slocum &
Woodman, 1995; O’Reilly, Chatman & Caldwell, 1991). Becker's (1960) argued that
over a period of time, certain costs accrue that make it more difficult for the person to
disengage from a consistent line of activity, namely, maintaining membership in the
organization. Working in the organization increases an individual's investments; hence,
the costs of leaving can lead to higher levels of OC. Super (1957) suggested that People
in the midcareer stage are more interested in developing stable work and personal lives
and in making strong commitments to work, family, and the community. People in the
late stage of their career are in a stage of relative tranquility. They are more oriented to
"settling down" and are less willing to relocate or leave the organization for purposes of
113
promotion. Thus, this may seems to suggest why experienced employees are more
committed (Alutto, Hrebiniak, & Alonso, 1973; Meyer & Allen, 1984; Sheldon, 1971).
Few factors may help to explain why new employees require high level of NTP styles
from their superior. According to Hersey and Johnson (1996), at the lower levels of
readiness, the leader needs to provide direction but with higher levels of readiness,
followers become responsible for task direction. There is no one best way to influence
people and leaders need to assess the readiness level and then use the appropriate
leadership style. Thus, it is the follower who dictates the most appropriate leader
behaviour.
On the other hand, Hersey and Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory (SLT),
suggested that leaders should adopt their style based on the maturity of the employees
and employees with different work characteristics will be more effective and productive
with different leadership styles (Tulgan, 1996)..
The basic assumption of Situational Leadership Theory is that leader task and
relationship behaviours are moderated by the level of follower readiness (Blank, Weitzel
& Green, 1990, p. 580). The appropriate amount of leader task and relationship behaviour
is determined by the level of follower readiness. As the level of follower readiness
changes the amount of leader task and relationship behaviour should change to match the
level of follower readiness.
114
Whyte (1988) on the other hand, suggested that the choice of leadership style depends on
the nature of the task, the power available to the leader, the experience of the employees,
the culture of the organization, the preferred style of the leader, the style preferred by
employees and time available for task completion
Blank et al. (1990) explained that as leader task and relationship behaviours match
follower readiness the “effectiveness” of this behaviour will be manifested in follower
performance and satisfaction with the leader (p. 584). A greater understanding of matches
would validate the theory and contribute to the understanding of situational leadership
behaviour.
Effective SL managers provide individual followers with differing amounts of direction
and support on different tasks and goals, depending on the follower’s developmental
level (Blanchard, Zigarmi & Nelson, 1993). For example, on a task new to a given
employee, the manager is advised to begin with more directives. A manager should start
with a (normally subjective) assessment of the follower’s developmental level on a
particular activity (Blanchard & Nelson, 1997). Leaders should be directing more the
effort of the individuals in this situation.
115
CHAPTER 6: Conclusion and Recommendations
Mixed results have been attained in this study in the attempt to explain which type of
leadership style is suitable with their employees. According to the past research and
literature review, no one method has been found to be very effective in all situations.
Based on the current investigations, both leadership styles are significant in promoting
employees commitment in the organizations, which means that leaders should be
sensitive towards the condition and readiness of the employees before applying any style
and understand that different leadership style is applicable to different types of
employees.
This finding has also lead to the understanding that, as a whole, high NTP styles can
encourage the participations of employees in terms of normative and continuance. This
has suggested that employees who perceived their leaders to be adopting high NTP styles,
would exhibit high loyalty and interest to remain with the organizations. This is of
course, an important issues to be addressed to. This suggests that newly employed staff
would step up their commitment if leaders have NTP, while on the other hand, the effect
is quite moderate on experienced workers. Thus leaders should understand this situation
deeply especially in encouraging new and talented people to be part of the co-operatives
family.
It was noticed that in co-operatives, while other commitment remains to be high, the
affective commitment recorded a remarkably low mean. In such a case, there is a
116
mismatch between the organizational values and employee’s values that employees in the
organizations felt that if other factors remain constant, the intention to stay will be
questionable. Thus, leaders should articulate strategies in order to stimulate the interest of
employees to be emotionally attached with the organizations.
Today’s working environment is very competitive and sustaining the organizational with
the support of employees who are attached with the organization, who feel happy to be
the part of the organizations family, who supports the overall goals and strategic
directions are very important. As an agent of the organizations, leaders have to look into
this matter seriously since having an employee who is not committed, will strand the
organizational phase of development in the future.
The Malaysian culture has created people who are very loyal to their superior and this
factor sounds good and promising. However taking this factor down to the organizational
extend, no organization will afford to bear the cost of having an employees who are loyal
to the organizations but on the order hand, the motives of loyalty is because they are
entrap to move to other places due to the high cost of leaving. Thus to stay put in the
organization without doing anything to promote to the best interest of the organizations is
considered disastrous. In the end, nothing good will result out of this kind of behaviour.
Keeping loyal employees but unproductive ones will harm the business in the long run.
Of course, these loyal employees will still be bombarded due to not be doing their jobs
well done.
117
The success of business is not only having a good and clear vision, but are based on the
overall commitment and positive work attitude of the employees who feel involved,
accepting and expecting that the overall organizational problem are also part of their own
problem. So, keeping loyal employees who gets their pay at the end of the moment is not
enough. This situation is very alarming and something must be done to rectify this
problem.
Three elements of organizational commitment that were discussed in the research paper
are very important since it described a unique characteristic that each commitment holds.
Combining these three elements will not only create employees that are responsible
towards their organization but eventually help the organizations to grow. Organization
should not only depend on individuals who “needs” and “ought” to stay but specifically it
is very important to have employees who feel that they emotionally want to stay in the
organization without any factors influencing the decisions. Thus leaders should play
important roles to create the scenario that people want and feel comfortable to work
within the organizations. Some of the recommendations that leaders can play are:
1. Understanding the needs of each individual in the organizations
If each individual needs has been satisfied, this will lead them to be committed in the
organization. It is unlikely that employees will be committed for any reason where
leaders are not attuned to their needs. Employees might also feel they are thankful and
owe to their superior’s for having fulfilling some of the employees needs.
118
2. Leaders should not rely solely on a single leadership style
This research also suggested that, both NTP and autocratic style was accepted by the
employees and was found to be significant. However, leaders should not only base their
styles to only one style that they prefer. There is a necessity to adopt different leadership
style depending on several other situational factors that comes into hand, for example, the
readiness of the employees in terms of a given task, the skills and knowledge of the
employees, the familiarity of the task, the burden of work loads to the extend of social
interactions among leaders and their employees. Of course, if the employees find the
superior to be considerate in certain situations, they might feel delighted to be committed.
3. Consider effective HRM practices
Employees will feel satisfied if their effort is being recognized by the employees.
Satisfied employees will in turn be committed to work harder in the organizations,
realizing to the fact that they will receive something in return for the effort and hard work
given. Rewards do not necessarily mean financial investments, however a small thanks or
smile can also bring a lot of meaning to other people
119
4. Improvement on Leadership skills
Leaders should also consider on improving their leadership skills in order to create better
working relationship with employees and conducive non tension environment in
particular to the employee’s perceptions.
5. Transition from a more traditional, hierarchical structure to a more team-
based structure
The nature of work is changing, every thing should be done in an effective manner,
decisions have to be made precisely and speed is necessary to keep pace with any
changes. This context requires more innovations and creativity and individual thought.
To enhance the motivation and commitment, every individual should have the
opportunity to express their idea and leaders should try to develop the skills, potential and
abilities of every employee.
6. More attention to early employment experiences
From this study, it was observed that new employees would increase their commitment to
be loyal and continue to work in the organizations if they perceive their leaders to be
supportive as compared to more stable pattern of commitment among experienced
employees. Thus, manager should pay close attention to this early employment to help
them increase their experiences and generate their commitment in co-operatives.
120
6.1 Recommendations for Future Research
Future research should attempt to investigate other factors that can increase co-operatives
employees’ organizational commitment, for example, organizational climate, salaries
empowerment and such.
Research is also needed to investigate further on why affective commitment was
considered low in co-operatives societies. To date, no research has been tested on
explaining the commitment of co-operatives employees.
Research is also welcome in the areas of different industries as a comparison with co-
operatives to measure the level of differences whether the level of commitments have any
similarities with co-operatives.
Research is also recommended on the area of examination of the relationship of
distributive justice and employees’ organizational commitment. This is to see whether
employees commitment especially the affective commitment in the organization has
positive relationship with the outcome that they received.
One limitation of most OC research is that it has measured commitment at a single point
in time during employment. Therefore, to measure the consistency of commitment in co-
operatives, new way of looking at OC should be introduced for example, conducting
surveys after respondents has reached certain ages. Thus comparisons can be done at
121
times when the employees join the organization and when they reach certain experience
level in the organizations. Longitudinal studies can capture OC over time.
6.2 Implications
This research will benefit the co-operative societies in understanding the current practice
of the employees towards the organizations. Following this, perhaps co-operatives can
develop strategic roles in maintaining commitment of their employees in the future to
help the employees to grow along with the organizations. Various proactive roles can be
done to ensure the commitment of employees as discuss above especially in terms of
revising, updating and/or making necessary changes to the current HRM practices in the
organizations.
This study is also beneficial to co-operatives leaders in understanding the different types
of leadership styles and the necessity of adopting suitable style based on the employee’s
readiness.
Finally, this study is also dedicated to co-operatives training institutions to further
develop courses that are relevant to enhance the leadership skills in managing employees
and encouraging employees to progress their careers in co-operatives societies.
122
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140
APPENDIX A : DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE
Gender
128 35.4
234 64.6
362 100.0
male
female
Total
Frequency Percent
Age
11 3.0 3.0 3.0
193 53.3 53.3 56.4
101 27.9 27.9 84.3
47 13.0 13.0 97.2
10 2.8 2.8 100.0
362 100.0 100.0
less than 20 years
21 - 30 years
31-40 years
41 - 50 years
more than 51
Total
Valid
Frequency Percent Valid PercentCumulative
Percent
Race
351 97.0 97.0 97.0
3 .8 .8 97.8
8 2.2 2.2 100.0
362 100.0 100.0
malay
chinese
indian
Total
Valid
Frequency Percent Valid PercentCumulative
Percent
Marital status
168 46.4 46.4 46.4
194 53.6 53.6 100.0
362 100.0 100.0
single
married
Total
Valid
Frequency Percent Valid PercentCumulative
Percent
141
Education level
2 .6 .6 .6
6 1.7 1.7 2.2
187 51.7 51.7 53.9
26 7.2 7.2 61.0
78 21.5 21.5 82.6
43 11.9 11.9 94.5
15 4.1 4.1 98.6
5 1.4 1.4 100.0
362 100.0 100.0
primary school
srp/pmr
mce/spm/spmv
hsc/stpm
diploma
degree
post graduate
others
Total
Valid
Frequency Percent Valid PercentCumulative
Percent
Current job position
258 71.3 71.3 71.3
3 .8 .8 72.1
64 17.7 17.7 89.8
13 3.6 3.6 93.4
10 2.8 2.8 96.1
14 3.9 3.9 100.0
362 100.0 100.0
administrative/clerical
technician
executive/senior executive
assistant manager
manager/senior manager
others
Total
Valid
Frequency Percent Valid PercentCumulative
Percent
Tenure
148 40.9 40.9 40.9
75 20.7 20.7 61.6
39 10.8 10.8 72.4
100 27.6 27.6 100.0
362 100.0 100.0
less than 3 years
4 - 6 years
7 - 10 years
more than 10 years
Total
Valid
Frequency Percent Valid PercentCumulative
Percent
142
Co-op establishment
42 11.6 11.6 11.6
35 9.7 9.7 21.3
285 78.7 78.7 100.0
362 100.0 100.0
less than 10 years
11-15 years
16 years
Total
Valid
Frequency Percent Valid PercentCumulative
Percent
143
APPENDIX B : FACTOR ANALYSIS
Factor Analysis For Leadership Behaviour
KMO and Bartlett's Test
.894
1738.704
105
.000
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of SamplingAdequacy.
Approx. Chi-Square
df
Sig.
Bartlett's Test ofSphericity
Rotated Component Matrixa
.721
.672
.685
.743
.639
.501
.782
.645
.684
.511
.795
.784
.749
.469
.656
P1
N1
p2
n2
f2
f3
p4
f4
p5
f5
p6
n6
p7
f8
f9
1 2
Component
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
Rotation converged in 3 iterations.a.
144
Factor Analysis For Organizational Commitment
KMO and Bartlett's Test
.835
1800.418
66
.000
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of SamplingAdequacy.
Approx. Chi-Square
df
Sig.
Bartlett's Test ofSphericity
Rotated Component Matrixa
.855
.887
.856
.435 .676
.736
.668
.700
.738
.778
.774
.860
.718
AC3
AC4
AC5
CC3
CC4
CC5
CC6
NC2
NC3
NC4
NC5
NC6
1 2 3
Component
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
Rotation converged in 5 iterations.a.
145
APPENDIX C : RELIABILITY ANALYSIS
Reliability Analysis Of Leadership Behaviour
Reliability Statistics
.894 9
Cronbach'sAlpha N of Items
Item-Total Statistics
28.59 29.102 .643 .884
28.94 28.723 .588 .888
28.62 29.814 .595 .887
28.63 28.704 .669 .882
28.75 27.187 .704 .879
28.72 29.168 .599 .887
28.91 27.315 .720 .877
28.60 28.208 .710 .878
28.61 28.953 .672 .882
P1
N1
p2
n2
p4
p5
p6
n6
p7
Scale Mean ifItem Deleted
ScaleVariance if
Item Deleted
CorrectedItem-TotalCorrelation
Cronbach'sAlpha if Item
Deleted
Reliability Statistics
.592 6
Cronbach'sAlpha N of Items
Item-Total Statistics
17.30 7.099 .390 .519
17.49 7.375 .289 .565
17.33 7.291 .371 .528
17.13 7.794 .290 .562
17.47 7.496 .257 .580
17.05 7.629 .387 .527
f2
f3
f4
f5
f8
f9
Scale Mean ifItem Deleted
ScaleVariance if
Item Deleted
CorrectedItem-TotalCorrelation
Cronbach'sAlpha if Item
Deleted
146
Reliability Analysis For Organizational Commitment
Reliability Statistics
.861 5
Cronbach'sAlpha N of Items
Item-Total Statistics
14.14 8.683 .685 .830
14.28 7.929 .724 .820
13.99 9.039 .618 .847
14.07 8.106 .761 .810
13.81 8.938 .610 .849
NC2
NC3
NC4
NC5
NC6
Scale Mean ifItem Deleted
ScaleVariance if
Item Deleted
CorrectedItem-TotalCorrelation
Cronbach'sAlpha if Item
Deleted
Reliability Statistics
.840 3
Cronbach'sAlpha N of Items
Item-Total Statistics
4.98 3.180 .700 .780
4.87 3.271 .732 .750
5.00 3.294 .678 .801
AC3
AC4
AC5
Scale Mean ifItem Deleted
ScaleVariance if
Item Deleted
CorrectedItem-TotalCorrelation
Cronbach'sAlpha if Item
Deleted
Reliability Statistics
.725 4
Cronbach'sAlpha N of Items
147
Item-Total Statistics
9.95 4.474 .605 .607
9.86 4.831 .604 .611
9.93 5.862 .359 .747
9.99 5.138 .502 .671
CC3
CC4
CC5
CC6
Scale Mean ifItem Deleted
ScaleVariance if
Item Deleted
CorrectedItem-TotalCorrelation
Cronbach'sAlpha if Item
Deleted
148
APPENDIX D : DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Descriptive Statistics
362 3.5884 .66382
362 3.4590 .52479
362 3.5149 .71815
362 2.4742 .86702
362 3.3108 .71884
NTP
autocratic
NC
AC
CC
N Mean Std. Deviation
149
APPENDIX E : CORRELATIONS BETWEEN VARIABLES
Correlations
1 .053 .361** -.130* .197**
.315 .000 .013 .000
362 362 362 362 362
.053 1 .257** .074 .217**
.315 .000 .158 .000
362 362 362 362 362
.361** .257** 1 -.091 .547**
.000 .000 .083 .000
362 362 362 362 362
-.130* .074 -.091 1 .020
.013 .158 .083 .706
362 362 362 362 362
.197** .217** .547** .020 1
.000 .000 .000 .706
362 362 362 362 362
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
NTP
autocratic
NC
AC
CC
NTP autocratic NC AC CC
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).**.
Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).*.
150
APPENDIX F : REGRESSION ANALYSIS BETWEEN VARIABLES
Model Summary
.153a .024 .018 .85915
Model1
R R SquareAdjustedR Square
Std. Error ofthe Estimate
Predictors: (Constant), autocratic, NTPa.
Coefficientsa
2.639 .379 6.970 .000
-.175 .068 -.134 -2.571 .011
.134 .086 .081 1.558 .120
(Constant)
NTP
autocratic
Model1
B Std. Error
UnstandardizedCoefficients
Beta
StandardizedCoefficients
t Sig.
Dependent Variable: ACa.
Model Summary
.286a .082 .077 .69075
Model1
R R SquareAdjustedR Square
Std. Error ofthe Estimate
Predictors: (Constant), autocratic, NTPa.
Coefficientsa
1.605 .304 5.273 .000
.201 .055 .186 3.671 .000
.284 .069 .208 4.099 .000
(Constant)
NTP
autocratic
Model1
B Std. Error
UnstandardizedCoefficients
Beta
StandardizedCoefficients
t Sig.
Dependent Variable: CCa.
151
Model Summary
.433a .187 .183 .64928
Model1
R R SquareAdjustedR Square
Std. Error ofthe Estimate
Predictors: (Constant), autocratic, NTPa.
Coefficientsa
1.034 .286 3.614 .000
.377 .052 .349 7.319 .000
.326 .065 .238 4.997 .000
(Constant)
NTP
autocratic
Model1
B Std. Error
UnstandardizedCoefficients
Beta
StandardizedCoefficients
t Sig.
Dependent Variable: NCa.
Model Summary
.323a .104 .099 .47557
Model1
R R SquareAdjustedR Square
Std. Error ofthe Estimate
Predictors: (Constant), autocratic, NTPa.
Coefficientsa
1.759 .210 8.395 .000
.134 .038 .178 3.560 .000
.248 .048 .260 5.197 .000
(Constant)
NTP
autocratic
Model1
B Std. Error
UnstandardizedCoefficients
Beta
StandardizedCoefficients
t Sig.
Dependent Variable: OCa.
152
APPENDIX G : Moderating Effect of Tenure between Leaders Behaviour and
Organizational Commitment
Moderating Effect of Tenure between Leaders Behaviour and ContinuanceCommitment
Coefficientsa
1.605 .304 5.273 .000
.201 .055 .186 3.671 .000
.284 .069 .208 4.099 .000
1.636 .311 5.265 .000
.201 .055 .186 3.665 .000
.282 .070 .206 4.055 .000
-.038 .075 -.026 -.513 .608
2.547 .475 5.360 .000
-.062 .088 -.057 -.706 .481
.292 .105 .213 2.788 .006
-1.498 .613 -1.015 -2.443 .015
.423 .111 1.073 3.804 .000
-.017 .138 -.042 -.126 .900
(Constant)
NTP
autocratic
dummytenure
NTPdummytenure
autocraticdummytenure
(Constant)
NTP
autocratic
dummytenure
NTPdummytenure
autocraticdummytenure
(Constant)
NTP
autocratic
dummytenure
NTPdummytenure
autocraticdummytenure
Model
1
2
3
B Std. Error
UnstandardizedCoefficients
Beta
StandardizedCoefficients
t Sig.
Dependent Variable: CCa.
153
Nurturant Task + Participative
HighModerateLow
Co
nti
nu
an
ce
Co
mm
itm
en
t
3.60
3.40
3.20
3.00
Experienced
Newly Employed
Tenure
154
Moderating Effect of Tenure between Leaders Behaviour and NormativeCommitment
Coefficientsa
1.034 .286 3.614 .000
.377 .052 .349 7.319 .000
.326 .065 .238 4.997 .000
1.120 .291 3.842 .000
.377 .051 .349 7.326 .000
.320 .065 .234 4.904 .000
-.104 .070 -.071 -1.483 .139
1.731 .451 3.835 .000
.235 .083 .217 2.821 .005
.291 .100 .213 2.924 .004
-1.098 .582 -.745 -1.886 .060
.228 .106 .579 2.1590.
03*
.050 .131 .120 .382 .702
(Constant)
NTP
autocratic
dummytenure
NTPdummytenure
autocraticdummytenure
(Constant)
NTP
autocratic
dummytenure
NTPdummytenure
autocraticdummytenure
(Constant)
NTP
autocratic
dummytenure
NTPdummytenure
autocraticdummytenure
Model
1
2
3
B Std. Error
UnstandardizedCoefficients
Beta
StandardizedCoefficients
t Sig.
Dependent Variable: NCa.
155
Nurturant Task + Participative
HighModerateLow
No
rma
tiv
eC
on
tin
ua
nc
e
3.80
3.60
3.40
3.20
3.00
2.80
Experienced
Newly Employed
Tenure
156
GRADUATE SCHOOL OF BUSINESSFACULTY OF BUSINESS
AND ACCOUNTANCYUNIVERSITY OF MALAYA
MAKTAB KERJASAMA MALAYSIA(KEMENTERIAN PEMBANGUNAN
USAHAWAN DAN KOPERASI)
JANUARY 1st , 2008
Dear Sir/Madam,
SURVEY ON CO-OPERATIVES
I am a training officer of the Business and Entrepreneurship Department at the Co-operative College of Malaysia. Currently, I am conducting the above mentioned researchas part of the fulfillment of the Master of Business Administration degree at the GraduateSchool of Business, University of Malaya. I would greatly appreciate your kind co-operation and assistance in filling up the attached survey form which may take less than10 minutes.
The aim of this research intends to investigate leadership and its contribution in co-operatives. The information that you give in this survey will be used only for academicpurposes and will be kept strictly confidential. Anonymity of individuals that respond tothis questionnaire is safely assured.
Thank you so much for your time and cooperation.
If you would like any further information on this research, feel free to contact me usingthe e-mail address or telephone number provided below.
Yours sincerely,
Norazlan HasbullahCGA 060004MBA StudentGraduate School of BusinessUniversity of Malaya
TRAINING OFFICERBusiness and Entrepreneurship Dept.Co-operative College of MalaysiaMobile Phone: 012-6356516E-mail: azlanpmc@yahoo.com
Supervised by :
Pn. Sharmila JayasingamLECTURERFaculty of Business And AccountancyUniversity of Malaya, Kuala LumpurE-mail: sharmila@um.edu.my
157
SURVEY FORM / BORANG SOAL-SELIDIK
BAHAGIAN B
Use the scale below to indicate your answers. Please tick ( √ ) in ONE box only for eachquestion.
(Sila gunakan skala berikut untuk menandakan jawapan anda. Sila tandakah ( √ ) hanyapada SATU kotak yang sesuai bagi setiap soalan.
Tandakan ( √ ) padajawapan yang paling
tepatNo. Your Opinion About Your Supervisor
Pandangan Anda Tentang Ketua Yang Menyelia Anda1 2 3 4 5
1 Often consults his/her workersSelalu berbincang dengan kakitangannya
2 Takes personal interest in the promotion of those workers who work hardSentiasa memberikan sokongan peribadi bagi kenaikan pangkat kakitanganyang kuat bekerja.
3 Keeps important information to himself/herselfMerahsiakan maklumat yang penting
4 Lets his/her workers solve problems jointlyMembenarkan kakitangannya menyelesaikan masalah bersama
5 Gladly guides and directs those workers who work hardSuka membimbing dan memberi tunjuk ajar kepada kakitangan yang kuatbekerja
6 Behaves as if power and prestige are necessary for getting compliance fromhis/her workersBertindak menggunakan kuasa dan prestij kerana merasakan ia adalah perluuntuk mendapatkan kepatuhan dari kakitangan
7 Mixes freely with his/her workersBergaul bebas dengan kakitangannya
8 Encourages his/her workers to assume greater responsibility on the jobMenggalakkan kakitangannya untuk memikul tanggungjawab kerja yanglebih besar
9 Thinks that not all workers are capable of being an executiveBerfikiran bahawa bukan semua pekerja berkemampuan menjadi eksekutif
1 2 3 4 5StronglyDisagree
Disagree Neutral Agree StronglyAgree
1 2 3 4 5Sangattidaksetuju
Neutral Setuju SangatSetuju
Tidak setuju
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10 Treats his/her workers as equalsMemberi layanan sama rata kepada semua kakitangannya
Tandakan ( √ ) padajawapan yang palingtepat
No. Your Opinion About Your SupervisorPandangan Anda Tentang Ketua Yang Menyelia Anda
1 2 3 4 511 Is kind only to those workers who work sincerely
Hanya baik terhadap kakitangan yang bekerja dengan ikhlas12 Is always confident of being right in making decisions
Selalu berkeyakinan bahawa keputusan yang beliau ambil adalah betul13 Goes by the joint decisions of his/her group
Menerima keputusan yang dibuat secara bersama14 Openly favors those who work hard
Secara terbuka menggemari mereka yang kuat bekerja15 Feels concerned about the feelings of his/her workers
Mengambil berat tentang perasaan kakitangannya16 Appreciates those workers who want to perform better
Menghargai kakitangan yang ingin memperbaiki prestasi kerja17 Makes it clear to his/her workers that personal loyalty is an important virtue
Menjelaskan kepada kakitangan bahawa kesetiaan adalah nilai yang penting18 Allows free and frank discussions whenever a situation arises
Membenarkan perbincangan secara terbuka dan jujur apabila masalahtimbul
19 Is very affectionate to hardworking workersMenyukai pekerja yang rajin
20 Does not tolerate any interference from his/her workersTidak membenarkan sebarang campur tangan daripada kakitangannya
21 Often takes tea/coffee with his/her workersSelalu menikmati minuman bersama kakitangannya
22 Goes out of his/her way to help those workers who maintain a high standardof performanceBertindak lebih dari biasa untuk membantu kakitangan yang mengekalkanprestasi kerja yang tinggi.
23 Believes that if he/she is not always alert there are many people who maypull him/her downMempercayai bahawa sekiranya beliau tidak peka, ramai orang akanmenjatuhkan beliau
24 Makes his/her workers feel free to even disagree with him/herMembenarkan kakitangan bebas menyuarakan pandangan yang bercanggahdengan beliau
25 Openly praises those workers who are punctualMemuji secara terbuka kakitangan yang menepati masa
26 Demands his/her workers to do what he/she wants them to doMengkehendaki kakitangan untuk melaksanakan seperti mana yang beliauinginkan
27 Is informal with his/her workersBersikap tidak formal dengan kakitangannya
28 Feels good when he/she finds his/her workers eager to learn
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Merasa seronok apabila mengetahui kakitangan ingin belajar sesuatu.
29 Has strong likes and dislikes for his/ her workersMempunyai perasaan yang kuat samaada menyukai atau tidak menyukaiseseorang kakitangan
30 I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this organization.Saya merasa amat gembira untuk bekerja selamanya di dalam organisasi ini.
31 I really feel as if this organization’s problems are my ownSaya merasakan masalah organisasi ini adalah masalah saya juga.
Tandakan ( √ ) padajawapan yang paling
tepatNo. Your Opinion About Your Supervisor
Pandangan Anda Tentang Ketua Yang Menyelia Anda1 2 3 4 5
32 I do not feel a strong sense of “belonging” to my organization.Saya tidak merasakan diri saya sebahagian daripada organisasi saya
33 I do not feel “emotionally attached” to this organizationSaya tidak merasakan pertalian emosi terhadap organisasi ini
34 I do not feel like “part of the family” at my organization.Saya tidak merasakan diri saya sebagai sebahagian daripada keluarga didalam organisasi saya
35 This organization has a great deal of personal meaning for meOrganisasi ini memberikan banyak makna peribadi terhadap diri saya
36 Right now, staying with my organization is a matter of necessity as much asdesireBuat masa ini, terus kekal di dalam organisasi ini adalah merupakankehendak dan keperluan bagi saya
37 It would be very hard for me to leave my organization right now , even if Iwanted to.Saya rasa sukar untuk meninggalkan organisasi saya walaupun saya mahu
38 I feel that I have too few options to consider leaving this organization.Saya merasakan saya mempunyai pilihan yang terhad untuk pertimbangkanmeninggalkan organisasi ini.
39 If I had not already put so much of myself into this organization, I mightconsider working elsewhere.Sekiranya saya tidak meletakkan sepenuh usaha dan tenaga di dalamorganisasi ini, mungkin saya akan pertimbangkan untuk bekerja ditempatlain.
40 One of the few negative consequences of leaving this organization would bethe scarcity of available alternatives.Salah satu kemungkinan buruk meninggalkan organisasi ini ialahkekurangan alternatif yang ada.
41 I do not feel any obligation to remain with my current employerSaya tidak merasakan sebarang tanggungjawab untuk kekal dengan majikansaya
42 Even if it were to my advantage, I do not feel it would be right to leave myorganization nowWalaupun saya akan menerima manfaat, saya merasakan saya tidak patutmeninggalkan organisasi saya sekarang.
43 I would feel guilty if I left my organization nowSaya akan merasa bersalah sekiranya saya meninggalkan organisasi sayasekarang.
160
44 This organization deserves my loyalty.Organisasi ini layak mendapatkan kesetiaan saya
45 I would not leave my organization right now because I have a sense ofobligation to the people in it.Saya tidak akan meninggalkan organisasi saya kerana saya merasabertanggungjawab terhadap pekerja di dalamnya
46 I owe a great deal to my organizationSaya terhutang budi terhadap organisasi saya
BAHAGIAN B
Respondent Background (Latar Belakang Responden)
Instruction : Please tick ( √ ) where appropriate.
Arahan: Sila tandakan ( √ ) dalam hanya SATU kotak yang sesuai atau isikan jawapan anda ditempat kosong yang disediakan.
1. Gender / Jantina:Male / Lelaki Female / Perempuan
2. Age / Umur:< 20 years 31 – 40 years21 – 30 years 41 – 50 years
> 51 years3. Race / Bangsa:
Malay (Melayu)Chinese(Cina)
Indian (India) Others (Lain-lain)
4. Marital status / Status Perkahwinan:Single (Bujang) Married (Berkahwin)
5. Education level / Tahap Pendidikan:Primary School(Sekolahrendah)
SRP/PMR MCE/SPM/SPMV HSC/STPM
DiplomaDegree (SarjanaMuda)
Post Graduate(Sarjana)
Other – please specify _____(Lain-lain-sila nyatakan)
6. Current job position / Status Jawatan Terkini:Administrative/Clerical(pentadbiran/perkeranian)
Assistant Manager(Penolong Pengurus)
Technician(juruteknik)
Manager/Senior Manager(Pengurus / Pengurus Kanan)
Executive/Senior Exec(Eksekutif / Eksekutif kanan)
Other – please specify __________(Lain-lain sila nyatakan)
7. How many years have you worked for your current employer?Tempoh (Lama) berkhidmat dengan majikan sekarang
< 3 years 4 – 6 years7 – 10 years >10 years
161
8. How long has your organization (co-operative) been established?Tempoh penubuhan organisasi (koperasi) ini (dalam tahun)
< 10 years 11 – 15 years > 16 years
9. Number of employees in your organization (koperasi) ?Bil pekerja yang berkhidmat di dalam organisasi (koperasi) ini
< 100 101 – 300301 – 500 > 501
- Thank You For Your Support And Co-operation –- Terima Kasih Atas Sokongan Dan Kerjasama Dari Anda -
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