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Learning and Transfer of Visual Anticipation in
Skilled Cricket Batsmen
By
John Brenton
MHumMovSportSci (Research); MSportCoach
This dissertation is presented for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Primary Supervisor: Dr. Sean Müller
Associate Supervisor: Dr. Alasdair Dempsey
School of Psychology and Exercise Science
Murdoch University
Perth, Western Australia
July 2018
2
STUDENT DECLARATION
I, John Brenton, do hereby declare that:
a) Except where due acknowledgement has been made, the work is that of the
candidate alone;
b) The work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify for
any other academic award;
c) The content of the thesis is the result of work which has been carried out since
the official commencement date of the approved research program;
d) Ethics procedures and guidelines have been followed.
Signed: Date: July 19, 2018
3
MANUSCRIPT DECLARATION
The co-authors of manuscript submitted as Chapter 2 “Is Visual-Perceptual or Motor
Expertise Critical for Expert Anticipation in Sport?” do hereby declare that:
a) Except where due acknowledgement has been made, the work is that of the
candidate alone;
b) The work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify for
any other academic award;
Name: Dr Sean Müller
Signed: Date: 2nd July 2018
4
MANUSCRIPT DECLARATION
The co-authors of manuscript submitted as Chapter 3 “Discrimination of Visual
Anticipation in Skilled Cricket Batsmen” do hereby declare that:
a) Except where due acknowledgement has been made, the work is that of the
candidate alone;
b) The work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify for
any other academic award;
Name: Dr. Sean Müller
Signed: Date: 2nd July 2018
Name: Dr. Akshai Mansingh
Signed: Date: 14th June, 2018
5
MANUSCRIPT DECLARATION
The co-authors of manuscript submitted as Chapter 4 “Visual-Perceptual Training
with Acquisition of the Observed Motor Pattern Contributes to Greater Improvement of
Visual Anticipation” do hereby declare that:
a) Except where due acknowledgement has been made, the work is that of the
candidate alone;
b) The work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify for
any other academic award;
Name: Dr. Sean Müller
Signed: Date: 2nd July 2018
Name: Dr. Alasdair Dempsey
Signed: Date: 2nd July 2018
6
MANUSCRIPT DECLARATION
The co-authors of manuscript submitted as Chapter 5 “Visual-perceptual training with
acquisition of the observed motor pattern improves anticipation and benefits batting average
in emerging expert batsmen.” do hereby declare that:
a) Except where due acknowledgement has been made, the work is that of the
candidate alone;
b) The work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify for
any other academic award;
Name: Dr Sean Müller
Signed: Date: 2nd July 2018
Name: Dr Allen Gregg Harbaugh
Signed: Date: 2nd July, 2018
7
MANUSCRIPT DECLARATION
The co-authors of manuscript submitted as Chapter 6 “Automated Vision Occlusion-
Timing Instrument for Perception-Action Research” do hereby declare that:
a) Except where due acknowledgement has been made, the work is that of the
candidate alone;
b) The work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify for
any other academic award;
Name: Dr Sean Müller
Signed: Date: 2nd July 2018
Name: Mr. Robbie Rhodes
Signed: Date: 21st June 2018
Name: Mr. Brad Finch
Signed: Date: 19th June 2018
8
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sincere thanks are expressed to Murdoch University for supporting this PhD research
with an APA Scholarship, without which the study would not have been possible. Special
thanks also to the Murdoch University School of Psychology and Exercise Science for your
financial assistance to allow undertaking of the PhD research. Finally, a big thankyou to
Murdoch University for the awarding of a Graduate Research Grant for assistance with travel
expenses to NASPSPA Conference – San Diego June 2017.
I would also like to extend my deepest gratitude to some special members of my
family, in particular my Aunty Rhonda McIlwain whose departing wish was I complete my
PhD, well Aunty R it is done! To my four daughters Olivia, Emily, Samantha and Nicola, I
know you have been confused and hurt at times during the undertaking of this project
however I can assure you the benefits of such a tough decision will flow into all our lives in
the years to come. To my Mum and Dad, thanks for your unconditional love and support
throughout some turbulent earlier years, hopefully you are looking down from above with a
smile on your face! Thanks also to my old friends, and the new ones I have made since
moving to Perth for the incredible support you have given me throughout this exciting,
challenging and busy time. Thank you also to all of the academic staff and post-graduate
students I have had the pleasure of meeting and studying with, thanks for keeping me young
at heart. It has been a privilege to be your representative on the School Board over the last
few years. Without your belief, counsel and humour, finishing this PhD thesis would have
been much more demanding, so thanks to everyone who helped me to maintain a degree of
sanity and manageability during the years of endeavour. In particular I would like to thank
Nathan, Aaron, Nikky, Jack, Shaun, Kieran, Khaya, Brittany, Faizal, Liam, Nardine,
Michelle, Mitch, and especially Karen, Min and Behnaz for making my time in the office at
Murdoch an extremely enjoyable one. Best wishes to you all in your future endeavours!
9
On the professional front, I would like to thank the following for providing support
during this PhD research. Dr. Akshai Mansingh, Board Member Jamaica and West Indies
Cricket for your invitation to, and hospitality in, Jamaica where the vital first experiment in
my thesis was performed. It was an amazing few days and I look forward to working with
you again in future. To the members of the Western Australian Cricket Association High
Performance Unit, in particular Morag Croser, thank you for your support and promotion of
my PhD research at the Premier Cricket Competition level, together with Luke Wimbridge at
Southern Cricket for his help in ‘opening doors’ with Premier cricket clubs and coaches. The
research would not have happened without the fantastic welcoming and backing from
Committees, Players and Coaching Staff of the Fremantle, Melville, Perth, Claremont -
Nedlands and Joondalup Cricket Clubs who allowed access during the playing seasons for
this PhD research. A big thankyou to Mr. Justin Langer OAM, Mr Geoff Marsh and Mr
Wayne Andrews and the WACA Cricket Squad for providing access to your professional
players as part of this PhD research, access to this quality of research participant is rare and I
thank you all for the trust you displayed by inviting me into the WACA family for a period of
time. The results we were able to obtain from working with your athletes helped to greatly
advance the knowledge in the field, knowledge which we are now able to return to you in the
form of leading edge training. Special thanks goes to the participants for their professionalism
and flexibility during the periods of data collection ensuring that this process was able to be
undertaken effectively and efficiently. Last but not least, a special thank you to Ms Heidi
Spicer, Mr Brad Finch, Robert Rhodes and Mark Coles at B3 Electronics in Perth for your
invaluable knowledge, time and assistance with the construction of our world-leading
occlusion timing equipment which has raised the bar in both reliability and accuracy for
occlusion laboratory and field testing.
10
In addition, I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to my co-supervisor Dr
Alasdair Dempsey for your invaluable contributions to this PhD research and it has been a
pleasure to work with you over my Masters and PhD studies. I wish you well in all your
future projects and it would be a pleasure to work with you again in the future.
Finally, a massive thankyou to Dr Sean Muller, who has again proven to be a fantastic
educator, leader, mentor and supporter throughout the duration of this PhD research. Sean it
has been a busy and challenging few years. It has been a real pleasure to work with you, I
could not have chosen a better person to further expand my interest and knowledge in the
exciting world of research. I sincerely hope we can continue to build on the solid partnership
and friendship we have formed over the last four years and I look forward to working with
you again in the future.
11
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS AND PRESENTATIONS RELEVANT TO THE THESIS
MANUSCRIPTS
Chapter 2
Brenton, J., & Müller, S. (2018). Is visual-perceptual or motor expertise critical for expert
anticipation in sport? Manuscript submitted for publication.
Chapter 3
Brenton, J., Müller, S. & Mansingh, A. (2016). Discrimination of visual anticipation in
skilled cricket batsmen. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 28, 483-488.
doi:10.1080/10413200.2016.1162225
Chapter4
Brenton, J., Müller, S., & Dempsey, A. (2018). Visual-perceptual training with acquisition of
the observed motor pattern contributes to greater improvement of visual anticipation.
Manuscript submitted for publication.
Chapter 5
Brenton, J., & Müller, S. (2018). Visual-perceptual training with acquisition of the observed
motor pattern improves anticipation and benefits batting average in emerging expert
batsmen. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Chapter 6
Brenton, J., Müller, S., Rhodes, R., & Finch, B. (2018). Automated vision occlusion-timing
instrument for perception-action research. Behavior Research Methods, 50, 228-235.
doi:10.3758/s13428-017-0864-z
12
ABSTRACTS
Brenton, J., Müller, S., & Dempsey, A. (2017). Training and transfer of visual anticipation in
skilled cricket batsmen (Supplemental material). Journal of Sport and Exercise
Psychology, 39, 117.
PRESENTATIONS
Brenton, J. (2015, July). Learning and transfer of visual anticipation in skilled cricket
batsmen [PowerPoint slides]. Confirmation of PhD candidature presented to an expert
reader, academics and post-graduate students from Murdoch University.
Brenton, J., Müller, S, & Dempsey, A. (2017, June). Training and transfer of visual
anticipation in skilled cricket batsmen. North American Society for the Psychology of
Sport and Physical Activity Oral Conference Presentation, San Diego California.
Brenton, J. (2017, July). Training and transfer of visual anticipation in elite cricket batsmen
[PowerPoint slides]. Presentation to High Performance Staff at Western Australian
Cricket Association.
Brenton, J. (2017, October). Training and transfer of visual anticipation in elite cricket
batsmen [PowerPoint slides]. Presentation to Mr. Justin Langer, Head Coach Western
Australian Cricket Association.
Brenton, J. (June, 2018). Learning and transfer of visual anticipation in skilled cricket
batsmen [PowerPoint slides]. PhD Pre-Submission Presentation to academics and
post-graduate students from Murdoch University
13
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Student Declaration……………………………………………………………………………2
Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………....8
List of Publications and Presentations Relevant to Thesis………………………………...…11
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………….13
List of Tables.....................................................................................................................…...18
List of Figures………….…………………………………………………………………….18
Summary of Research……………………………………………………………………......21
Structure of Thesis………………………………………………………………………..….23
CHAPTER 1
Introduction…………………………………………….…………………………………...24
References……………………………………………………………………………………29
CHAPTER 2………………………………………………………………………………...34
Literature Review Manuscript: Is Visual-Perceptual or Motor Expertise Critical for
Expert Anticipation in Sport?
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………34
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..35
Psychological theories of perceptual-motor behaviour……………………………………....37
Classification of studies that have investigated visual and motor contributions to visual
anticipation in sport ………………………………………………………………………….41
Behavioural evidence of visual and motor contributions to the performance of visual
anticipation in sport ……………………………………………………………………….....44
Behavioural evidence of visual and motor contributions to learning and transfer of visual
anticipation in sport…………………………………………………………………………..47
Future research and summary……………….………………….……………………………51
References…………………………………………………….…………………..………….53
14
CHAPTER 3………………………………………………………………………………...59
Experiment 1 Manuscript: Discrimination of Visual Anticipation in Skilled Cricket
Batsmen
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………....59
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..60
Method……………………………………………………………………………………….61
Participants…………………………………………………………….…………………......61
Materials and Procedure……………………………………………………………………...62
Analysis and Results…………………………………………..………………………….….63
Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………64
Practical Application, Conclusion and Future Research…………………………………..…66
References……………………………………………………………………………………68
CHAPTER 4………………………………………………………………………………...70
Experiment 2 Manuscript: Visual-Perceptual Training with Acquisition of the
Observed Motor Pattern Contributes to Greater Improvement of Visual Anticipation
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………70
Significance Statement……………………………………………………………………….71
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..72
Visual and motor contributions to anticipation…………………………………..…………..72
Motor simulation in anticipation……………………………………………………………..74
Methodologies and expert anticipation………………………………………………………75
Evidence of visual and motor contributions to anticipation…………………………………76
Experiment 1…………………………………………………………………………………80
Method…………………………………………………………………………………….....80
Participants………………………………………………………………….……….……….80
15
Experimental Design and Procedures……………………………….……………………….81
Test procedures………………………………………………………...…………………….82
Training procedures………………………………………………………………………….84
Dependent Measures and Statistical Analyses……………………………………………….86
Results and Discussion……………………………………………………………………….88
Pre- and post-tests………………………………………………………..……………….….88
Transfer tests…………………………………………………………………………………90
Performance in training sessions……………………………………………………………..92
Experiment 2………………………………………………………………………...……….94
Method…………………………………………………………………………………….....94
Participants………………………………………….…………………………………..……94
Experimental Design and Procedures………………………………………………………..95
Dependent Measures and Statistical Analyses……………………………………………….95
Results and Discussion……………………………………………………………………….96
Pre- and post-tests……………………………………………………………………………96
Transfer tests…………………………………………………………………………………97
Performance in training sessions……………………………………………………………..98
General Discussion…………………………………………………………………………...99
Visual and motor contributions to learning of anticipation…………………………………100
Visual and motor contributions to transfer of anticipation……………………………….…101
Advancement of theoretical knowledge…………………………………………………….103
Practical Application, Conclusion and Future Research……………………………………105
References………………………………………………………………….……………….108
16
CHAPTER 5………………………………………..……………………………………...118
Experiment 3 Manuscript: Visual-perceptual training with acquisition of the observed
motor pattern improves anticipation and benefits runs scored in emerging expert
batsmen
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………..118
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………120
Method.……………………………………………………………………………………..123
Results……………………………………………………………………………………....128
Discussion…………………………………………………………………………………..132
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………..136
Practical Implications……………………………………………………………………….136
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………....136
Conflict of Interest………………………………………………………………………….136
References…………………………………………………………………………………..137
Supplementary Figures……………………………………………………………………..141
CHAPTER 6…………………………………………………………………………..…...143
Manuscript: Automated Vision Occlusion Timing Instrument for Perception-Action
Research
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………..143
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………144
Method………………………………………………………………………..………….…147
Participants………………………………………………………………………………….147
Instruments………………………………………………………………………………….149
Procedure.…………………………………………………………………………………..153
Results………………………………………………………………………………………153
Discussion…………………………………………………………………………………..154
Summary…………………………………………………………………………………....158
17
References…………………………………………………………………………………..159
CHAPTER 7…………………………………………………………………………….…162
Conclusions, Implications, Limitations and Future Research..……………………………..162
Expertise Implications: ‘Having all the time in the world’…………………….……………163
Theoretical Implications…………………………………………………………………….164
Applied Implications………………………………………………………………………..167
Limitations and Future Research……………………………………………………………169
Summary……………………………………………………………………………………170
References…………………………………………………………………………………..171
18
LIST OF TABLES
Chapter 2
Table 1. Classification of studies that have investigated visual and motor contributions to
anticipation…………………………………………………………………………………...43
Chapter 4
Table 1. Experiment 1 Pre-Post-Test chance comparison t-tests for experimental groups...115
Table 2. Experiment 1 Transfer test chance comparison t-tests for experimental groups….116
Table 3. Experiment 2 Pre-Post-Test chance comparison t-tests…………………………..117
Table 4. Experiment 2 Transfer test chance comparison t-tests…………………………....117
LIST OF FIGURES
Chapter 3
Figure 1. Percent accuracy for overall ball types combined for the Test and First Class group
(highly skilled), senior club group (elite club), and representative group (elite youth) relative
to temporal occlusion conditions……………………………………………………………..64
Chapter 4
Figure 1(a). Still image of fast bowler ………………………………………………….....82
Figure 1(b). Still image of slow bowler…………………………………………….……….82
Figure 1(c). Point-light display image of fast bowler………………………………….........82
Figure 2. Experimental set-up for video-based occlusion tests and motor practice of
bowling…………………………………………………………………………………….....84
Figure 3. Mean accuracy percentage for visual-perceptual, visuomotor and control groups in
relation to temporal occlusion conditions and pre-post-test phases……………………….....89
Figure 4. Mean percentage accuracy of anticipation for the experimental groups across
temporal occlusion conditions for the fast (a) and slow (b) bowler transfer tests……………91
19
Figure 5. Performance curve for mean percentage prediction accuracy for the intervention
groups at the ball release temporal occlusion condition and mean motor pattern reproduction
for the visuomotor group relative to training sessions……………………………………….93
Figure 6. Mean percentage accuracy of anticipation for the visuomotor interference training
group across pre-post-test phases and temporal occlusion conditions…………………….…96
Figure 7. Mean percentage accuracy of anticipation for the visuomotor interference training
group across temporal occlusion conditions for the fast and slow bowler transfer
tests…………………………………………………………………………………………...98
Figure 8. Performance curve for mean percentage prediction accuracy at the ball release
temporal occlusion condition and mean motor pattern reproduction for the visuomotor
interference group relative to training sessions………………………………………………99
Chapter 5
Fig.1. Supplement. Still image example of point-light display of the fast bowler at the time
of ball release……………………………………………………………………………….141
Fig.2. Supplement. Still images of components across temporal sequence of the bowling
action. Video images are provided to allow ease of interpretation…………………………142
Fig.3. Mean overall percentage accuracy of anticipation for the experimental groups across
temporal occlusion conditions for pre- and post-test phases. Horizontal line indicates
guessing level of 33.33% and asterisks indicate prediction above guessing level. Error bars
indicate standard deviation…………………………………………………………………128
Fig.4. Mean overall percentage accuracy of anticipation for the experimental groups across
temporal occlusion conditions for the fast (a) and slow (b) bowler transfer tests. Horizontal
line indicates guessing level of 33.33% and asterisks indicate prediction above guessing level.
Error bars indicate standard deviation………………………………………………..129 - 130
20
Fig.5. Performance curve for percentage prediction accuracy for the visuomotor group at the
ball release temporal occlusion condition (response) and motor pattern reproduction accuracy
for the visuomotor group relative to training sessions. Note, session one involves video
training and sessions two to eight involve point-light display training……………………..131
Chapter 6
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of the instrument set-up for one of the tests that was conducted
with a cricket bowler…………………………………………………………………….….148
Figure 2. Transmitter tower lasers mounted vertically on a stand……………………..…..149
Figure 3. The unit that controls the laser curtain, light emitting diode and wireless driver
controller (connected to PLATO spectacles driver)………………………………………..150
Figure 4. The driver that controls the vision occlusion spectacles through wireless
communication with the control unit……………………………..………………………...152
Figure 5. Cumulative instrument time delays for laser curtain, control unit, light emitting
diode, driver controller and vision occlusion spectacles……………………………………157
21
SUMMARY OF RESEARCH
This PhD thesis investigated whether visual-perceptual training or visual-perceptual
training with acquisition of the observed motor pattern was the most effective to improve
visual anticipation. Experiment 1 validated a temporal occlusion video test to discriminate
fine-grained differences in visual anticipation between groups of skilled cricket batsmen,
which was used in testing phases of subsequent experiments. Experiment 2 recruited club
cricket batsmen, who were randomised into three groups: (i) visual-perceptual training, (ii)
visual-perceptual training with motor practice of the observed bowler’s action, and (iii)
control group that receiving no training. Results indicated both training groups, but not the
control group, significantly improved anticipation of ball types from the bowler’s action
across pre-to-post-tests. However, only visual-perceptual training with acquisition of the
observed bowler’s action transferred to superior anticipation against different bowlers.
Findings supported common-coding theory, which predicts that visual and motor experience
influence visual-perception (anticipation). To probe the contribution of motor experience, a
further experiment was conducted to interfere with acquisition of the motor pattern. Results
indicated that interfering with motor pattern acquisition inhibited learning and transfer of
anticipation, confirming the importance of motor experience to improved anticipation.
Experiment 3 applied visual-perceptual-motor pattern training to a group of emerging expert
state cricket batsmen. Results indicated that the intervention group, but not the control group,
significantly improved their anticipation across pre-post-transfer tests, again supporting the
predictions of common-coding theory. Overall, these findings advanced theoretical
knowledge of the contributions to visual and motor experience to anticipation, as well as
providing practical applications for skill acquisition specialists and coaches to assist
designing practice sessions to improve visual anticipation skill. Furthermore, a new
22
instrument was developed to automatically trigger occlusion glasses that could in future be
used to assess improvements in anticipation to field settings of batting.
23
STRUCTURE OF THESIS
This thesis is structured as follows: (a) chapter one presents a general introduction to
the topic of expert striking skill as it relates to the discipline of sport expertise and skill
learning, with a particular focus on common-coding theory predictions of learning and
transfer of visual anticipation skill, (b) chapter two presents a review of relevant literature
relative to visual and motor experience contributions to expert visual anticipation in
manuscript format under review in Applied Cognitive Psychology, (c) chapter three outlines
experimental research conducted in manuscript format of an article published in Journal of
Applied Sport Psychology (2016)[Note: this is a research note that has specific journal
guidelines in terms of manuscript length and word count, see author guidelines:
https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uasp20], (d) chapter four describes experimental work
conducted in manuscript format of an article currently under review for publication in Journal
of Experimental Psychology: Applied, (e) chapter five describes experimental research
conducted in manuscript format submitted for publication in Journal of Science and Medicine
in Sport [Note, there are strict author guidelines for the manuscript, e.g., word count, see:
https://www.jsams.org/. Manuscript has been mostly reformatted to APA to preserve what
has been submitted for publication], (f) chapter six outlines experimental work conducted in
manuscript format published in Behavior Research Methods (2018), and (g) chapter seven
discusses conclusions and suggestions for future research resulting from the experimental
work carried out within the thesis. Literature sources cited in the thesis follow at completion
of relevant chapters as this thesis has been written in specific journal publication format.
Writing and referencing of the thesis has adhered to accepted structure in the field of Motor
Control and Learning, being The Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association (6th Edition) (American Psychological Association [APA], 2010). Due to the
foregoing structure of the thesis there is unavoidable repetition of content and references.
24
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
The study of expertise and skill learning has been conducted in multiple domains to
understand the factors that differentiate superior expert performance from less skilled
performance, with a view to then guide learning and transfer programs across the skill
continuum (Ericsson, 2018). For example, the perceptual-cognitive capability of chess grand
masters (Chase & Simon, 1973), military personnel (Williams, Ericcson, Ward, & Eccles,
2008) and finger print identification in law enforcement officers (Thompson, Tangen, &
McCarthy, 2013) are some domains that have been studied in an attempt to unlock key
factors of expert performance. In relation to sport, which is the focus of this thesis,
investigation of expertise and skill learning has received heightened interest in the past ten
years with several books written in an attempt to disseminate empirical findings to scientists,
coaches and sports science support staff (see Baker, Cobley, Schorer, & Wattie, 2017; Baker
& Farrow, 2015; Farrow, Baker, & MacMahon, 2013). This increased interest in sport
expertise and skill learning is likely due to multiple factors related to the aura of how athletes
perform their skills under extreme conditions offering a unique insight into how the brain
processes and plans action to achieve the skill goal (Zhao, Lu, Jaquess, & Zhou, 2018).
What is impressive about expert players in sport is they are able to execute visual-
perceptual-motor skills under extreme time constraints with an absence of appearing to be
hurried, but give the impression of having ‘all the time in the world’ (Abernethy, Farrow, &
Mann, 2018; Bartlett, 1947; Williams, Ford, Hodges, & Ward, 2018). These severe time
constraints are encountered in fast-ball sports such as badminton, beach volleyball, soccer,
cricket, baseball, and tennis, to name a few (Cañal-Bruland, Mooren, & Savelsbergh, 2011;
Dicks, Davids, & Button, 2010). In such sports, the object flight time is significantly less than
the combined visual reaction and movement times of the performer (e.g., cricket batsman)
25
indicating that the performer cannot rely solely upon object flight information alone to guide
their actions (Morris-Binelli & Müller, 2017). In order to consistently succeed in achieving
the skill goal under such severe constraints, performers in fast-ball sports need to be able to
anticipate their opponent’s intentions (Mann, Schaefers, & Cañal-Bruland, 2014; Müller &
Abernethy, 2012).
Visual anticipation is well recognised as a critical factor of expertise in sport (Müller
& Abernethy, 2012). Visual anticipation has been defined as the pick-up of visual cues from
an opponent’s kinematics in order to predict future object location and guide component
motor responses to achieve the skill goal (Morris-Binelli & Müller, 2017). The process of
visual anticipation is heavily reliant on identification and use of advance cues, for example,
visual information extracted from the kinematics of an opponent such as the ball and bowling
hand position used by a cricket bowler to impart swing on the ball. Several performance
studies have been conducted and reported that expert players have superior visual anticipation
skill in comparison to less skilled players (e.g., Abernethy & Russell, 1987; Abernethy, 1990;
Müller, Abernethy & Farrow, 2006; Paull & Glencross, 1997; Rowe, Horswill, Kronvall-
Parkinson, Poulter, & McKenna, 2009). This superior capability to pick-up advance
information allows experts to gain time to predict and plan their actions resulting in more
time than is available purely based upon object flight, to respond successfully to achieve the
motor skill goal. Knowing how experts use visual cues to deal with extreme time constraints
presents useful information to design empirical investigations to develop visual anticipation
skill in club and emerging expert athletes, which is of high interest to sport scientists, skill
acquisition specialists and sports coaches alike.
Much less scientific evidence exists about how to facilitate learning of visual
anticipation skill and how any improvements transfer to different contexts (Abernethy et al.,
2018; Morris-Binelli & Müller, 2017). This is likely because a sufficient pool of knowledge
26
was required to justify what the important factors of anticipation are that should be trained
and the logistical difficulties associated with running an intervention study are more
demanding than performance studies (Müller, Brenton, & Rosalie, 2015). The majority of
existing knowledge on how to train visual anticipation have been focused upon novices and
intermediate skilled participants (e.g., Farrow & Abernethy, 2002; Smeeton, Williams,
Hodges, & Ward, 2005; Williams, Ward, Smeeton, & Allen, 2004), with significantly less
evidence of improvement of the critical skill of anticipation in skilled club, emerging expert,
or expert athletes (e.g.,Mann, Scheafers & Cañal-Bruland, 2014; Hopwood, Mann, Farrow,
& Nielsen, 2011). This is concerning as high performance units within sports organisations
are committed to fast-tracking talent identified and emerging expert athletes into genuine
expert performers in order to justify investment of time and financial resources allocated in
their athlete development programs (Williams et al., 2018).
The lack of evidence on how to improve anticipation can limit the available options
for athletes to improve visual anticipation, which may result in the use of techniques such as
optometry-based visual training programs that present only a familiarity or placebo effect
(see Wood & Abernethy, 1997). Accordingly, it has been suggested that future studies that
aim to investigate ways to improve visual-perceptual-motor skill should focus on the
following criteria: (i) factors that discriminate visual-perceptual-motor expertise (e.g.,
anticipation), (ii) demonstrate improvement in that factor (e.g., anticipation) through training,
and (iii) determine whether improvement in the factor through training can transfer to
enhanced on-field performance (Hadlow, Panchuk, Mann, Portus, & Abernethy, 2018).
Therefore, studies of how to improve visual anticipation are necessary as they will address
current gaps in the skill learning literature, but these studies need to adhere to the foregoing
criteria. The outcomes of training studies will be highly beneficial to sports teams and
27
organisations to enable implementation of strategies within their programs to accelerate
development of club and emerging expert athletes.
Whether focus is upon investigation of performance or learning or transfer of visual
anticipation, research questions related to these topics need to be underpinned by a theoretical
framework (Williams & Ericsson, 2005; Williams, Ford, Eccles, & Ward, 2011). Theory
driven research questions probe underlying mechanisms of visual anticipation related to
behavioural outcomes of the capability to predict above guessing level (Abernethy et al.,
2018; Araújo & Davids, 2015; Giblin, Farrow, Reid, Ball, & Abernethy, 2015; Williams et
al., 2011). For example, the predictions of common-coding theory (Prinz, 1997), related to
visual and motor experience, are suitable for investigation of the underlying mechanism
related to research questions of learning and transfer of visual anticipation skill. This is
because common-coding theory predicts that visual and motor information can bi-
directionally influence visual-perceptual-motor skill, which inherently includes visual
anticipation (Abernethy et al., 2018; Schütz-Bosbach & Prinz, 2007). Accordingly, visual
experience to advance kinematic cues such as a bowler’s action and motor experience such as
in the reproduction of the observed bowler’s action can be manipulated to test the predictions
of common-coding theory. The observed benefits to anticipation accuracy (outcome) provide
an indication of the mechanism that facilitates (or accelerates) the development of superior
anticipation. This mechanistic approach, first, contributes to a general understanding of how
the brain processes visual and motor information for action, and second, provides strong
evidence to justify application of the findings by coaches to train the mechanism that
underpins skill learning, rather than focus upon factors that may only show a familiarity or
placebo effect.
The rationale for experimental work conducted in this thesis is threefold: (i) to extend
theoretical understanding of whether training visual and motor experience benefits greater
28
improvement in visual anticipation, which will further extend knowledge of how visual
anticipation can be improved and accelerated, (ii) to use the most beneficial method of
training visual anticipation to develop this skill in emerging expert athletes, and (iii) to extend
understanding of learning and transfer of visual anticipation. The exemplar sport on which
experimental work will be conducted is the fast-ball sport of cricket batting. In order to
systematically address the gap in the literature related to learning and transfer of visual
anticipation, specifically with club and emerging expert athletes, the following has been
done. First, the aim of Experiment 1 (Chapter 3) was to determine whether a sports-specific
temporal occlusion test with a motor response had the sensitivity to discriminate between
fine-grained levels of expertise including expert, elite youth (emerging expert) and club
cricket batsmen. This additional validation of a frequently used method provides further
justification for its use as pre-post-transfer-tests of theoretical (Experiment 2: Chapter 4) and
applied (Experiment 3: Chapter 5) studies in this thesis. Second, Experiment 2 (Chapter 4)
proceeded to systematically manipulate visual and motor experience to discover which
contributes most to improvement of learning and transfer of visual anticipation in club cricket
batsmen. Third, Experiment 3 (Chapter 5) used the most effective training method from
Experiment 2 to improve anticipation in emerging expert cricket batsmen. In addition, a
match statistic was compared to explore benefits of the intervention to competition
performance. Fourth, an instrument was developed that simplifies the process of creating
more reliable field-based occlusion testing protocol, which can be used in future research to
design in-situ sports-specific tests of anticipation. Collectively, this thesis contributes to scant
contributions pertaining to learning and transfer in the sport expertise and skill learning
literature.
29
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34
CHAPTER 2
Is Visual-Perceptual or Motor Expertise Critical for Expert Anticipation in Sport?
Abstract
A prominent topic is whether visual or motor expertise makes greater contribution to expert
visual anticipation in sport. This stems from psychological theories, such as common-coding
theory, which predicts perception and action can inform each other in a bi-directional
manner. This paper reviews the literature that has investigated visual and motor expertise
contributions to expert visual anticipation in sport. First, psychological theories are discussed
that predict visual and motor contributions to perceptual-motor behaviour. Second,
classifications of motor skills and studies are presented to evaluate the literature reviewed.
Third, literature is reviewed with reference to performance, learning and transfer of visual
anticipation, which are all vital for successful sports performance. The review aims to
stimulate thought about mechanisms underpinning visual and motor expertise relative to
performance, learning and transfer of anticipation skill, which can better guide the
practitioner to improve skill.
Keywords: vision, motor, expertise, anticipation, common-coding theory, sport
35
Is Visual-Perceptual or Motor Expertise Critical for Expert Anticipation in Sport?
The 2017 Major League Baseball season has seen a record number of home runs
posted throughout the regular and post seasons. How is it that these elite sports people
continually produce performances that reveal astonishing skill and precise timing of body
movements meanwhile captivating sports people with lesser capability, spectators and sports
science researchers alike? Sport expertise researchers have compared experts and less skilled
players in an effort to quantify factors that differentiate these performers in order to attempt
to provide an explanation of exceptional sports performance (Loffing & Cañal-Bruland,
2017). This expert versus less skilled paradigm has been used predominantly in striking
sports such as tennis, baseball, cricket, badminton, squash, and field hockey, but also in open-
field play sports such as soccer and volleyball. It is now well established that the capability of
a performer (e.g., baseball or cricket batsman) to anticipate an opponent’s actions (e.g.,
baseball pitcher or cricket bowler) is a critical factor of expertise in sport performance
(Morris-Binelli & Müller, 2017; Williams, Ford, Eccles, & Ward, 2011).
Research has progressed to investigate whether it is visual expertise, motor response
expertise, acquisition of the observed motor pattern, or combinations of these that contribute
to superior anticipation in sport (Hodges, 2017). This is relevant first, because it contributes
to theoretical knowledge of the key factor(s) that underpin expert anticipation. For example,
is the capability to pick-up visual cues from an opponent’s action the critical factor, rather
than execution of a motor response to the cues an opponent presents? Alternatively, is it the
capability to pick-up visual cues and execute the motor response that is critical? Furthermore,
does acquisition of the motor pattern that one observes contribute to expert anticipation? In
addition to furthering theoretical knowledge of expert anticipation in sport, it can advance
psychological theory of how the brain uses visual information to guide action. Second,
through advancement of theoretical knowledge, a strong foundation can be provided for the
36
practitioner to design intervention programs to maximise improvement of expert anticipation
across the skill continuum, as well as facilitate transfer to different contexts. Again,
application may not be limited to practitioners in sport, but also valuable to training in
clinical, education, and military settings, to name a few.
Visual anticipation is defined as the capability of the performer to use information
from their immediate environment to predict an opponent’s action and respond with an action
to achieve the motor skill goal such as to strike a baseball (Müller & Abernethy, 2012).
Specifically, experts are superior to less skilled players at gleaning visual information for
anticipation from cues available from multiple sources including situational such as game
context (e.g., Gray, 2002), opponent action preferences (e.g., Mann, Schaefers, & Cañal-
Bruland, 2014), an opponent’s movement pattern (or kinematics) such as hand and arm
position used to swing a cricket ball (e.g., Müller, Abernethy, & Farrow, 2006) or pitch a
curveball, and object trajectory such as flight path of a cricket ball or a curveball (e.g., Paull
& Glencross, 1997). However, situational context information that does not match kinematic
information can be detrimental to anticipation, indicating that kinematic cues are a crucial
source for anticipation (Mann et al., 2014). Use of these multiple sources of information by
experts for anticipation has been predominantly investigated using laboratory-based video-
simulation paradigms, but also confirmed as relevant sources for expert anticipation in field-
based in-situ paradigms (Morris-Binelli & Müller, 2017).
Visual anticipation is vital in a variety of sports because complex visual-perceptual-
motor responses, such as intercepting a ball in cricket or baseball batting, are made under
high time constraints (Williams et al., 2011). For example, a cricket batter (like a baseball
batter) has approximately 500ms to complete both the gross (lower body foot movement) and
fine (bat movement) components that comprise the visual-perceptual-motor skill, when
attempting to strike a ball delivered by a bowler at speeds above 33.33 m.s-1 (120 kph).
37
Accordingly, it is not possible for players to prepare and execute this sports-specific skill
purely based upon the object flight phase. Theoretical (or mechanistic) scientific
understanding of how experts anticipate in order to consistently perform these complex
visual-perceptual-motor skills is important, which can then guide how visual-perceptual-
motor skills may be trained by the practitioner and transferred to different contexts.
The purpose of this review is to discuss the literature in relation to contributions of
visual and motor expertise (or experience) to expert visual anticipation in sport. The paper is
structured into four sections that include: (i) outline of psychological theories and their
explanation of visual and motor expertise (or experience) contributions to visual-perceptual-
motor skill, (ii) behavioural evidence of visual and motor expertise (or experience)
contributions to anticipation in sport performance, (iii) behavioural evidence of how visual
and motor expertise (or experience) contributes to learning and transfer of anticipation in
sport, and (iv) future research and summary.
Psychological theories of perceptual-motor behaviour
Several theories attempt to explain how visual-perceptual information is used for
motor behaviour, which has relevance to visual anticipation in sport, because the latter is
inherently a visual-perceptual-motor skill. One of those theories, known as the common-
coding theory (Prinz, 1997), can make predictions about performance, learning and transfer
of visual anticipation skill in sport. Performance is defined as an observable goal-directed
motor skill, such as to anticipate and strike a ball in cricket or baseball batting (Magill &
Anderson, 2017; Soderstrom & Bjork, 2015). Learning is defined as the improvement in
performance across pre- to post-tests that is due to a practice intervention or experience
(Magill & Anderson, 2017; Soderstrom & Bjork, 2015). Transfer is defined as the
contribution of what has been learned to performance of the goal-directed motor skill in a
different or novel context (Magill & Anderson, 2017). The term context is critical to this
38
definition, which means that transfer can be conceptualised to occur from the practice
intervention or experience context to video-simulation and in-situ tests or competition
contexts (Müller, Vallence, & Winstein, 2017; Rosalie & Müller, 2012). For example, Gray
(2017) has conceptualised transfer to occur from a baseball batting virtual simulator training
context (that included a visual-perceptual-motor response), to improvement across pre-post-
tests that included in-situ real batting performance (visual-perceptual-motor response) and
pitch recognition in the virtual simulator (verbal response), as well as to competition statistics
contexts after the training phase. This conceptualisation of transfer is important to consider
when reviewing the literature on visual and motor contributions to anticipation discussed
later.
Common-coding theory states that perceptual information from sensory stimuli (e.g.,
visual system) and planned actions (motor system) are represented in the brain in a common-
code, thus perception and action share a common representation (Prinz, 1997). Accordingly,
common-coding theory predicts that pick-up of visual-perceptual information by an observer
maps onto their own motor representation and can contribute to guide or inhibit a motor
response (Schütz-Bosbach, & Prinz, 2007). This includes the pick-up of visual cues in an
opponent’s action to anticipate and guide component action (see Müller & Abernethy, 2012).
This has been referred to in the sport expertise literature as the perceptual experience
hypothesis, whereby through experience, that is, exposure to a situation, stimulus or context
and/or expertise, for example, attainment of a high level of play such as international cricket
(Swann, Moran, & Piggott, 2015), the performer is capable of reading cues in the opponent’s
action and object flight in order to anticipate (e.g., Cañal-Bruland, van der Kamp, & van
Kesteren, 2010). In addition, common-coding theory predicts that the observer’s motor
repertoire, again through experience or expertise, maps onto visual-perceptual information in
the immediate environment and can inform a subsequent motor response or inhibition of a
39
response (Schütz-Bosbach, & Prinz, 2007). This means that not only is the pick-up of visual
cues important for anticipation, but that the performer’s motor response capability (see
Müller & Abernethy, 2012), is also important in shaping meaning from the opponent’s
kinematics, in order to anticipate and respond. This has been referred to as the motor-
experience, or motor capability, hypothesis in the sport expertise literature, whereby greater
experience with, or expertise in, a capability to perform an action such as strike a ball can
influence how the observer perceives (e.g., Cañal-Bruland et al., 2010). Therefore, common-
coding theory predicts bi-directional contributions of sensory and motor systems to visual-
perceptual-motor behaviour.
The neural basis of common-coding theory is suggested through existence of neurons
that are co-activated during perception and action, known as mirror neurons. The seminal
evidence for this was found in studies of monkeys that reported the same neurons were
activated when the monkey observed and performed a grasp (Di Pellegrino, Fadiga, Gallese,
& Rizzolatti, 1992; Gallese, Fadiga, Fogassi, & Rizzolatti, 1996; Rizzolatti, Fadiga, Gallese,
& Fogassi, 1996). In humans, considerable evidence has also been reported of sensory and
motor regions of the brain that are synchronously activated when motor skills are observed
and performed (Molenberghs, Cunnington, & Mattingley, 2012). These findings suggest that
the processes related to sensory perception (e.g., visual system) and action (motor system) are
tightly integrated during visual-perceptual-motor behaviour. In relation to anticipation in
sport, several studies using neurophysiological measures such as fMRI with video-based
temporal occlusion have confirmed greater coactivation of sensory and motor regions of the
brain in experts compared to less skilled players (e.g., Balser et al., 2014; Calvo-Merino,
Glaser, Grèzes, Passingham, & Haggard, 2005; Wright, Bishop, Jackson, & Abernethy,
2010).
40
A related theoretical explanation of the motor experience (or motor expertise)
component of common-coding theory is motor system simulation in order to perceive and act
(Wilson & Knoblich, 2005; Witt & Proffitt, 2008). This is also related to the theoretical
concepts of emulation, embodiment and ‘internal models’ in order to perceive and act
(Proffitt, 2006; Zago, McIntyre, Senot, & Lacquaniti, 2009). Wilson and Knoblich (2005)
argue that the motor system is engaged during visual-perception because it is simulating the
observed action. Accordingly, the authors argue that simulation is related to the capability to
‘emulate’ the observed action before it is completed in order to anticipate what will occur.
Simulation of the observed action is part of what has been referred to as an ‘internal model’
of the immediate environment (Diaz, Cooper, Rothkopf, & Hayhoe, 2013; Zago et al., 2009).
Through experience a performer develops an ‘internal model’ of their opponent’s movement
pattern, which can be used to simulate and predict the opponent’s future action (Diaz et al.,
2013; Zago et al., 2009).
In a related manner, a series of studies conducted by Witt and Proffitt (2008) found
that opportunity to use or not use a tool to reach to targets influenced participant perception
of whether targets were reachable. Important findings from their study are; first, targets were
perceived closer (reachable) when distance judgements were made prior to anticipated,
imagined, and hold tool use conditions, compared to a no tool use condition. This indicates
that motor simulation influences perception in an anticipatory manner. Second, when the
anticipatory motor simulation is interfered with, through squeeze of a ball simultaneously to
distance judgements, but prior to use of a tool to reach towards targets, distance to targets are
perceived as further away compared to a no-ball squeeze and reach condition. The cause of
this interference and the impediment to perception is believed to be linked to inhibition of the
predictive function of the ‘internal model’ (Witt & Proffitt, 2008). Therefore, perception of
the immediate environment is embodied within the performer (or perceiver) (Proffitt, 2006).
41
The motor experience component of common-coding theory suggests that the
capability to respond or that possession of the motor pattern that one perceives facilitates how
one perceives the immediate environment. For example, this means that those performers
who possess the movement pattern of the opponent they attempt to anticipate maybe superior
at the pick-up of advance cues in sports. Accordingly, it is unclear whether the capability, or
learning, to pick-up visual cues in order to perceive, and then respond with a complementary
action, and/or learning the motor pattern one perceives coupled with a complementary action,
facilitates better anticipation in sport. This paper now turns to review the literature on visual
and motor expertise (or motor experience) contributions to anticipation in sport. Prior to this,
classification of the studies to be discussed are presented to help conceptualise the purpose of
anticipation in the different skills and tasks that have been studied, as well as whether
possession of the motor pattern facilitates superior anticipation.
Classification of studies that have investigated visual and motor contributions to visual
anticipation in sport
Researchers interested in anticipation in sport have attempted to test the predictions of
common-coding theory by systematically manipulating visual and motor expertise (or motor
experience) to understand their relative contributions to anticipation. This has been
approached in terms of performance using a combination of open and closed skills, with less
of a focus upon learning and transfer using open skills. A closed skill is where the performer
initiates the action, which can occur in a stable or less-stable environment (Magill &
Anderson, 2017). Examples of closed skills include a free-throw in basketball, serving in
sports such as tennis, squash, badminton, and penalty throw in handball. Accordingly, closed
skills require anticipation of performer action, rather than opponent action. Alternatively, an
open skill is where the performer responds to an opponent’s action that is usually performed
in a dynamic environment (Magill & Anderson, 2017). Examples of open skills include
42
cricket and baseball batting, goalkeeping in handball or soccer, and goalkeeping in field
hockey. Here, open skills refer to anticipation of opponent action, rather than the performer’s
own action. Moreover, studies investigating visual and motor contributions to anticipation
can be considered as either ‘matched’ or ‘mismatched’ in terms of what is perceived and the
visuomotor expertise of the performer. A ‘matched’ study is defined as when the motor
pattern of the opponent that is perceived by the performer is identical to the motor pattern
required for a sports-specific response by that performer. For example, anticipation of a
forehand stroke from an opponent in badminton by a performer with expertise in badminton
is ‘matched’ because they both possess expertise in the capability to execute the forehand
stroke. Alternatively, a ‘mismatched’ study is defined as when the motor pattern of the
opponent that is perceived is different to the performer’s motor pattern required to execute
the desired sports-specific response. For example, anticipation of a bowler or pitcher by a
cricket or baseball batsman in order to respond to strike a delivered ball is ‘mismatched’
because the batsman does not possess expertise in the capability to bowl or pitch. A list of the
studies discussed in the forthcoming sections on visual and motor experience, relative to
performance, learning and transfer, as well as their classifications discussed here are
presented in Table 1.
43
Table 1
Classification of Studies that have Investigated Visual and Motor Contributions to
Anticipation
Note. Anticipation stimuli refers to the participant (performer) and what they observe in the
anticipation task in order to make a prediction.
Study Perceptual-Motor Skill Skill Type Anticipation
Stimuli
Performance
Abernethy & Zawi (2007)
Badminton stroke
Open
Matched
Abernethy et al. (2008) Badminton stroke Open Matched
Aglioti et al. (2008) Basketball free -throw Closed Matched
Cañal-Bruland et al. (2010) Handball penalty throw Open Matched
Cañal-Bruland et al. (2011) Beach volleyball serve Open Matched
Urgesi et al. (2012) Volleyball serve Open/Closed Matched
Tomeo et al. (2013) Soccer penalty kick Open Matched
Chen et al. (2017) Baseball batting Open Mismatched
Learning and Transfer
Urgesi et al. (2012)
Mulligan et al. (2014)
Volleyball serve
Darts
Open/Closed
Closed
Matched
Matched
Mulligan et al. (2016a) Darts Closed Matched
Mulligan et al. (2016b) Darts Closed Matched
44
Behavioural evidence of visual and motor contributions to the performance of visual
anticipation in sport
In relation to ‘matched’ studies, Abernethy and colleagues completed two studies
where they applied temporal and spatial occlusion to a point-light display of a badminton
player executing different strokes. Video temporal occlusion is used to determine the timing
(or duration) of visual information pick-up for anticipation. Video spatial occlusion is used to
determine the sources of visual information (or critical visual cues) for anticipation. A point–
light display is a video simulation used to determine the pick-up of pure kinematic
information that is void of colour, contour or shape (see Loffing & Cañal-Bruland, 2017 for
examples of these methods). In their study, expert and non-expert badminton players were
required to watch the point-light display and predict stroke depth as well as direction, which
is an open skill. First, Abernethy and Zawi (2007) found that experts were superior to less
skilled players at anticipation of stroke direction when they could only see isolated body
segments of the lower body or the racquet in the point-light display prior to shuttle flight.
This indicates that possession of visuomotor expertise of the skill perceived, as predicted by
common-coding theory, facilitates anticipation of stroke direction based upon isolated visual
cues, which was available in distal body segments. Second, Abernethy, Zawi, and Jackson
(2008) found that experts were superior to less skilled players at anticipation of stroke depth,
only when they could see the linked body segments in the execution of the movement pattern
prior to shuttle flight. This again indicates that possession of the visuomotor pattern that one
observes, as predicted by common-coding theory, facilitates anticipation relative to the goal
of the task, which was in this instance depth prediction that requires use of cues available
across the whole body.
Other ‘matched’ studies that have investigated the relative contributions of visual and
motor expertise to anticipation have reported similar findings. Aglioti, Cesari, Romani, and
45
Urgesi (2008) manipulated visual and motor expertise by including expert basketball players
(visuomotor experts), coaches (regarded as visual experts), journalists (visual experts), and
novices, in their study. Participants were required to watch a temporally occluded video of a
free-throw (closed skill) and anticipate whether the shot was successful or unsuccessful (in or
out of the basket, respectively). They found that basketball players (visuomotor response
experts) were superior to coaches and journalists (considered here as visual experts), as well
as novices at anticipating shot outcomes at the point of ball release temporal occlusion.
Thereafter, Cañal-Bruland et al. (2010) investigated whether handball field players (motor
pattern expert) and goalkeepers (visuomotor response expert) could better anticipate
deceptive penalty throws (open skill). They found that both field players and goalkeepers
were equally successful at anticipating penalty throws based upon temporal occlusion just
prior to ball release. This finding could be explained by the fact that both field players and
goalkeepers likely possess the motor capability to execute a penalty throw or that general
throwing capability in handball transfers to inform anticipation in goalkeeping. In a follow-up
study, Cañal-Bruland, Mooren, and Savelsbergh (2011) investigated whether beach volleyball
players, coaches, referees, and novices could anticipate a serve (open skill) using a video
temporal occlusion paradigm. They found that players and coaches (considered here as
visuomotor response experts) exhibited superior anticipation in comparison to referees
(considered visual experts) and novices at the point of ball-hand contact temporal occlusion
in the spike. Urgesi, Savonitto, Fabbro, and Aglioti (2012), in experiment 1, investigated the
relative contribution of athletes (visuomotor response expertise), supporters (visual
experience), and novices to anticipation of the volleyball serve (open/closed components of
the skill). Participants were required to anticipate volleyball serves in a video simulation
where footage of the serve was occluded at hand-ball contact (advance cues) and during ball
flight, with each presented from front (open skill) and back (closed skill) perspectives of the
46
server. Athletes and supporters were superior in their prediction to novices across occlusion
conditions and viewing perspectives. Athletes, however, were superior to supporters in
prediction of serves from the back perspective for both occlusion conditions, but athletes
were only superior to supporters based upon the ball flight occlusion condition in the front
perspective. Finally, Tomeo, Cesari, Aglioti, and Urgesi (2013) investigated whether expert
soccer penalty takers (motor pattern expert), goalkeepers (visuomotor response expert) and
novices could anticipate soccer penalty kick location (open skill) in a video simulation
temporal occlusion paradigm. Participants were presented with congruent (non-deceptive)
and incongruent (deceptive) stimuli of penalty kicks. They found that penalty takers and
goalkeepers were not different to each other, but superior to novices in the prediction of
congruent penalties when temporal occlusion was prior to foot-ball contact. Goalkeepers,
however, were superior at anticipation of incongruent penalties based upon advance
information indicating they were less fooled than penalty takers. Again, here it needs to be
considered that the goalkeepers likely have experience in taking penalties and practice
kicking to different locations supporting the predictions of common-coding theory as
possession of the movement pattern they observed may have contributed, through transfer, to
their superior anticipation. Collectively, several of the studies reviewed here indicate that
visual and motor expertise is equally important to anticipation.
There is only one ‘mismatched’ study to our knowledge that investigated the
contribution of visual and motor expertise to anticipation in sport. Chen, Lee, Lu, Huang, and
Yen (2017) investigated whether advanced and intermediate baseball batters with visuomotor
response expertise and pitchers with motor expertise could anticipate whether to swing or not
swing at pitches (an open skill) in a video temporal occlusion paradigm. First, they found that
advanced batters were significantly superior to intermediate pitchers and batters at
anticipating strikes based upon an early ball flight occlusion. Second, they found that
47
advanced pitchers were significantly superior to intermediate pitchers and batters at
anticipating balls based upon an early ball flight occlusion. No significant differences were
reported between advanced batters and advanced pitchers, with prediction by both these
groups above chance, which was not the case for intermediate batters and pitchers. The
findings of this study are consistent with the studies discussed above that support visual and
motor contributions to anticipation are inseparable. Overall, the studies discussed in this
section indicate that visual-perceptual and motor response expertise, as well as possession of
the motor pattern that one perceives, are equally valuable for superior anticipation in sport.
This is consistent with the predictions of common-coding theory outlined earlier where both
visual and motor expertise can contribute to anticipation. It may well be that training both
might be valuable for improving anticipation in sport (Urgesi, 2017).
Behavioural evidence of visual and motor contributions to learning and transfer of
visual anticipation in sport
Fewer studies have investigated the relative contributions of visual and motor
expertise in terms of learning and transfer of visual anticipation in sport. Like the
performance studies discussed above, the foregoing are ‘matched’ learning studies. Based
upon the findings of experiment 1 discussed above, Urgesi et al. (2012) in experiment 2,
investigated the relative contribution of observational (visual) and motor execution training to
anticipation of the volleyball serve in adolescents. A group of adolescents were randomised
into three groups; an observational group watched unoccluded videos of ‘floating’ serves, the
motor training group practiced ‘floating’ serves and a control group watched videos of
defensive scenarios not including floating serves. Observational and motor training groups
received the same technique instructions for execution of the ‘floating’ serve, with all groups
allowed to participate in standard volleyball practice. All groups were pre and post-tested on
the volleyball video temporal occlusion test used in experiment 1 discussed earlier. The
48
authors reported that the motor execution training group improved their capability to
anticipate serves at the advance cue temporal occlusion condition (ball-hand contact) from
the back perspective of the server (closed skill), whilst the observational group improved
based upon the early ball flight occlusion condition. The control group showed no
improvement. Furthermore, no improvement was found for either group in relation to the
front perspective (open skill). It needs to be considered that due to lower ball velocity at the
junior age, adolescents may not need to rely upon advance cues for anticipation (see
Weissensteiner, Abernethy, Farrow, & Müller, 2008). The authors concluded that
observational and motor training may be beneficial in a complementary fashion to improve
anticipation based upon advance and ball flight information.
Hodges and colleagues have conducted a series of studies investigating the relative
contributions of observational (visual) and motor pattern experience to anticipation of dart
location (closed skill). First, Mulligan and Hodges (2014) randomised novices into four
groups: (i) no-vision motor training group, (ii) full visuomotor training group, (iii) vision
only training group and, (iv) no training control group. The no-vision motor training group
practiced throwing darts to three locations on the board, whilst complete vision of the
throwing action and board were temporally occluded using occlusion glasses worn by the
participants. The full-vision training group practised throwing darts to the same locations
with full vision. The vision only training group watched participants from either the no-or
full-vision groups. All groups undertook pre- and post-testing on dart throwing accuracy, as
well as a video temporal occlusion dart location test that presented pre- and post-dart flight
information that required prediction of final landing position of the dart in three separate
areas of the dartboard. Both these tests can be considered as transfer contexts from the
practice contexts in this study (see Gray, 2017). The authors reported that the no-vision motor
and visuomotor (motor pattern training) groups improved their anticipation across testing
49
phases to an extent where it was significantly more accurate in the post-test than the visual
training and control groups. Improvements in prediction were not relative to occlusion
condition, indicating that benefits were achieved uniformly across pre and post dart location
temporal occlusion conditions. In terms of throwing accuracy, only the no-vision training
group’s error was significantly lower than the control group. The authors concluded that
motor experience modulates visual anticipation through simulation of the observed action.
These results support the contention that motor pattern training can improve perceptual
prediction through the process of simulation where the observer’s own motor representations
maps onto what the observer perceives (see Schütz-Bosbach & Prinz, 2007; Wilson &
Knoblich, 2005; Witt & Proffitt, 2008).
Second, to test the conclusion that the motor system is involved in simulation during
perception, Mulligan, Lohse, and Hodges (2016a) undertook a follow-up interference study
with experienced and non-experienced dart players. Participants completed a video temporal
occlusion test of dart landing location under different dual-task conditions. The stimuli in the
occlusion task included footage of the participants and another actor throwing darts to three
different locations on the board that was occluded pre- and post-dart flight. Considering the
literature discussed thus far indicates possession of the movement pattern the performer
observes facilitates anticipation, the actor stimuli can be considered as a transfer context (see
Gray, 2017). Results showed that only an incongruent secondary motor task (right arm force
production to push a button), completed simultaneously to the temporal occlusion prediction
task, impaired prediction accuracy of experienced players to a greater extent than other
conditions that included tone counting (general attention), mimicry (congruent motor), and
visual-spatial rotation (visual attention) tasks. None of the conditions impaired the prediction
accuracy of non-experienced players. Prediction of the experienced players, however, was
better than non-experienced players across all conditions except the incongruent motor task.
50
There was no significant difference in prediction between participant and actor throwing
stimuli. The authors concluded that because the incongruent motor task interfered with
prediction accuracy, but the mimicry task did not, motor simulation is engaged during visual
anticipation in those that possess the motor pattern. These findings contribute to the motor
experience hypothesis of common-coding theory (Schütz-Bosbach & Prinz, 2007), by
indicating that the motor system is involved in simulation of the action that is perceived (Witt
& Proffitt, 2008).
Third, Mulligan, Lohse, and Hodges (2016b) further tested motor system simulation
by training novices and then using secondary interference tasks. Novice dart players were
randomised to either a visual training, a visuomotor training or a control group. The visual
group viewed static images of dart throwing pre- and post-dart flight and made a prediction
of dart location with knowledge of results of dart location provided. The visuomotor group
threw darts at the board and were able to pick-up information of dart location. The control
group did not participate in any practice. All groups were subjected to pre- and post-tests on
video temporal occlusion and dart throwing tests like their first study above, except that the
occlusion test also included static images of the final frame from each of the dynamic video
clips. As mentioned previously, these tests can be considered as transfer contexts from the
practice contexts (see Gray, 2017). Participants also completed incongruent force production
and tone counting secondary tasks before and after training. The authors reported that both
intervention groups improved their capability to anticipate across static and dynamic stimuli,
which was significantly different to the control group, but was not different to each other.
Only the incongruent secondary motor task (right arm force production), however, impeded
prediction of the visuomotor training group, but not the visual training group. In addition, the
visuomotor group performed better than the other groups in dart throwing accuracy post-
training. The unique conclusion of this study is that improvements to anticipation can be
51
obtained through motor simulation or non-motor (visual) processes. This is consistent with
the prediction of common-coding theory outlined earlier, whereby both visual and motor
experience can be used to perceive (Schütz-Bosbach & Prinz, 2007). Visual experience
appears to reply upon pick-up of cues for anticipation, whilst motor experience appears
simulate the observed action in order to anticipate. Furthermore, this conclusion suggests that
combined visuomotor training may be more beneficial for superior anticipation in sports
(Karlinsky, Zentgraf, & Hodges, 2017).
Future research and summary
This review has discussed the relative contributions of visual and motor expertise (or
experience) to expert visual anticipation in sport with reference to psychology theories of
visual-perception-action. Much of the work has investigated anticipation in terms of
performance with a focus on ‘matched’ studies, rather than ‘mismatched’ performance,
learning and transfer. Several of the reviewed studies indicate that a dichotomy cannot be
established in terms of the superior benefits of visual or motor expertise to anticipation.
Accordingly, visual and motor expertise (or experience) appear to make equal contributions
to anticipation. It may well be that each can be selectively used from one instant to the next
dependent upon the circumstance, such as in relation to deception by the opponent, to
maintain successful anticipation. Situational context information may complement visual and
motor expertise (or experience) in order to provide an initial evaluation of the immediate
environment that is further confirmed based upon kinematic cues. In addition, there is a need
to investigate the combined benefits of training visual and motor response expertise to
anticipation, as well as embodiment of the motor pattern that one perceives to learning and
transfer to different contexts of anticipation skill. The latter transfer contexts can include
different opponents presented in video-based anticipation tests, in-situ sport-specific
anticipation or performance tests, as well as competition performance (see Gray, 2017;
52
Müller et al., 2017). This is important to provide a mechanistic understanding of how visual
and motor expertise (or experience) facilitates transfer. Collectively, this will offer unique
opportunities for athlete development by practitioners such as where anticipation could be
improved using visual-perceptual, visuomotor response, and motor pattern training in
isolation or combination, and benefit transfer of improvement to different contexts.
53
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59
CHAPTER 3
Discrimination of Visual Anticipation in Skilled Cricket Batsmen
Abstract
This paper outlines a study that sought to discriminate visual anticipation skill between
highly skilled (n = 13), elite club (n = 17), and elite youth (n = 9) cricket batsmen.
Participants watched a video-based temporal occlusion test of a bowler and anticipated with a
motor response. Results indicated that overall highly skilled and club batsmen were
significantly superior to youth batsmen. Highly skilled batsmen anticipated above chance at
ball release occlusion, whilst club and youth batsmen were above chance at no occlusion.
Findings indicate video-based temporal occlusion with a motor response is sensitive to
discriminate anticipation in skilled players.
Keywords: expertise, anticipation, fine-grained, temporal occlusion, cricket batting
60
Discrimination of visual anticipation in skilled cricket batsmen
Expert motor skill performance in striking sports such as cricket batting is dependent
upon visual anticipation skill in order to cope with high time constraints of object velocity
that directly impacts upon the capability to achieve effective interception (Yarrow, Brown, &
Krakauer, 2009). A large body of research on expert visual anticipation has consistently
reported that experts are superior to less skilled players at using visual information prior to
object flight (known as advance information) to predict the future location of an object
(Müller & Abernethy, 2012). Little attempt has been made to discriminate visual anticipation
of players at the expert end of the skill continuum in striking sports.
A popular methodology used to measure expert visual anticipation is the video-based
temporal occlusion paradigm (Jones & Miles, 1978). In this method, an opponent such as a
cricket bowler is filmed delivering different ball types. This footage is edited so that a black
frame is placed at key kinematic events in the opponent’s action such as at the point of ball
release to create temporal occlusion. A series of randomized test trials are then shown to
expert and novice participants. Participants are required to indicate their prediction by
making a written, button press, verbal, or motor response (e.g., Shim, Carlton, Chow, &
Chae, 2005). Video temporal occlusion can be easily set-up by an applied sport psychologist
or movement scientist to assess athlete performance.
Video based temporal occlusion studies with a written response have reported
superior anticipation by experts over novices in badminton (Abernethy & Russell, 1987),
squash (Abernethy, 1990), tennis (Rowe, Horswill, Kronvall-Parkinson, Poulter, &
McKenna, 2009) and baseball (Paull & Glencross, 1997). Other studies have reported experts
(at international and state level) are superior to intermediate club and low skilled players in
cricket batting at the ball release temporal occlusion (Müller, Abernethy, & Farrow, 2006).
When a sport specific perception-action coupled response (e.g., return stroke in tennis
61
without interception) is required to a video-based temporal occlusion, superior anticipation
has been reported by skilled tennis players over novices based upon advance cues (Shim et
al., 2005), as well as between skilled cricket batsmen based upon early ball flight (Renshaw
& Fairweather, 2000). There is a need for comparison of experts to senior elite club level
players and to elite youth players, which targets a more fine-grained skill distribution within
the expert to intermediate club skill continuum than was previously explored in Müller et al.
(2006). Evidence of fine-grained discrimination of anticipation would justify the use of video
temporal occlusion by the practitioner across a variety of skill levels.
Recently, Müller and Abernethy (2012) proposed a preliminary model of anticipation
in striking sports. An aspect of their model outlined that advance visual information can be
used by experts, but not less skilled players, to guide action. Their model is based on studies
that have discriminated anticipation skill at the extremes of the skill continuum. There are no
studies that have investigated the capability of skilled groups of players to use advance
information to guide action. Use of more fine-grained skilled groups of players in this study
attempts to further their theoretical model of expert anticipation.
This study used cricket batting as the exemplar striking sport skill. The purpose of this
study was to discriminate the visual anticipation skill of three groups of skilled cricket
batsmen using a previously validated video-based temporal occlusion test (Müller et al.,
2006, Experiment 1) with a perception-action coupled response. Based upon the literature, it
was predicted that the highly skilled cricket batsmen would have superior anticipation skill
based upon advance information than the senior elite club batsmen and elite youth batsmen.
Method
Participants
A convenience sample of male cricket batsmen (N = 39) was recruited from the
Jamaican Cricket Association. They comprised highly skilled batsmen (n = 13) who
62
represented the West Indies at International Test Cricket level or had played First Class
Cricket for Jamaica, elite club batsmen (n = 17) who played in the senior club cricket
competition in Jamaica, and elite youth representative batsmen (n = 9) who had represented
Jamaica at either under 17 or under 19 levels. The age of the highly skilled group was (Mage =
27.15 years, age range: 20-33 years), the club group (Mage = 21.50 years, age range: 17-33
years), and youth representative group (Mage = 18.33 years, age range 17-19 years).
Participants volunteered for the study and provided written informed consent. Ethics approval
was obtained from the relevant institution (permit number 2013/216).
Materials and Procedure
A previous video-based temporal occlusion test where discriminant validity had been
established between experts versus less skilled anticipation (Müller et al., 2006, Experiment
1) was used in this study. The test consisted of 3 (ball types) x 4 (temporal occlusion
conditions) x 4 (replications) totalling 48 trials. The ball types were (a) full outswinger (that
curves to right), (b) full inswinger (that curves to left), and (c) short ball (that bounces
higher). The temporal occlusion conditions were (a) back-foot impact (BFI), (b) front-foot
impact (FFI), (c) ball release (R), and (iv) no occlusion (NO). Participants were shown
familiarization trials that consisted of each of the three ball types with no occlusion and two
practice trials with occlusion followed by feedback. The test trials were randomized with no
feedback provided.
A laptop, projector, and projection screen were used to display the occlusion test.
Participants stood at a mathematically derived distance of 6 m from the projection screen to
create a similar viewing perspective at ball release as they would experience in a match. They
were required to execute a perception-action coupled response to the video footage by
playing a sport specific cricket batting stroke that was a proxy for the ball type they
anticipated. Tape was placed on the floor to allow the participant to take up their batting
63
stance like a match. Another piece of tape was placed perpendicular to this towards the
projection screen. It was explained to the participants that a sport specific motor response (a)
front-foot stroke to the right side of the perpendicular tape and viewed footage indicated
anticipation of the full outswinger, (b) front-foot stroke to the left side of the perpendicular
tape and viewed footage indicated a full inswinger, and (c) back-foot stroke backward from
the batting stance tape indicated anticipation of the short length delivery. Each participant
undertook the test independently with the duration approximately 15 min. A standard 25 Hz
camera was positioned behind the participant, which captured the test trials and participant
responses simultaneously for later coding by visual inspection.
Analysis and Results
The dependent variable was overall prediction accuracy (Müller, Abernethy, Eid,
McBean, & Rose, 2010). Percent accuracy scores were calculated for each participant and for
each of the three skill groups. Two statistical tests were run to attempt to discriminate skilled
anticipation. First, a 3 (skill group) x 4 (occlusion condition) repeated measures factorial
analysis of variance was run to investigate skill group differences in anticipation across
occlusion. Post-hoc least significant difference was used due to the conservative nature of
other follow-up tests (Perneger, 1998). Second, one-sample t tests were run to determine
whether prediction at each occlusion condition was above, at, or below the guessing level of
33.33% for a three-choice task. Alpha level was set at .05 and assumptions of parametric tests
were met according to Field (2009).
Figure 1 graphs overall prediction accuracy for ball types relative to highly skilled,
elite club, and elite youth skill groups at each of the temporal occlusion conditions.
Factorial analysis of variance revealed a significant main effect for skill group, F(2,
36) = 6.65, p = .003, ηp2 = .27; a significant main effect for occlusion, F(3, 108) = 34.97, p <
.001, ηp2 = .49; but no skill x occlusion interaction, F(6, 108) = .69, p = .65, ηp
2 = .03. Post-
64
hoc least significant difference test revealed that the skill main effect was because highly
skilled and elite club groups were significantly superior in their prediction to the elite youth
group, (ps < .01). There was no significant difference between the highly skilled and elite
club skill groups, (p > .05). The occlusion main effect was due to prediction under the no
occlusion condition being significantly superior to all other occlusion conditions, (p < .001).
One sample t tests indicated that prediction was significantly above the guessing level of
33.33% for the highly skilled group at R, t(12) = 3.60, p = .004, and NO, t(12) = 11.03, p <
.001, conditions, but at guessing level at BFI and FFI conditions. Prediction was at guessing
level for the elite club and elite youth groups at BFI, FFI and R conditions, but above
guessing level at NO condition, (ps < .001).
Figure 1. Percent accuracy for overall ball types combined for the Test and First Class group
(highly skilled), senior club group (elite club), and representative group (elite youth) relative
to temporal occlusion conditions. Error bars represent standard error of the mean.
Discussion
This study was conducted to determine whether fine-grained expertise differences in
visual anticipation based upon advance cues could be found through a perception-action
coupled response to a video-based temporal occlusion test. When both statistical test findings
65
are considered together they support the hypothesis. The findings extend theoretical and
applied knowledge of expert anticipation in striking sports.
By using a perception-action coupled response with a previously validated video-
based temporal occlusion test, the sensitivity of the measure to discriminate more fine-
grained expertise differences in visual anticipation was demonstrated. The test showed
significant between skill group differences in anticipation where the highly skilled and elite
club groups were superior to the elite youth representative group (see Figure 1). It is not
possible to make direct comparisons to previous anticipation literature such as Müller et al.
(2006) because they used a written response and this study used a perception-action coupled
response. However, as the perception-action coupled video occlusion test used in this study
could differentiate a more fine grained level of expertise (i.e., highly skilled vs. elite club vs.
elite youth) than Müller et al. (2006) attempted with a written response (i.e., highly skilled vs.
intermediate club vs. low skilled), it is highly likely that the occlusion test has the sensitivity
to discriminate anticipation across the skill continuum.
Comparison of prediction to chance levels provided further evidence of the sensitivity
of the perception-action coupled response with video-based temporal occlusion. Only the
highly skilled group anticipated above the guessing level of 33.33% based upon advance
information at R occlusion, whereas both elite club and elite youth groups predicted at
guessing level. This is consistent with Shim et al. (2005), who reported that highly skilled
tennis players could anticipate above guessing. Other research conducted using a similar
version of the video-based temporal occlusion test used in this study with a written response
mode indicated that highly skilled players, but not intermediate club players and low skilled
players, were capable of above chance anticipation based upon the ball release advance
information occlusion condition (Müller et al., 2010). These findings indicate that the video
based temporal occlusion test with coupled or decoupled response modes is sensitive to
66
detect whether anticipation across the skill continuum is above or below guessing level. This
is important because several anticipation studies in the literature have evaluated whether
available visual information in occlusion conditions have been used to anticipate based upon
chance comparisons (e.g., Shim et al., 2005).
This study makes a small step to further theoretical knowledge about visual
anticipation in striking sports at the expert end of the continuum. The findings based upon
prediction above or below chance level indicates that, at least in this group of skilled players,
only the visual anticipation of highly skilled players based upon advance ball release visual
information was linked to their representative sport specific action. This has important
implications for recent theoretical models of expert anticipation (Müller & Abernethy, 2012)
by indicating that it is not only intermediate or novice players that couple their action to later
visual-perceptual information, but also some groups of skilled players. Recently, fine-grained
expertise differences have also been reported in the combat sport of karate with in-situ
temporal occlusion (Rosalie & Müller, 2013), where the perception-action response of
experts, but not near-experts, was coupled to very early non-movement visual information of
the opponent. No in-situ studies that compared skilled players exist in striking sports even
though these sports are heavily studied in the anticipation literature.
Practical Application, Conclusion and Future Research
The capability of the temporal occlusion test used in this study to discriminate skilled
anticipation presents an easily transportable and time efficient method that can be used by the
applied sport psychologist or movement scientist to assess performance and learning. In
terms of performance assessment, skilled athletes can be tested using a perception-action
coupled response that incurs little physical fatigue to the participant. The test also alleviates
difficulty in terms of physical fatigue and potential injury to both the participant and stimulus
opponents, as well as greater incurrence of participant time during in-situ methods (Müller,
67
Brenton, & Rosalie, 2015). In terms of intervention programs, the low risk of the test to
fatigue or injury is vital due to pre-test, post-test, and possible retention test designs that may
be used to assess learning. Such repeated measures designs are difficult to complete using in-
situ methods for a variety of reasons such as logistics (Müller et al., 2015). A single in-situ
transfer test, however, would appear to be more achievable within a pre- and post-test
temporal occlusion perception-action coupled intervention study.
This study extended knowledge indicating that coupling perception-action to video
temporal occlusion can discriminate skilled anticipation. Future research could do the same
using other methodologies in sport expertise literature such as in-situ temporal occlusion,
chronometric analysis, pattern recognition and recall. These types of fine-grained expertise
studies are important to extend knowledge beyond the expert versus novice paradigm.
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CHAPTER 4
Visual-Perceptual Training with Acquisition of the Observed Motor Pattern
Contributes to Greater Improvement of Visual Anticipation.
Revised Version
Abstract
This dual-experiment paper investigated the contribution of visual and additive motor
experience to improvement of visual anticipation. In experiment 1, club cricket batters were
randomized into (i) visual-perceptual group that received temporal occlusion training (n =
13), (ii) visuomotor group that received temporal occlusion training coupled with motor
pattern practice of the observed bowler’s action (n = 13), and (iii) no-training control group
(n = 13). They completed a fast bowler video-based temporal occlusion pre-post anticipation
test, as well as a transfer temporal occlusion test that included different fast and slow
bowlers. Results indicated visual-perceptual and visuomotor groups equally improved pick-
up of advance cues across pre-post-tests. Additive motor pattern practice for the visuomotor
group facilitated superior anticipation through earlier pick-up of advance information across
the transfer tests. No improvement was found for the control group. In experiment 2, a
different group of club cricket batters (n = 11) who completed temporal occlusion training
with practice to interfere with acquisition of the observed bowler’s action, showed no
improvements across pre-post-transfer-tests. Collectively, these findings indicate that visual
and combined motor experience facilitates learning, but additive motor experience facilitates
superior transfer. Findings have implications for theoretical and applied knowledge to
develop anticipation skill.
Keywords; visual-perceptual training, motor pattern training, temporal occlusion,
visual anticipation, cricket batting.
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Significance Statement
The capability to read an opponent in striking sports can be improve through video simulation
training, but when combined with motor practice of the observed pattern benefits are broader.
This training is not time consuming and can be easily incorporated into standard sport-
specific practice.
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Visual-Perceptual Training with Acquisition of the Observed Motor Pattern Contributes to
Greater Improvement of Visual Anticipation
Visual anticipation is well established as a key expertise skill set for performance in
high-speed striking sports such as cricket, baseball and tennis (Abreu, Candidi, & Aglioti,
2017). Anticipation is important because an opponent, such as bowler or pitcher, projects a
ball at high velocity in order to reduce the available time that a performer, such as cricket or
baseball batter, has to process available visual information and organize movements to
attempt to strike the ball. For example, in cricket and baseball batting, ball velocity can be in
excess of 33.33 m/s (120 kph). To cope with these extreme time constraints, an extensive
body of literature has reported that experts of international or provincial level are superior to
less skilled players of club, recreational or novice levels in the pick-up of visual cues prior to
ball flight (known as advance cues) in order to anticipate (Morris-Binelli & Müller, 2017).
Specifically, game context (e.g., McRobert, Ward, Eccles, & Williams, 2011) and opponent
kinematic information is used to guide positioning of the lower body, whilst ball flight
information is used to strike a ball with a bat or inhibit a response (Morris-Binelli & Müller,
2017). Therefore, expert performers are capable of gaining time to respond by the use of
visual information from the opponent’s movement pattern, or kinematics, to deal with these
high time constraints.
Visual and motor contributions to anticipation
In the past 10 years, sport expertise researchers have been interested in whether it is
visual-perceptual expertise, or experience (e.g., Tomeo, Cesari, Aglioti, & Urgesi, 2013),
motor expertise, or experience, (e.g., Aglioti, Cesari, Romani, & Urgesi, 2008) or
combinations of both (Müller, Vallence, & Winstein, 2017) that contributes to superior
capability to anticipate in sport. It is important to clarify that expertise refers to attainment of
a skill performance level such as an international cricket batter, whilst experience refers to
73
exposure to a stimulus, context or task such as motor practice of the observed bowler’s action
discussed later (see Swann, Moran, & Piggott, 2015). Clearly, expertise is dependent on
experience and so it is extremely difficult to separate the independent contributions of each
phenomenon to the capability to anticipate in sport. The research question related to visual
and/or motor contributions to expert anticipation has stemmed from psychological theories
such as common-coding theory, which states that sensory and motor information are tightly
linked through a common representation code (Prinz, 1997). Specifically, common-coding
theory predicts that visual-perceptual information maps onto the motor representation and can
be used to guide a complementary action response (Schütz-Bosbach & Prinz, 2007). This has
been referred to in the sport expertise literature as the perceptual experience hypothesis (e.g.,
Chen, Lee, Lu, Huang, & Yen, 2017) and suggests that an expert performer can use visual
cues from the opponent’s action to anticipate. In addition, common-coding theory predicts
that visual-perceptual-motor capability maps onto sensory visual-perceptual information and
can modulate how this information is perceived in order to guide a complementary action
response (Schütz-Bosbach & Prinz, 2007). This has been referred to in the sport expertise
literature as the motor experience hypothesis (e.g., Chen et al., 2017), suggesting that visual-
perceptual-motor response capability and/or the acquired motor pattern of what is observed in
the performer can modulate how they perceive visual cues in the opponent’s action in order
to anticipate.
Behavioural evidence of common-coding is suggested through visual search patterns
that are similar during observation of an actor performing a task to when the same task is
performed by the observer (Flanagan & Johansson, 2003), as well as visual-perceptual
training that has been reported to improve motor execution and motor execution training that
improves visual-perception (Hecht, Vogt, & Prinz, 2001). Neural evidence of common-
coding is suggested through coactivation of sensory and motor regions of the human brain
74
during observation of an action, which corresponds with the same brain regions that are
activated when the individual performs the same action (Balser et al., 2014; Calvo-Merino,
Grèzes, Glaser, Passingham, & Haggard, 2006; Fadiga, Fogassi, Pavesi, & Rizzolatti, 1995;
Molenberghs, Cunnington, & Mattingley, 2012). Therefore, common-coding theory predicts
a bi-directional contribution of visual and motor experience to visual-perceptual-motor
behavior that encompasses visual anticipation in sport.
Motor simulation in anticipation
It has been suggested that the motor system is engaged during visual-perception
because it is simulating the observed action prior to a complementary action response to
achieve the motor skill goal (Wilson & Knoblich, 2005). This simulation is part of what has
been referred to as an ‘internal model’ of the immediate environment that is used to predict
its future state (Diaz, Cooper, Rothkopf, & Hayhoe, 2013; Zago, McIntyre, Senot, &
Lacquaniti, 2009; Zhao & Warren, 2015). For example, Diaz et al. (2013) manipulated ball
speed and elasticity in a virtual racquet-ball interception task. The authors reported that
novices made anticipatory saccades to a fixation location above the bounce point prior to ball
arrival, which indicated the use of pre-bounce visual-perceptual information to make
predictive saccades in order to intercept the ball. When ball elasticity was varied without
notification, however, participants adjusted the location of their anticipatory saccades to
reflect the higher bounce height of more elastic balls, which indicated the use of experienced-
based information to guide anticipatory behavior. Therefore, a combination of visual-
perceptual and experience-based information appears to assist the ‘internal-model’ to better
anticipate the future state of the immediate environment.
Furthermore, studies have reported that visual-perception of the immediate
environment is shaped by the observer’s motor capability, for example, perceived distance of
targets prior to reaching towards them is dependent upon whether one can or cannot use a
75
tool to reach the target (Witt & Proffitt, 2008). When an interference task such as squeezing a
ball is completed prior to reaching towards targets, there is no difference in perceived
distance of targets whether one can or cannot use a tool to reach the target because it impedes
the predictive function of the ‘internal model’ (Witt & Proffitt, 2008). In other research, it has
been reported that participants are better able to predict the timing of actions from a three-
dimensional video simulation of their movements, than the same movements by others
(Colling, Thompson, & Sutton, 2014). More recently, it has been reported that the degree of
control over action capability to move a paddle to catch a virtual ball can modulate how one
perceives the speed of the ball, as well as success in catching the ball (Witt, 2017b).
The foregoing studies imply that an anticipatory motor simulation based upon the
capability to act is engaged during visual-perception. Collectively, these findings imply that
visual-perception is embodied within the motor capability of the observer. It is important to
test this evidence in relation to sport because the critical skill of visual anticipation can vary
relative to skill level, meaning that higher visual-perceptual-motor capability may contribute
to superior anticipation. Furthermore, the foregoing studies have focused primarily on visual-
perceptual judgements (Witt, 2017a), rather than complementary visual-perceptual-motor
responses that commonly occur in sport (Hodges, 2017).
Methodologies and expert anticipation
In order to investigate visual-perceptual and motor contributions to visual anticipation
in sport, studies have used combinations of video and spectacle-based temporal occlusion, as
well as point-light-display methods. The purpose of temporal occlusion is to control the
duration of sport-specific visual information presented to the performer in order to investigate
the timing of visual information pick-up for anticipation (Williams, Ford, Eccles, & Ward,
2011). Video-based temporal occlusion involves footage of, for example, a cricket bowler or
tennis player executing sport-specific skills, where a black video frame is placed at key
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events such as the point of ball release or racquet-ball contact, with no further footage shown
(e.g., Müller, Abernethy, & Farrow, 2006; Shim et al., 2006). This is done to determine
whether the participant can use the presented visual information to anticipate. In relation to
the exemplar skill of cricket batting in this study, it has been reported that international and
state (provincial) level batters, but not club level batters, are capable of using advance
information to anticipate ball types delivered by fast and slow (spin) bowlers to above chance
levels (Müller et al., 2006; Renshaw & Fairweather, 2000). A point-light display involves
video footage that displays only the pure kinematics of an opponent as points-of-light on
anatomical landmarks, which is void of color, contour or shape (Abernethy, Gill, Parks, &
Packer, 2001; Huys et al., 2009). Temporal occlusion is applied at key events such as the
point of ball release or racquet-ball contact in the point-light display. It has been reported that
the minimum information experts in striking sports use to anticipate is the pure kinematics
available in the point-light display (e.g., Huys et al., 2009). In these methods, the performer
can be required to make a written, verbal, or sport-specific motor response to anticipate.
These methods have been consistently reported to include discriminant validity through
differentiation of expert (international), near-expert (state or provincial) and lesser skilled
(club) anticipation in a variety of sports (Morris-Binelli & Müller, 2017). Therefore, the
foregoing are robust methods to use in order to understand visual and motor experience
contributions to anticipation in sport.
Evidence of visual and motor contributions to anticipation
The majority of the studies that have investigated visual and motor expertise (or
experience) contributions to anticipation in sport have measured visual-perceptual
anticipation, which involves a non-motor prediction. In addition, the majority of studies have
focused upon performance, rather than learning and transfer (Müller et al., 2017). In relation
to performance, seminal studies were conducted by Abernethy and colleagues. Abernethy and
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Zawi (2007) used a video-based point-light display that included temporal and spatial
occlusion to understand the linkages between what was observed and expertise of players to
anticipate. The authors reported that only expert badminton players, but not less skilled
players, could anticipate stroke direction when they saw isolated body segments of the lower
body and racquet of an opponent in a point-light display based upon advance cue
information. In a follow-up study, Abernethy, Zawi, and Jackson (2008) reported that only
expert badminton players, but not less skilled players, needed to view linked segments of the
lower body, torso, and racquet-arm sequence of an opponent prior to shuttle flight in order to
anticipate stroke depth. These behavioral studies indicate that possession of visual-
perceptual-motor pattern of what one perceives might facilitate superior capability to
anticipate, which is consistent with the prediction of common-coding theory, but further
investigation through manipulation of visual and motor expertise was required.
Other performance studies have manipulated visual, visuomotor, motor and expertise
level in an attempt to provide a more fine-grained analysis of what contributes to anticipation
with mixed findings. It has been reported that expertise and possession of the visuomotor
pattern that one perceives, such as an expert basketball player observing another basketball
player taking a free-throw, facilitates superior anticipation in comparison to visual experts
such as coaches or journalists who may not possess the movement pattern they observe, as
well as novices who had limited experience (Aglioti et al., 2008; Cañal-Bruland, Mooren, &
Savelsbergh, 2011). However, it has been reported that visuomotor response experts (e.g.,
soccer goalkeepers) are superior to experts who possess the motor pattern they observe (e.g.,
soccer penalty takers) when they both attempt to anticipate deceptive soccer penalty kicks
(Tomeo et al., 2013). Conversely, there is evidence to suggest that there are no differences
between visuomotor response experts and experts who possess the motor pattern such as
baseball batters and pitchers when both anticipate a pitcher (Chen et al., 2017). It is important
78
to consider that whilst previous research has attempted to distinguish between visuomotor
response and motor pattern experts, the majority are ‘matched’ studies, where the expert
performers possessed the visuomotor pattern that they attempted to anticipate. Less is known
in terms of ‘mismatched’ scenarios such as cricket or baseball batting where the expert
performers do not necessarily possess the movement pattern that they intend to anticipate
(e.g., Chen et al., 2017). Collectively, on balance, performance studies indicate both visual-
perceptual and motor expertise (or experience) are equally valuable to visual-perceptual
anticipation in sport.
In relation to learning and transfer, Mulligan and colleagues have conducted a series
of studies to investigate whether visual-perceptual or motor training makes a greater
contribution to visual-perceptual anticipation in the ‘matched’ skill of darts. Mulligan and
Hodges (2014) compared whether different groups of novices could better anticipate dart
locations on a video temporal occlusion test before and after training if they: (i) practiced
throwing a dart whilst their vision of the complete action was occluded using occlusion
glasses, (ii) threw with full vision, or (iii) observed a dart being thrown, in comparison to a no
practice control group. The authors reported that the no-vision motor and visuomotor practice
groups improved their anticipation from pre-test to a level that was significantly superior to
the observation training and no practice control groups in the post-test. These findings imply
that motor practice of what is observed is vital to enhance anticipation and maybe due to
motor simulation. In a follow-up study, Mulligan, Lohse, and Hodges (2016) used secondary
interference tasks with the dart video temporal occlusion test to probe motor simulation. They
found that visual, i.e., observation training, and visuomotor training groups improved their
anticipation from the pre-test to where both groups were superior to a no practice control
group, but not each other in the post-test. When an incongruent dual-task was completed with
the temporal occlusion test, anticipation accuracy for the visuomotor group was significantly
79
impeded, in comparison to the other two groups that experienced congruent dual-tasks that
did not interfere with motor simulation processes as predicted. These findings imply that
motor simulation influences the capability to anticipate and when disrupted anticipation is
impeded. Again, it needs to be considered that these studies are ‘matched’ visual-perceptual-
motor skills, where participants are required to learn and predict the same movement pattern.
Little is known about how visual-perceptual training alone or combined with motor pattern
training of what one observes contributes to a complementary response such as to anticipate
in cricket or baseball batting (see Hodges, 2017; Müller et al., 2017). Furthermore, the studies
discussed here indicate that training both visual and motor components can benefit
anticipation, so it may well be that combining both is more beneficial for learning and
transfer (see Karlinsky, Zentgraf, & Hodges, 2017).
The overall purpose of this dual-experiment paper is to extend theoretical
understanding of whether visual-perceptual and visuomotor pattern training contributes
greater to learning and transfer of visual anticipation in a striking sport. Cricket batting is
used as the exemplar striking sport skill for three reasons. First, there is sufficient previous
evidence to assess participants with a sports-specific video-based temporal occlusion test, as
well as design training to facilitate the pick-up of advance cues to improve anticipation.
Second, there are specialized roles within a cricket team such as batter and bowler with the
former required to strike the ball to score runs and latter to bowl the ball to dismiss the batter.
Third, cricket batting is a ‘mismatched’ open skill (Magill & Anderson, 2017) where
specialist batsman have attained a degree of expertise in the visuomotor response (batting),
but do not have high attained expertise or experience in reproducing the bowling pattern that
they attempt to anticipate. Experiment 1 tests the predictions of common-coding theory and
motor simulation through the contribution of visual-perceptual and visuomotor pattern
training to the enhancement of anticipation. Based upon these findings, experiment 2
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interfered with the acquisition of the motor pattern to determine its additive contribution to
the improvement of anticipation.
Experiment 1
The purposes of experiment 1 were to investigate whether: (a) visual-perceptual
temporal occlusion training of batters to anticipate an opponent bowler or visual-perceptual
training of batters combined with motor practice of the observed bowler’s action facilitates
superior learning of visual anticipation that requires a complementary action response, and
(b) which mode of training facilitates superior transfer of anticipation to different types of
bowlers. This was achieved by comparing the two intervention groups to a no-practice
control group on a cricket batting video-based temporal occlusion fast bowler test in a pre-
post-test control group design. Thereafter, transfer was examined through a batting video-
based temporal occlusion test of two different types of bowlers, another fast bowler and a
slow (spin) bowler. Based upon the theoretical and empirical evidence presented earlier, it
was hypothesized: (1) both visual-perceptual and visuomotor training groups would improve
their capability to anticipate based upon the temporal availability of advance information, but
not the no-practice control group, against the pre-post-test fast bowler, (2) the visuomotor
practice training group would transfer to pick-up earlier temporal advance information from a
different fast bowler, than the visual-perceptual training group, with no transfer by the control
group, and (3) none of the groups would transfer to pick-up advance information from the
slow (spin) bowler because they were trained using fast bowler visual-perceptual stimuli.
Method
Participants
A total of 39 male club cricket batters were recruited from three district cricket clubs
in a state in Australia. All were specialist batters who batted in positions 1 to 6 of the batting
inning. District cricket is the club competition below the state or provincial level in Australia.
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Thirteen batsmen, comprised of Divisions 1 and 2, from each club were stratified and
randomized equally into three experimental groups. They consisted of, a visual-perceptual
training (Mage = 23.35, age range 18 – 31 years), visuomotor pattern training (Mage = 23.41,
age range 18 – 31 years), and control (Mage = 24.8, age range 18 – 36 years) groups. None of
the participants had played cricket at the state level. A power analysis was conducted using
G-power based upon data in Mulligan and Hodges (2014), which indicated that with α = .05
and 80% power, samples of at least 10 participants were required. Ethical approval was
received from the relevant university committee and participants gave written informed
consent.
Experimental Design and Procedures
A pre- and post-test control group design with a transfer test was used in this
experiment. All participants’ anticipation was tested using a video-based temporal occlusion
test, which had been previously reported to demonstrate fine-grained discriminant validity
between skilled cricket batsmen (Brenton, Müller, & Mansingh, 2016; Müller et al., 2006).
The two intervention groups then received temporal occlusion point-light display training on
its own (visual-perceptual training) or coupled with motor practice of the bowling pattern
they observed (visuomotor pattern training). The control group only completed the testing
phases. All groups also participated in their standard cricket practice and competed in
matches during the cricket season. After the post-test, all groups completed a transfer video-
based temporal occlusion test that included a different fast bowler and a slow (spin) bowler of
state level standard to the pre-post-tests (see Figure 1a and b). The spin bowler test had been
previously used in the literature (Müller et al., 2006). The order of the transfer tests were
counterbalanced within each group.
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(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 1. Still image examples of fast (a) and slow (b) bowlers as well as point-light display
of the fast bowler (c) at the time of ball release.
Test procedures. Participants were required to watch the footage of a fast bowler
until temporal occlusion and anticipate the correct ball type from three options. The fast
bowler temporal occlusion test was the same one as used in experiment 1 of Müller et al.
(2006). The test consisted of 3 ball types x 2 filmed versions x 2 replications x 4 temporal
occlusion conditions totaling 48 trials presented in random order. The three ball types
included: (a) a full length outswinger (that lands closer to and curves away from the batter), a
full length inswinger (that lands closer to and curves in towards the batter), and a short length
83
ball (that lands further away from the batter and bounces higher). The temporal occlusion
conditions included three that were based upon advance cues from the bowler’s action: (i)
back-foot impact (BFI), (ii) front-foot impact (FFI), and (iii) ball release with a ball flight no
occlusion control condition (iv) (see Müller et al., 2006, experiment 1 for further details).
Participants were shown three unoccluded trials of each ball type and completed two
temporal occlusion practice trials with feedback in order to familiarize themselves to the
stimuli and task. The trial matrix was the same for spin bowler test, including three ball types:
(a) a full length leg spinner (that lands closer to and spins away from the batter), (b) a full
length ‘wrong un’ (that lands closer to and spins towards the batter), and (c) a short length
ball.
The temporal occlusion test was projected through a Dell Latitude laptop (model
2009) and an Epson projector (model EMP1700) onto a screen (1.4 m x 1.4 m) in a cricket
clubroom style setting (see Figure 2). Participants stood 6 m from the screen to create a
mathematically derived similar viewing angle of the bowler of 7 degrees as would occur in
the actual game setting. They watched the bowler until temporal occlusion occurred and then
immediately played a sport-specific batting stroke to anticipate one of the three ball types.
Masking tape was placed on the floor in front of cricket stumps to simulate the batting crease.
Tape was also placed perpendicular to the batting crease in line with the middle stump and
towards the projector screen. Participants were required to play either: (a) a front-foot stroke,
which necessitated forward movement of the body and vertical swing of the bat to the right-
hand side of the perpendicular tape in order to anticipate a full length outswinger (and full
length leg spinner), (b) a front-foot stroke, which necessitated a forward movement of the
body and vertical swing of the bat to the left-hand side of the perpendicular tape to anticipate
a full length inswinger (and full length ‘wrong un’), or (c) a back-foot stroke, which
necessitated backward movement of the body from the batting stance position and a vertical
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or horizontal swing of the bat to anticipate the short length ball. Participants completed the
test independently, with the test footage and their responses simultaneously filmed using a
standard 25Hz Sony video camera (model NEX-VG10) for later coding by visual inspection
(see Brenton et al., 2016).
Figure 2. Experimental set-up for video-based temporal occlusion tests and motor practice of
bowling. Participants stood at the batting crease and played their stroke in the direction of the
arrow towards the projector screen. Participants bowled from the bowling point towards the
direction of the arrow towards the wickets.
Training procedures. Both the visual-perceptual and visuomotor intervention groups
received two sessions of training per week over a four-week period. The visual-perceptual
training group watched a complete body point-light display created of different versions of
the same ball types from the fast bowler used in the temporal occlusion pre- and post-tests
(see Figure 1c). A point-light display was used because previous research has reported that it
presents the core information used for anticipation (e.g., Abernethy et al., 2001). The point-
light display training consisted of 3 ball types x 3 temporal occlusion conditions x 4
replications totaling 36 trials per session. This volume of trials was deemed suitable to be
able to access participants during their standard weekly cricket practice. The three ball types
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were the same as those used in the occlusion test-retest and transfer phases for the fast
bowlers. Three temporal occlusion training conditions were included to progressively
challenge the participants: (a) no occlusion, where the bowler’s delivery action and complete
ball flight could be viewed, (b) pre-bounce, where the bowler’s delivery action and ball flight
prior to ball bounce could be viewed, and (c) ball release, where the bowler’s delivery action
until the point of ball release could be viewed.
Training sessions were designed to progress in difficulty from easier to harder in
order to challenge participants and guard against disengagement from the task. In the first
training session, participants viewed a video version and then completed the remaining seven
sessions using the point-light display version. The following second to sixth sessions of
point-light display training involved equally blocked trials of no occlusion, followed by pre-
bounce temporal occlusion, followed by ball release temporal occlusion. Sessions seven and
eight included a randomized sequence of trials that included no occlusion, temporal occlusion
at pre-ball bounce and ball release conditions. In each practice trial, participants watched the
projected footage of the point-light display bowler, like in the test phases, and played a sport-
specific batting stroke. Immediately afterwards, for the occluded trials only, feedback was
provided in the form of an unoccluded replay of the previous practice trial. Participants stood
and watched the unoccluded feedback trial with no additional instruction from the
experimenter, and thereafter, continued accordingly with subsequent practice trials.
The visuomotor pattern training group completed the same training as the visual-
perceptual training group, except that after each visual-perceptual practice trial they also
practiced the bowling pattern they viewed. Accordingly, the visuomotor pattern training
group watched the point-light display, played a sports-specific batting stroke to anticipate the
ball type, received feedback through an unoccluded trial, and then, were given a modified
softer cricket ball to bowl the ball they just viewed on an indoor pitch half the length of a
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standard cricket pitch. This required participants to attempt to learn the motor pattern they
viewed in terms of the whole body action, as well as the subtle wrist and arm position used
by the point-light display bowler to deliver the three ball types. Participants were able to
obtain feedback by observing the trajectory of ball flight corresponding to the ball types they
bowled and intended to reproduce from the point-light display. The bowling practice trials
were also filmed using a standard 25Hz video camera for later qualitative coding of the
bowling pattern through visual inspection (Knudson & Morrison, 2002). Each training
session for visual-perceptual and visuomotor groups took approximately 10 and 20 minutes to
complete, respectively.
Dependent Measures and Statistical Analyses
Alpha level was set at .05 for all ANOVAs, but for chance comparisons, alpha level
was adjusted to .01 to guard against familywise error. The main dependent variable was mean
percentage prediction accuracy of overall ball type anticipation (Müller, Abernethy, Eid,
McBean, & Rose, 2010), for the three experimental groups across temporal occlusion
conditions, as well as pre-, post- and transfer-test phases. Three statistical tests were run to
investigate the hypotheses. First, to test hypothesis 1 (learning), a 3 group x 2 pre-post-test
phase x 4 temporal occlusion factorial ANOVA with repeated measures on the last two
factors was run. The purpose of this test was to determine which groups improved
anticipation across pre- to post-tests and temporal occlusion conditions, which investigated
learning. Second, to test hypothesis 2 and 3 (transfer), two separate, 3 group x 4 temporal
occlusion factorial ANOVAs with repeated measures on the last two factors were run. The
purpose of this test was to determine how each group’s anticipation differed in the fast and
slow bowler transfer tests. For both factorial ANOVAs, post-hoc Tukey HSD and pairwise
comparisons tests were used to follow-up any main or interaction effects. Third, to also test
the hypotheses, one sample t-tests were run to determine if prediction was above, at or below
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the guessing level of 33.33 percent for a three-choice task. The purpose of this test was to
determine whether the training improved the capability of the groups to perform above
guessing (anticipate) or remain at guessing (learning: hypothesis 1), as well as whether they
could transfer to anticipate above guessing against two different types of bowlers (transfer:
hypothesis 2 & 3). Fourth, inter- and intra-rater reliability was conducted on six participants
from each of the experimental groups across pre-post-, and transfer-tests, which included
3452 trials from a total of 7488 trials. Intra-class correlation coefficient was calculated
according to Portney and Watkins (2009). Cohen’s d effect sizes were also calculated to
explore between group differences (Cohen, 1988).
Two other dependent variables were measured for each training session: (i) mean
percentage prediction accuracy of overall ball type anticipation for both intervention groups
at the ball release (advance cue) temporal occlusion condition, and (ii) mean percentage
accuracy for reproduction of the motor pattern of the point-light display bowler for the
visuomotor pattern training group. For prediction accuracy, two statistical tests were run: (a)
2 group x 8 session repeated measures ANOVA, and (b) one sample t-tests to determine if
prediction was above, at or below guessing level of 33.33 percent. The purpose of these tests
were to determine whether both intervention groups followed a similar acquisition in their
practice sessions performance curve.
For the motor pattern reproduction, key components of cricket bowling technique
were identified based upon previous literature with a qualitative rating then applied to those
in the visuomotor pattern training group (see Knudson & Morrison, 2002). The components
that were rated included: (1) grip of the ball, which included the index and middle fingers on
top of the ball and the thumb on the bottom of the ball (relative to the video in training
session 1), (2) front-arm position, which rotated in a sagittal plane during the delivery stride,
(3) wrist position of bowling hand, which included radial or ulna deviation for the outswinger
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and inswinger, respectively, and a neutral position for the short ball, (4) follow through,
which included the bowling arm’s path across the front of the body, and (5) ball trajectory,
which curved in the air to the right or left for the outswinger and inswinger, respectively, and
no curve in the air for the short ball (Portus, Sinclair, Burke, Moore, & Farhart, 2000). The
first three components were assessed at back-foot impact, front-foot impact and ball release,
whereas the other two components were analyzed during the follow-through and ball
trajectory, as these were the times during the bowling action when they were visible (Glazier,
Paradisis, & Cooper, 2000). Each component was scored as achieved (1) or not achieved (0)
for the practice trials across sessions and the temporal sequence of the bowling action, with
the total tallied, and then, converted to a percentage of components reproduced score. This
percentage qualitative rating score was averaged across participants in each training session.
A repeated measures ANOVA was then run across the eight training sessions. The purpose of
this test was to determine whether there was acquisition of the motor pattern across practice
sessions performance curve. It was thought that motor pattern and prediction accuracy
practice performance would provide insight into the eventual learning and transfer of the two
intervention groups. Inter- and intra-rater reliability was again conducted on six participants
for prediction accuracy and motor pattern reproduction measures across the eight training
session, which included 3456 trials from a total of 5760 trials. For repeated measures
analyses that violated the assumption of sphericity, a Greenhous-Geisser correction was
applied.
Results and Discussion
Pre- and post-tests. Figure 3 plots mean percentage accuracy of anticipation for the
visual-perceptual, visuomotor and control groups in relation to the temporal occlusion
conditions and pre-post-test phases. Intraclass correlation revealed strong inter- and intra-
rater reliability of (r = 0.92) and (r = 0.98), respectively.
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Figure 3. Mean percentage accuracy of anticipation for the experimental groups across test
phases and temporal occlusion conditions. Horizontal line indicates guessing level of 33.33%
and asterisks indicate prediction above guessing level. Error bars represent standard error of
the mean.
In relation to hypothesis 1 (learning), Factorial ANOVA revealed a significant main
effects for group, F(2, 36) = 15.09, p < .001, ηp2 = .45, as well as a significant group x testing
phase interaction, F(2, 36) = 10.27, p < .001, ηp2 = .36. There was also a main effect for
testing phase, F(1, 36) = 29.34, p < .001, ηp2 = .44, and temporal occlusion condition, F(3,
108) = 64.98, p < .001, ηp2 = .64, but none of the other interactions were significant. Post-hoc
tests indicated that the group main effect was due to superior overall prediction accuracy of
the visual-perceptual (M = 49.44 %, SD = 3.00) and visuomotor (M = 51.92 %, SD = 3.00)
intervention groups over the control group (M = 40.78 %, SD = 3.00), d = 2.88 and 3.71, p =
.001 and p < .001, respectively. The group x testing phase interaction was due to superior
prediction accuracy by the visual-perceptual (M = 56.89 %, SD = 4.10) and visuomotor (M =
59.94 %, SD = 4.10) intervention groups over the control group (M = 39.90 %, SD = 4.10) in
the post-test, d = 4.14 and 4.88, respectively, with no significant difference between the three
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groups in the pre-test, F(2, 36) = .28, p = .752, ηp2 = .01. The testing phase and occlusion
main effects were due to superior overall prediction accuracy in the post-test (M = 52.24 %,
SD = 2.36, p < .001) and no occlusion condition (M = 65.59 %, SD = 3.44, p < .001). Table 1
presents one-sample t-tests that show each groups prediction relative to the guessing level of
33.33 percent.
Transfer tests. Figure 4 (a) and (b) plots mean percentage accuracy of anticipation
for the visual-perceptual, visuomotor and control groups in relation to the temporal occlusion
conditions for the fast and slow bowler transfer tests.
In relation to hypothesis 2 (transfer) for the fast bowler, factorial ANOVA revealed
significant main effects for group, F(2, 36) = 14.73, p < .001, ηp2 = .45, and occlusion,
F(2.42, 87.16) = 52.57, p < .001, ηp2 = .59, but no interaction between group and occlusion.
Post-hoc tests indicated that the group main effect was due to significantly superior
prediction accuracy by the visuomotor group (M = 60.41 %, SD = 5.50) over the visual-
perceptual (M = 50.64 %, SD = 5.50) and control (M = 39.26 %, SD = 5.50) groups, d = 1.77
and 3.84, p = .04 and p < .001, and respectively, as well as significantly superior prediction
accuracy by the visual-perceptual group over the control group, d = 2.06, p = .01. The
occlusion main effect was due to significantly superior prediction accuracy in the no
occlusion condition (M = 74.78 %, SD = 5.30, p < .001) compared to the other temporal
occlusion conditions. Table 2 presents one-sample t-tests that show each groups prediction
relative to the guessing level of 33.33 percent.
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(a)
(b)
Figure 4. Mean percentage accuracy of anticipation for the experimental groups across
temporal occlusion conditions for the fast (a) and slow (b) bowler transfer tests. Horizontal
line indicates guessing level of 33.33% and asterisks indicate prediction above guessing level.
Error bars represent standard error of the mean.
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In relation to hypothesis 3 (transfer), the results for the slow (spin) bowler were
similar as the fast bowler. Factorial ANOVA revealed a significant main effect for group,
F(2, 36) = 15.70, p < .001, ηp2 = .46, and occlusion, F(3, 108) = 37.25, p < .001, ηp
2 = .50,
but no interaction between group and occlusion. Post-hoc tests indicated that the group main
effect was due to significantly superior prediction accuracy by the visuomotor group (M =
55.92 %, SD = 3.84) over the visual-perceptual (M = 48.07 %, SD = 3.84) and control (M =
40.70 %, SD = 3.84) groups, d = 2.04 and 3.96, respectively, as well as significantly superior
prediction accuracy by the visual-perceptual group over the control group, d = 1.91. The
occlusion main effect was due to significantly superior prediction accuracy in the no
occlusion condition (M = 67.30 %, SD = 4.52) compared to the other temporal occlusion
conditions. Table 2 presents one-sample t-tests that show each groups prediction relative to
the guessing level of 33.33 percent.
Performance in training sessions. In relation acquisition during practice, Figure 5
plots mean percentage for prediction accuracy for the visual-perceptual and visuomotor
groups at the ball release temporal occlusion condition, as well as mean percentage accuracy
of components reproduced of the bowling motor pattern across each of the eight training
sessions. Intraclass correlation revealed strong inter- and intra-rater reliability of (r = 0.97)
and (r = 0.98), respectively, for prediction accuracy scores. Intraclass correlation also
revealed strong inter- and intra-rater reliability of (r = 0.95) and (r = 0.96), respectively, for
motor pattern scores.
In relation to prediction accuracy across training sessions, factorial ANOVA revealed
significant main effects for group, F(1, 24) = 16.89, p < .001, ηp2 = .41, session F(7, 168) =
12.17, p < .001, ηp2 = .33, and a group x session interaction, F(7, 168) = 3.17, p < .001, ηp
2 =
.11. Post-hoc tests indicated that the group main effect was due to significantly superior
prediction accuracy by the visuomotor group (M = 60.73 %, SD = 2.84) over the visual-
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perceptual group (M = 52.48 %, SD = 2.84) across all sessions, d = 2.90. The session main
effect was due to training session one (video version) prediction being significantly higher
than all others (M = 75.00 %, SD = 6.30). The source of the interaction was due to the
visuomotor group’s significantly higher prediction accuracy performance curve to the visual-
perceptual group from session five onwards (ps < .05). Prediction accuracy was significantly
above the guessing level of 33.33 percent for all sessions for both groups (ps < .01), except
for session three for the visuomotor group. In relation to reproduction of motor pattern
components, the repeated measures ANOVA revealed a session main effect, F(2.93, 35.22) =
5.60, p = .003, ηp2 = .31. Post-hoc tests indicated there was a significant improvement from
training session one to two, which was maintained across all other sessions.
Figure 5. Performance curve for mean motor pattern reproduction for the visuomotor group
and mean percentage prediction accuracy for the intervention groups at the ball release
temporal occlusion condition relative to training sessions.
The results indicate that club cricket batsman can learn to anticipate a fast bowler’s
action from the earliest advance cue temporal occlusion condition through visual-perceptual
or visuomotor pattern training. Participation in sports-specific practice and matches alone
does not contribute to learning of anticipation as there was no significant improvements for
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the control group. Additive motor pattern practice of the observed fast bowler’s action
coupled with visual-perceptual training facilitates superior transfer to pick-up visual cues for
anticipation from the earliest advance cue temporal occlusion condition across two different
types of bowlers. It appears that club batsmen can reproduce the observed motor pattern very
early during training, but coupled with response accuracy performance improvements across
sessions seems to contribute to maximizing learning and transfer.
Experiment 2
Although experiment 1 provided evidence that visual-perceptual training coupled with
motor pattern training maximized learning and transfer of anticipation, the importance of this
coupling is unclear. Further evidence is necessary to confirm the value of acquiring the motor
pattern that one observes to the improvement of anticipation skill. This can be targeted
through different types of interference tasks as has been done previously in the literature (see
Mulligan et al., 2016; Witt & Proffitt, 2008), but designed for the exemplar sport-specific
task of cricket batting. The purpose of experiment 2 was to interfere with motor pattern
acquisition during visual-perceptual training in order to further determine the additive value
of motor pattern training. Based upon the finding of experiment 1 and previous literature, it
was hypothesized that interfering with motor pattern practice would reduce the benefits to
learning and transfer of anticipation skill relative to the visuomotor training group from
experiment 1.
Method
Participants
Eleven club cricket batsmen from a different district cricket club in the same
competition as those from experiment 1 were recruited for this study to form a visuomotor
pattern interference training group. Like experiment 1, the group was comprised of
approximately half Division 1 and 2 cricket batters (Mage = 19.6, age range: 18 – 22 years).
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Ethical approval was received from the relevant university committee and participants gave
written informed consent.
Experimental Design and Procedures
The pre-, post-, and transfer test phases, as well as the visual-perceptual training
component were exactly the same as per the visuomotor training group in experiment 1. The
main difference in this experiment was that after each practice trial of visual-perceptual
training and feedback, participants were instructed to bowl a different ball type to the one
they just observed. For example, if the visual-perceptual training practice trial was an
outswinger occluded at the ball release temporal occlusion condition, immediately after the
unoccluded feedback trial, participants were informed to bowl an inswinger using their own
inswing bowling action rather than bowl that they had observed. Accordingly, acquisition of
the motor pattern was interfered with in terms of the action and ball type participants
observed. Frequency and duration of training was the same as the intervention groups in
experiment 1.
Dependent Measures and Statistical Analyses
The dependent measures and statistical analyses were essentially the same as for the
visuomotor training group in experiment 1. First, a 2 pre-post-test phase x 4 temporal
occlusion repeated measures ANOVA was run on overall ball type prediction accuracy.
Second, one sample t-tests were run to investigate overall ball type prediction accuracy
relative to the guessing level of 33.33 percent across temporal occlusion for pre-, post- and
transfer-tests. Third, a 2 group (visuomotor interference and visuomotor training from
experiment 1) x 2 test phase x 4 temporal occlusion condition factorial ANOVA with
repeated measures on the last two factors was run, with the acquivelant for the transfer tests.
Finally, a repeated measures ANOVA was run on the reproduction of the motor pattern. For
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repeated measures analyses that violated the assumption of sphericity, a Greenhous-Geisser
correction was applied.
Results and Discussion
Pre- and post-tests. Figure 6 plots mean percentage accuracy of anticipation for the
visuomotor interference training group in relation to pre-post-test phases and temporal
occlusion conditions. The repeated measures ANOVA revealed, no significant testing phase
main effect, F(1, 10) = 1.54, p = .24, ηp2 = .13, nor a temporal occlusion x testing phase
interaction, F(3, 30) = 2.42, p = .08, ηp2 = .19. A significant occlusion main effect was found,
F(1.92, 19.26) = 44.25, p < .001, ηp2 = .81, which was due to superior prediction under the no
occlusion condition (M = 67.04 %, SD = 4.40). Table 3 presents one-sample t-tests that show
prediction relative to the guessing level of 33.33 percent. The factorial ANOVA that
compared the visuomotor training group from experiment 1 to the visuomotor interference
group in this experiment, revealed a group main effect, F(1, 22) = 18.70, p < .001, ηp2 = .46,
which was due to superior overall prediction by the visuomotor training group (M = 51.92 %,
SD = 3.00) over the visuomotor interference group (M = 43.08 %, SD = 2.76). There were no
group x testing time, F(1, 22) = 0.09, p = .765, ηp2 = .004, nor a group x testing time x
occlusion condition, F(3, 66) = 2.30, p = .085, ηp2 = .09, interactions.
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Figure 6. Mean percentage accuracy of anticipation for the visuomotor interference training
group across test phases and temporal occlusion conditions. Horizontal line indicates
guessing level of 33.33% and asterisks indicate prediction above guessing level. Error bars
represent standard error of the mean.
Transfer tests. Figure 7 plots mean percentage accuracy of anticipation for the
visuomotor interference training group in relation to the temporal occlusion conditions for the
fast and slow bowler transfer tests. Table 4 presents one-sample t-tests that show prediction
relative to the guessing level of 33.33 percent. For the fast bowler, the factorial ANOVA
comparing the visuomotor training group from experiment 1 to the visuomotor interference
group in this experiment, revealed a group main effect, F(1, 22) = 13.03, p = .003, ηp2 = .37,
which was due to superior overall prediction by the visuomotor training group from
experiment 1 (M = 60.41 %, SD = 6.46) over the visuomotor interference group (M = 43.18
%, SD = 7.02). There was no group x occlusion interaction, F(3, 66) = 1.12, p = .345, ηp2 =
.049. For the slow bowler, again, the factorial ANOVA revealed a group main effect, F(1, 22)
= 14.55, p = .001, ηp2 = .39, which was due to superior overall prediction by the visuomotor
training group from experiment 1 (M = 55.92 %, SD = 3.78) over the visuomotor interference
group (M = 45.26 %, SD = 4.10). There was no group x occlusion interaction, F(3, 66) =
2.42, p = .07, ηp2 = .09.
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Figure 7. Mean percentage accuracy of anticipation for the visuomotor interference training
group across temporal occlusion conditions for the fast and slow bowler transfer tests.
Horizontal line indicates guessing level of 33.33% and asterisks indicate prediction above
guessing level. Error bars represent standard error of the mean.
Performance in training sessions. Figure 8 plots mean percentage prediction
accuracy for the visuomotor interference training group at the ball release temporal occlusion
condition, as well as mean percentage accuracy of components of the bowling motor pattern
reproduced, across the eight training sessions. The repeated measures ANOVA for prediction
accuracy revealed a significant main effect of session, F(7, 70) = 15.87, p < .001, ηp2 = .61.
Post-hoc analysis indicated prediction accuracy in the first training session was significantly
higher than all other sessions, (p < .05). Prediction accuracy was significantly above the
guessing level of 33.33 percent for the first session only (p < .001). The repeated measures
ANOVA for reproduction of the motor pattern revealed no significant improvement across
the sessions, F(7, 70) = 1.21, p = .30, ηp2 = .10.
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Figure 8. Performance curve for mean percentage prediction accuracy at the ball release
temporal occlusion condition and mean motor pattern reproduction for the visuomotor
interference group relative to training sessions.
The results indicate that interfering with reproduction of the observed motor pattern
inhibited learning to pick-up advance cues across pre- to post-test phases in comparison to
visuomotor training in experiment 1. In addition, interfering with motor pattern reproduction
eliminated performance improvement in prediction accuracy during the training sessions to
levels where participants were mostly guessing. Reproduction of the motor pattern also did
not improve across the training sessions, which was the purpose of the experiment,
confirming that participants were not acquiring the bowling pattern they observed. The
interference strategy was effective in preventing acquisition of the observed bowling pattern,
which in turn, had significant detrimental effects on improvement of anticipation skill.
General Discussion
The overall purpose of this dual-experiment investigation was to extend theoretical
knowledge of whether visual-perceptual and motor experience contributes to visual
anticipation in an exemplar striking sport skill of cricket batting. Based upon the reviewed
literature, the theoretical predictions that espoused visual-perceptual and motor experience
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contributions to anticipation, couched within common-coding theory (Prinz, 1997; Schütz-
Bosbach & Prinz, 2007), had been previously tested in performance studies, ‘matched’
visual-perceptual-motor skills, and visual-perceptual anticipation tasks. Experiment 1 went
beyond previous sport expertise literature to test the predictions of common-coding theory, as
well as visual-perceptual and motor experience hypotheses in a learning and transfer design
of a ‘mismatched’ visual-perceptual-motor skill, and a visual-perceptual-motor response
anticipation task. Thereafter, experiment 2 built upon the findings of experiment 1, to
interfere with acquisition of the observed motor pattern, and in turn, probe in a unique sports-
specific manner, the contribution of motor pattern acquisition to the learning and transfer of
visual anticipation skill. Collectively, the findings of these experiments extend theoretical and
applied knowledge.
Visual and motor contributions to learning of anticipation
The key focus to evaluate whether the interventions contributed to learning and
transfer of anticipation in both experiments is based upon improved pick-up of advance
information. This is because early visual information is necessary to circumvent the high time
constraints, as well as deception, encountered in striking sport skills (Morris-Binelli &
Müller, 2017). In relation to experiment 1, the findings relative to learning are consistent with
hypothesis 1, which predicted both visual-perceptual and visuomotor groups would improve
their anticipation based upon advance information across pre-post-tests. It appears that
learning of visual anticipation skill can be equally improved using either visual-perceptual
temporal occlusion training with a sports-specific response or coupled with motor pattern
training of the observed bowler’s action. This is evidenced by improvement in anticipation
across pre-to-post-tests for all temporal occlusion conditions to above guessing level, but
with no differences between intervention groups (see Figure 3). This implies motor pattern
training does not provide additive benefits over visual-perceptual temporal occlusion training
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in relation to learning. The reason could be that visual-perceptual information was profound
in the training to guide pick-up of visual cues for anticipation (see Diaz et al. 2013). This
finding is consistent with the prediction of common-coding theory that visual-perceptual
information can map onto the motor representation to contribute to a complementary
anticipatory motor response (Schütz-Bosbach & Prinz, 2007). Moreover, use of advance
visual-perceptual information based upon visual and/or motor experience is consistent with
previous performance (e.g., Tomeo et al., 2013) and learning (e.g., Mulligan & Hodges,
2014; Mulligan et al., 2016) studies of visual anticipation. Therefore, visual-perceptual
temporal occlusion training alone or coupled to motor pattern training with a complementary
action response is useful for the enhancement of anticipation in a striking sport skill.
Visual and motor contributions to transfer of anticipation
The findings of experiment 1, in relation to transfer to the different fast bowler, is also
consistent with hypothesis 2, which predicted that the visuomotor group would pick-up
earlier advance information in comparison to the visual-perceptual group. Here, unique
evidence is provided that visuomotor pattern training facilitates superior transfer of
anticipation than visual-perceptual training alone. This is evidenced by superior anticipation
by the visuomotor pattern training group over the visual-perceptual training group based upon
pick-up of advance information from the earliest temporal occlusion condition (see Figure
4a). This implies the importance of the additive benefit of motor pattern training to strengthen
the linkage between the embodied motor pattern experiences of what is perceived to the pick-
up of advance cues through visual-perceptual training. Further supportive evidence of the
additive value of motor pattern training is available through prediction accuracy that was
above guessing level from the earliest temporal occlusion condition in the transfer fast
bowler’s test (see Figure 4a). In comparison, the visual-perceptual training group’s prediction
accuracy was only above chance at the ball release temporal occlusion condition (see Figure
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4a). Accordingly, motor pattern training of an observed opponent extends improvements to
anticipation beyond a learning context to facilitate superior transfer to kinematic information
of a bowler not previously experienced.
The superior facilitation of transfer from additive motor pattern training appears to be
in the tight linkage to pick-up visual cue information from the earliest evolving kinematics of
the bowling action. There are several possible explanations for this finding. First, motor
pattern practice of the observed bowling action could have developed a generalizable
‘internal model’ of bowling movement patterns that is tightly linked to the observed
kinematics of bowling patterns to pick-up cues for anticipation (see Diaz et al., 2013; Zago et
al., 2009). Second, motor experience of bowling could map onto observed bowling actions, in
line with the predictions of common-coding theory, to influence how one perceives (Schütz-
Bosbach & Prinz, 2007). Third, additive motor pattern training of the observed bowler’s
action, created a ‘matched’ scenario between motor experience possessed by the batter and
the observed bowler’s movement pattern, which prior to the study was ‘mismatched’ and
where a complementary anticipatory response is required. Collectively, this progresses
understanding beyond existing literature on visual and motor contributions to anticipation
(e.g., Colling et al., 2014; Mulligan & Hodges, 2014) by demonstrating transfer of
anticipation to a unique observed movement pattern can be facilitated by developing a
‘match’ between the performer and observer’s motor patterns.
The findings of experiment 1, in relation to transfer to a different slow bowler, was
not consistent with hypothesis 3, which predicted that none of the groups would pick-up
advance information. Here, again, unique and further compelling evidence is provided of the
additive value of motor pattern practice over visual-perceptual training alone, to the transfer
of improved anticipation. This is evidenced by superior anticipation of the visuomotor pattern
training group over the visual-perceptual training group from the earliest advance cue
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temporal occlusion condition in the slow bowler’s action (see Figure 4b). Although the
visual-perceptual training group could anticipate above chance at ball release, the visuomotor
training group predicted above chance from the earliest temporal occlusion condition (see
Figure 4b). This implies the embodied motor pattern of a fast bowler’s action strengthens the
linkage between pick-up of advance cues through visual-perceptual training, which transfers
to a slow bowler who uses subtle differences in their bowling action. The reasons for these
benefits could be as mentioned earlier in terms of development of generalizable ‘internal
model’, mapping of motor experience to observed visual-perceptual information, as well as
‘closer matching’ of performer and opponent motor patterns. This is important because it
identifies that the motor pattern component of training can benefit the adaptability of visual
anticipation to different bowler movement patterns, which is representative of facing multiple
bowlers during competition. Again, these findings build upon existing literature (e.g., Colling
et al., 2014; Mulligan & Hodges, 2014) to demonstrate that the additive value of motor
training, which ‘matches’ performer motor experience to that of the opponent, has benefits
beyond the learning context.
Advancement of theoretical knowledge
Collectively, these findings relative to transfer have important theoretical significance
for common-coding theory, embodied visual-perception and motor simulation. That is, an
acquired motor pattern of an opponent can transfer to influence superior anticipation
capability when faced with unique opponent movement patterns not previously experienced.
There is evidence in the transfer of anticipation sport literature to support this conclusion,
being that what is acquired in one similar context can facilitate equal performance to experts
in another similar context, such as transfer of anticipation by karate experts to anticipate a
taekwondo opponent to an equal level as taekwondo experts (Rosalie & Müller, 2014). The
locus of this transfer capability could be the generalized application of motor experience to
104
facilitate superior anticipation. As mentioned above, this might occur through strengthening
of the linkage between initial visual-perceptual kinematic cues of the bowler to the embodied
motor pattern to a complementary response, possibly through an ‘internal model’ (Diaz et al.,
2013; Zago et al., 2009). Therefore, the evidence presented here suggests there is rich
potential to further understanding of embodiment and visual-perception (Witt, 2017b) as well
as motor simulation (Wilson & Knoblich, 2005) through investigation of transfer.
Tracking performance improvement during training sessions, as well as interfering
with motor pattern acquisition provides further insights into the mechanism underpinning
visual and motor experience contributions to anticipation. In experiment 1, although there
was an initial decrease in performance response accuracy after session one for both groups,
which is likely due to the more demanding point-light display in comparison to the video
stimulus (see Abernethy et al., 2001), performance of the visuomotor training group
improved significantly in comparison to the visual-perceptual training group (see Figure 5).
Furthermore, motor pattern acquisition by the visuomotor group was at a high level to begin
with and improved further to be maintained across all training sessions (see Figure 5).
Accordingly, it appears for the visuomotor training group that during performance, a tight
linkage was being forged between visual-perceptual temporal occlusion training, motor
pattern reproduction and a complementary response. This tight linkage could have been
mediated through the development of an experience-based ‘internal model’ (Diaz et al.,
2013). The established tight linkage translated not only to learning benefits, but went beyond
this to transfer to kinematic patterns that were not previously experienced during the training
sessions. This is consistent with previous literature that has reported the value of visuomotor
training to improve performance response accuracy over visual-perceptual training alone
(Mulligan et al., 2016). In experiment 2, when motor pattern acquisition was interfered from
its coupling with visual-perceptual temporal occlusion training, and the complementary
105
response, prediction accuracy performance decreased after the first session with no
improvements thereafter. Unsurprisingly, motor pattern reproduction was lower in
experiment 2, than experiment 1, and did not improve during the training sessions (see
Figures 5 and 8). This had a profound negative effect, with the experiment 2 visuomotor
interference training group not improving across pre-to-post-tests of the same fast bowler
kinematics (learning) (see Figure 6), nor was their prediction above chance for different
bowlers they had not previously experienced (transfer) (see Figure 7). The reason for this
could be that an ‘internal model’ was not developed and that motor experience of the
performer did not tightly ‘match’ the opponent, as was sufficiently developed in the
visuomotor group in experiment 1. Therefore, it can be argued that the interference task
decoupled the linkage between the embodied motor pattern, visual-perceptual training and a
complementary response. This implies that learning the motor pattern of what one observes
makes a vital additive contribution to improve anticipation in a striking sport skill.
Practical Application, Conclusion, Limitations and Future Research
The findings from this dual-experiment paper have implications for practitioners such
as the sport psychologist, skill acquisition specialist, sports coaches across the skill
continuum, and high performance sport staff. First, video-based temporal occlusion training
can be easily structured around athlete standard practice to improve anticipation skill. For
example, visual-perceptual training equipment used in our experiments can be set-up in a
sport facility with athletes required to rotate from on field practice tasks to temporal
occlusion training or done through a mobile application. This is important because the
common focus of athlete development is on improving technical execution and fitness, which
does not develop anticipation skill. Second, motor pattern training of the observed opponent
movement pattern coupled with temporal occlusion training can facilitate improvements to
anticipation across learning and transfer contexts. This is important because athletes do not
106
compete against a single opponent, but rather multiple opponents such as cricket bowlers or
baseball pitchers, who have slightly different techniques to achieve the same motor skill (e.g.,
bowling an outswinger in cricket or pitching a fastball in baseball). Third, athletes should be
encouraged to practice and learn motor skills beyond their chosen specialization in a sport,
which can contribute to development of their visual anticipation skill. For example, baseball
and cricket batters should also be encouraged to learn how to bowl and pitch, respectively.
Furthermore, sampling a variety of sports may provide strong embodied movement patterns
to develop anticipation skill in the eventual target sport. This may also provide a motor skill
foundation to broaden participation within and between sports.
A potential limitation is that an active control group was not included in experiment 1.
Such a group could be required to watch only the no occlusion point-light displays or videos
of cricket matches, which would cancel out possible influence of placebo effect to
improvement of anticipation. There is evidence, however, to indicate that placebo and no-
practice control groups do not improve on post-tests after receiving anticipation training (e.g.,
Milazzo, Farrow, & Fournier, 2014; Williams, Ward, Knowles, & Smeeton, 2002).
Furthermore, it is difficult to convince semi-professional club players, such as those in our
experiments, to participate as “active” controls. This is because club players and their
coaches want to be involved in an assessment (occlusion test) to determine their anticipation
capability and/or how anticipation can be improved. Another potential limitation was the
rating system for motor pattern reproduction. The described grip rating is consistently used to
bowl all three ball types used in our experiments, which may have inflated the base
percentage score that could be achieved. Future research could omit component one and
focus on components two to five of bowling technique that may vary more across bowling
actions or provide a more intricate analysis of the grip such as angle of the seam.
107
In conclusion, this paper advanced theoretical understanding of visual and motor
experience contributions to anticipation in an exemplar striking sport skill. Combined visual
and motor experience appears important to maximize learning and transfer of anticipation
skill, rather than training pick-up of advance information on its own. Future research could
expand upon our design to include a retention test to determine the robustness of the two
interventions, as well as in-situ temporal vision occlusion glasses or a performance test to
determine if different modes of training transfer to field-based settings. This remains a
challenge for multiple reasons including logistics and accessibility to participant time
(Müller, Brenton, & Rosalie, 2015). In addition, future research could investigate whether
variability if the acquisition of the observed bowling pattern is related to the capability to
transfer based upon principles of variability of practice that form part of Schema Theory (see
Magill & Anderson, 2017). Collectively, a foundation exists to further test theoretical
predictions within applied tasks that can guide athlete development across the skill
continuum.
108
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Tables
Table 1
Experiment 1 Pre-Post-Test Chance Comparison T-Tests for Experimental Groups
Group Pre-Test Post-Test
BFI FFI R NO BFI FFI R NO
VP t(12) =
0.30,
p =
.765
t(12) =
1.25,
p =
.237
t(12) =
2.55,
p = .025
t(12) =
7.88,
p <
.001
t(12) =
5.82,
p < .001
t(12) =
7.50,
p <
.001
t(12) =
4.62,
p <
.001
t(12) =
12.84, p
< .001
VM t(12) =
0.45,
p =
.655
t(12) =
0.71,
p =
.488
t(12) =
1.51,
p = .156
t(12) =
8.84,
p <
.001
t(12) =
4.18,
p =
.001
t(12) =
5.68,
p <
.001
t(12) =
4.71,
p =
.001
t(12) =
11.72, p
< .001
CON t(12) =
1.13,
p =
.279
t(12) =
-0.86, p
= .406
t(12) =
0.635, p
= .537
t(12) =
9.17,
p <
.001
t(12) =
-.31,
p =
.760
t(12) =
0.43,
p =
.672
t(12) =
0.84,
p =
.415
t(12) =
4.94,
p < .001
Note. Visual-Perceptual (VP), Visuomotor (VM), Control (CON), Back-Foot Impact (BFI),
Front-Foot Impact (FFI), Ball Release (R), No Occlusion (NO).
116
Table 2
Experiment 1 Transfer Test Chance Comparison T-Tests for Experimental Groups
Group Fast Bowler Slow Bowler
BFI FFI R NO BFI FFI R NO
VP t(12) =
1.95,
p =
.075
t(12) =
1.64,
p =
.125
t(12) =
4.43,
p =
.001
t(12) =
8.79,
p < .001
t(12) =
1.59,
p = .137
t(12) =
.84,
p =
.415
t(12) =
4.42,
p =
.001
t(12) =
7.12,
p < .001
VM t(12) =
3.78,
p =
.003
t(12) =
3.87,
p =
.002
t(12) =
3.82,
p =
.002
t(12) =
12.17, p
< .001
t(12) =
3.63,
p =
.003
t(12) =
4.50,
p =
.001
t(12) =
4.62,
p =
.001
t(12) =
10.93, p
< .001
CON t(12) =
-.31,
p =
.760
t(12) =
.14,
p =
.888
t(12) =
-3.42, p
= .005
t(12) =
6.74,
p < .001
t(12) =
-1.19, p
= .252
t(12) =
0.18,
p =
.853
t(12) =
1.43,
p =
.173
t(12) =
10.90, p
< .001
Note. Visual-Perceptual (VP), Visuomotor (VM), Control (CON), Back-Foot Impact (BFI),
Front-Foot Impact (FFI), Ball Release (R), No Occlusion (NO).
117
Table 3
Experiment 2 Pre-Post Test Chance Comparison T-Tests
Group Pre-Test Post-Test
BFI FFI R NO BFI FFI R NO
VMI t(10) =
.61,
p =
.552
t(10) =
.97,
p =
.351
t(10) =
.32,
p =
.756
t(10) =
10.86, p
< .001
t(10) =
1.00,
p = .340
t(10) =
.17,
p =
.867
t(10) =
.001,
p =
.999
t(10) =
17.33, p
< .001
Note. Visuomotor Interference (VMI), Back-Foot Impact (BFI), Front-Foot Impact (FFI),
Ball Release (R), No Occlusion (NO).
Table 4
Experiment 2 Transfer Test Chance Comparison T-Tests
Group Fast Bowler Slow Bowler
BFI FFI R NO BFI FFI R NO
VMI t(10) =
.96,
p =
.360
t(10) =
-.20,
p =
.840
t(10) =
-.42,
p =
.677
t(10) =
6.69,
p <
.001
t(10) =
1.49,
p = .167
t(10) =
.61,
p =
.552
t(10) =
1.32,
p = .215
t(10) =
21.49, p
< .001
Note. Visuomotor Interference (VMI), Back-Foot Impact (BFI), Front-Foot Impact (FFI),
Ball Release (R), No Occlusion (NO).
118
CHAPTER 5
Visual-perceptual training with acquisition of the observed motor pattern improves
anticipation and benefits batting average in emerging expert batsmen
Revised Version
Abstract
Objectives: To determine whether point-light display training with motor practice of the
observed bowler’s action improves anticipation and batting average in emerging expert
cricket batsmen.
Design: Pre-and-post-test control group design with transfer tests.
Methods: Twelve emerging expert batsmen from a high performance state cricket squad were
equally randomised into intervention and control groups. They were pre-and-post tested on a
video temporal occlusion test of a fast bowler, as well as transfer video temporal occlusion
tests of different fast and slow bowlers. The intervention (visuomotor) group received two
sessions of point-light display temporal occlusion training with motor practice of the
observed bowler’s action over a four week period. The control group participated only in the
testing phases. Batting average before, during, and after the study were recorded for both
groups.
Results: The visuomotor group, but not the control group, significantly improved their
capability to anticipate the fast bowler across pre-to-post-tests based upon pre-ball flight
information (advance cues). The visuomotor group, but not the control group, transferred
their learning to anticipate based upon pre-ball flight information across different fast and
slow (spin) bowlers not previously experienced in the study. The visuomotor group had a
higher batting average than the control group during the study.
Conclusions: Point-light display temporal occlusion training with motor practice of the
observed bowler’s action can improve anticipation of emerging expert batsmen in laboratory-
119
based tests. The improvements to anticipation by the intervention group transferred to a better
batting average than the control group.
Keywords; Visual anticipation, visual-perceptual training, motor pattern acquisition,
temporal occlusion, cricket batting.
120
Visual-perceptual training with acquisition of the observed motor pattern improves
anticipation and benefits batting average in emerging expert batsmen
Introduction
Visual anticipation is well established as crucial for successful performance in high-
speed striking sports skills such as baseball (Fadde, 2016) and cricket (Renshaw &
Fairweather, 2000) batting. This is because extreme time constraints are created when a
bowler delivers a ball at high velocity limiting the batman’s time to use information from ball
flight alone to prepare and execute a stroke. Experts (established international and state
players) are superior at dealing with this high time constraint than lesser skilled players, due
to the pick-up of visual cues from their opponent’s kinematics before the ball is in flight
(known as advance cues) (Morris-Binelli & Müller, 2017). Pick-up of advance kinematic
cues allows experts to anticipate future ball location and guide positioning of their lower
body in order to strike the ball(Morris-Binelli & Müller, 2017). Whilst an extensive body of
literature exists regarding the superior capability of experts over lesser skilled players to use
advance kinematic information, there is less evidence of whether anticipation can be trained
(Morris-Binelli & Müller, 2017). Finding ways to improve anticipation, particularly for
emerging expert athletes, is of high importance to coaches and sports science support staff
who invest significant time and money to prepare athletes for competition.
A common method used to test and train anticipation is the video-based temporal
occlusion paradigm (Morris-Binelli & Müller, 2017). Video simulation footage of an
opponent such as a baseball pitcher or cricket bowler executing different pitches or ball types
is filmed. The footage is then edited to place a black video frame at a critical point(s) in the
opponent’s kinematics, for example, the instant of ball release in a cricket bowler’s action to
control the time or duration of visual information from the bowler’s action that is visible to
the performer (batter). The footage can be converted to a dynamic point-light display, where
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points-of-light are placed on anatomical landmarks of the opponent with a black background,
allowing presentation of pure kinematic information void of colour, contour or shape
(Abernethy, Gill, Parks, & Packer, 2001). Participants can respond to anticipate from video or
point-light displays with either a written answer in a booklet or a sport-specific motor action.
When used for training, feedback is commonly provided through a repeated un-occluded
version of the previous occluded trial. Experts, but not lesser skilled players, are capable of
using advance information from a video simulation to anticipate above chance (Abernethy et
al., 2001). Experts are also capable of using advance information from a point-light display in
order to anticipate above chance, but prediction is more difficult resulting in poorer
performance than compared to a video display(Abernethy et al., 2001).
Temporal occlusion video or point-light display training is not to our knowledge
currently a frequent part of high performance athlete or cricket training. For example, cricket
batters practice their strokes by facing bowlers in practice nets, but spend considerably more
time fine-tuning their stroke execution by facing a ball projection machine that does not
present advance cues (Müller, Brenton, & Rosalie, 2015; Pinder, Renshaw, Davids, &
Kerherv, 2011). The lack of exposure to video temporal occlusion and difficulty associated
with anticipating a point-light display need to be taken into consideration when designing
occlusion training. This means progressive challenge and difficulty of occlusion training need
to be incorporated across training sessions. Task difficulty has been progressively increased
by presenting a ball flight occlusion condition first followed by ball release occlusion
conditions, thereafter randomised trials of both (Müller, Gurisik, Hecimovich, Harbaugh, &
Vallence, 2017). Similarly, Gray (Gray, 2017) progressively adjusted task difficult by first
varying speed of pitch types to one location, and second, varying pitch types and locations.
Both these progressive challenge approaches resulted in improved visual-perceptual-motor
skill (Gray, 2017; Müller et al., 2017).
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The majority of previous studies that have used video temporal occlusion training
have reported improved anticipation of novices in tennis groundstrokes,(Singer et al., 1994),
squash strokes,(Abernethy, Wood, & Parks, 1999), and field-hockey goalkeeping,(Williams,
Ward, & Chapman, 2003), as well as in skilled players in tennis groundstrokes,(Smeeton,
Hodges, Williams, & Ward, 2005), field hockey goalkeeping,(Müller et al., 2017), and
cricket batting (Smeeton, Hibbert, Stevenson, Cumming, & Williams, 2013). These studies
indicate that temporal occlusion training can improve anticipation to the level of the skilled
athlete, but research is needed to determine whether anticipation can be improved in
emerging expert athletes. In addition, there is very little evidence of whether improvements to
anticipation transfer to an in-situ test or competition performance. Few studies have reported
that temporal occlusion training transferred to improvement in an in-situ test with skilled,
(Müller et al., 2017; Williams, Ward, Knowles, & Smeeton, 2002), and expert (Hopwood,
Mann, Farrow, & Nielsen, 2011) athletes, but there is no evidence to our knowledge of its
benefits to competition performance.
Recently, researchers have begun to investigate the value of visual-perceptual and
motor training to improve visual anticipation. For example, Mulligan and Hodges, (Mulligan
& Hodges, 2014) compared visual-perceptual and motor training to improvement of dart
location anticipation in novices. They found that two motor training groups, who practiced
throwing darts with, and without-vision, significantly improved their capability to anticipate
dart location on a temporal occlusion test to a superior level than a group that learned through
visual-perceptual training by observation alone. This indicates that acquisition or possession
of the motor pattern that one observes contributes to anticipation, which is consistent with the
findings of previous anticipation performance studies (Aglioti, Cesari, Romani, & Urgesi,
2008). Striking skills such as cricket batting, unlike darts, is an open skill where the batter has
to anticipate a bowler, but does not possess the movement pattern of the bowler. Brenton,
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Müller and Dempsey (2018, under review) compared the value of point-light display
temporal occlusion training on its own, as well as coupled with motor practice of the
observed bowler’s action, in club cricket batters. They found both training modes improved
anticipation (learning) on a video temporal occlusion test of a fast bowler, but transfer of
improved anticipation to a video temporal occlusion test of different bowlers (fast and spin)
was superior for the group that received motor practice of the observed bowler’s action.
The purpose of this study was to investigate: (a) whether point-light display temporal
occlusion training, with motor practice of the observed bowler’s action, could improve
learning and transfer of visual anticipation in emerging expert cricket batsmen, and (b)
whether anticipation training transferred to benefit competition batting average in the
intervention group when the training was delivered. It was hypothesised that: (i) the
intervention group who received point-light display temporal occlusion training with motor
pattern training, but not the no-practice control group, would improve anticipation across the
pre-post-test and transfer test bowlers, and (ii) the intervention group would have a higher
batting average than the control group in matches played during the period the study was
conducted.
Methods
Twelve emerging expert specialist male cricket batsmen from a high performance
state cricket squad in Australia were recruited and equally randomised into two groups. State
cricket is below the national level in Australia. Accordingly, as the sport participation skill
level increases there is a smaller pool of athletes (Müller et al., 2015). None of the batsmen
had played first class (state) cricket. The groups consisted of a visuomotor pattern training (n
= 6; M age = 23.5 ± 2.75 years) and a control (n = 6; M age = 22.2 ± 3.01 years). University
ethics approval was obtained and written informed consent from participants was provided.
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The study consisted of a pre- and post-test control group design with transfer tests. A
video-based temporal occlusion test previously reported to demonstrate fine-grained
discriminant validity across skilled to expert cricket batsmen was used in the pre-post-tests
(Brenton, Müller, & Mansingh, 2016; Müller, Abernethy, & Farrow, 2006). The test
consisted of 48 trials, composed of 3 ball types x 4 temporal occlusion conditions x 4 repeats.
The ball types were: (a) a full length outswinger (a ball that lands closer to and swings away
from the batter), (b) a full length inswinger (a ball that lands closer to and swings in towards
the batter), and (c) a short length ball (a ball that lands closer to the bowler and bounces
higher). The temporal occlusion conditions employed were those that presented only advance
information of the bowler’s action until: (i) back-foot impact (BFI), (ii) front-foot impact
(FFI), and (iii) ball release, with a no occlusion control condition that displayed the bowler’s
run-up, action and all ball flight. Participants viewed three unoccluded trials of all ball types
and undertook two temporal occlusion practice trials to familiarise themselves prior to the
test.
A Dell Latitude laptop (model 2009) and Epson projector (model EMP1700) were
used to present the test in an indoor cricket venue. A batting crease was constructed in front
of the projector screen (1.4 m x 1.4 m) using masking tape on the floor with a taped
perpendicular line from the crease towards the screen from the middle of plastic cricket
stumps. The batting crease location was scaled to a viewing angle requiring the batsman to
stand 6 m from the screen to represent match conditions. Participants were required to watch
the footage and anticipate by playing a batting stroke (sport-specific action) corresponding to
the ball type. A stroke to the right or left side of the perpendicular line and backward of the
batting crease indicated anticipation of the outswinger, inswinger and short ball, respectively
for a right-handed batter. These movements are reversed for a left-handed batter. The test
video together with the response of the participant were simultaneously recorded using a
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standard 25Hz Sony video camera (model NEX-VG10) for later coding. Participants
undertook each testing session independently of each other. The transfer tests involved video-
based temporal occlusion of a different fast bowler and a slow (spin) bowler, with the spin
bowler test previously used in the literature (Müller et al., 2006). The trial matrix for each of
the transfer tests were the same as the pre-post-tests, that is, 3 ball types x 4 temporal
occlusion conditions x 4 repeats, totalling 48 trials, with their order of delivery
counterbalanced within each experimental group.
The intervention group received temporal occlusion point-light display training
coupled with practice of the bowling pattern they observed (visuomotor pattern training) (see
Figure 1: Supplement). The control group only completed the pre-post and transfer test
phases. Both groups participated in their standard cricket practice and competed in matches
during the cricket season. The visuomotor intervention group undertook training sessions of
approximately 15 minutes duration twice weekly for a period of four weeks. The training
consisted of different versions of the same ball types from the fast bowler used in the
temporal occlusion pre- and post-tests. A point-light display was used in training as it has
been reported in previous research that experts only require pure kinematic information to
anticipate (Abernethy et al., 2001). The training matrix consisted of 3 ball types x 3 temporal
occlusion conditions x 4 repeats, totalling 36 trials. The training sessions were structured to
progressively challenge participants and guard against participant disengagement if the task
was too difficult early in the training period. Training session one was comprised of video
stimuli and the remaining seven training sessions consisted of point-light display stimuli.
Training sessions one to six were administered in blocked trials in sequential order from no
occlusion to pre-bounce temporal occlusion to ball release temporal occlusion. Each of the
occlusion conditions contained an equal number of trials. The remaining sessions (seven and
eight) were comprised of a randomised version of the three temporal occlusion conditions. In
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every practice trial the visuomotor training group viewed the point-light display stimuli,
played a sport-specific batting stroke, received feedback through an unoccluded version of
the ball type for trials that were occluded and finally, with a modified softer cricket ball,
bowled the ball they had viewed in the trial on an indoor cricket pitch. The standard 25Hz
video camera was used to capture practice of the bowling pattern, which was later
qualitatively analysed to determine acquisition of the observed motor pattern (Knudson &
Morrison, 2002).
Mean percentage prediction accuracy of overall ball type anticipation was the main
dependent variable. This was calculated at each of the temporal occlusion conditions across
all of the test phases. First, a 2 group x 2 pre-post-test phase x 4 temporal occlusion factorial
ANOVA was conducted to investigate learning. Second, a 2 group x 2 bowler x 4 temporal
occlusion factorial ANOVA was conducted to investigate each group’s capability to transfer
learning to the fast and slow bowlers. Tukey and pairwise post-hoc tests were used to explore
main and interaction effects. Third, one sample t-tests were used to determine whether
prediction accuracy for the three-choice task was above, at or below the guessing level of
33.33 percent. Fourth, inter- and intra-rater reliability was performed on all participants in the
test and training phases for the experimental groups in accordance with Portney and Watkins
(Portney & Watkins, 2009). Cohen’s d effect sizes were also calculated to explore selected
between group differences.
Performance improvement during the training sessions was also examined through
two dependent variables. First, mean percentage prediction accuracy summed across ball
types at the ball release temporal occlusion condition (advance cue condition), and second,
mean percentage accuracy of motor pattern reproduction of the observed bowler’s action,
were calculated. Two statistical tests were conducted on the prediction accuracy data: (i) 2
group x 8 session repeated measures ANOVA, and, (ii) one sample t-tests to determine
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prediction accuracy in relation to 33.33 percent guessing level. To determine participant
reproduction of the observed bowler’s motor pattern, five key components of the bowling
action were qualitatively analysed through comparison of participant bowling trials to the
observed training bowler stimuli that included (see Figure 2: Supplement): (i) grip of the ball
(relative to the video of training session one), (ii) position of the non-bowling front-arm, (iii)
wrist position of the bowling hand, (iv) follow through of the bowling arm, and (v) ball
trajectory (Portus, Sinclair, Burke, Moore, & Farhart, 2000). The first three components were
qualitatively assessed at back-foot impact, front-foot impact and ball release, whilst the
remaining two components were analysed after the ball was released, as these were the times
during the bowling action when they were evident (Glazier, Paradisis, & Cooper, 2000). Each
component was allocated a 1 for attainment or 0 for non-attainment, with the total score
compiled and converted to a percentage of overall reproduction of the observed bowling
motor pattern. The sum of the total score for each participant was averaged across the group
for each training session. A repeated measures ANOVA was run to compare motor pattern
reproduction accuracy score across the training sessions. Inter-rater (one research assistant)
and intra-rater (the researcher) reliability was performed on all dependent variables for all
participants. For pre-post-transfer tests this included 2304 trials, for the training sessions this
included 576 trials for anticipation at ball release occlusion and 1728 trials for motor pattern
reproduction. Alpha level was set at 0.05 for statistical tests and adjusted to .01 for chance
comparisons to guard against familywise error.
The number of innings batted and runs scored by participants in the experimental
groups during the same time period were sourced for the season prior to, season during the
study period, and season after the study, from the official website for cricket match statistics
in Australia (www.mycricket.com.au). Mean batting average was calculated for each of the
experimental groups with a 2 group x 3 time factorial ANOVA run to compare between-
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group match batting performance. A t-test was run to check whether batting average was
different prior to the study.
Results
Fig.3 plots mean percentage accuracy of anticipation for the visuomotor and control
groups in relation to the temporal occlusion conditions across pre- and post-test phases.
Intraclass correlation revealed strong inter- and intra-rater reliability of (r = 0.93) and (r =
0.98), respectively.
Figure 3. Mean overall percentage accuracy of anticipation for the experimental
groups across temporal occlusion conditions for pre- and post-test phases. Horizontal line
indicates guessing level of 33.33% and asterisks indicates prediction above guessing level.
Error bars indicate standard error of the mean.
Factorial ANOVA revealed a significant main effect for group, F(1, 10 = 63.66, p <
0.001) and a group x testing phase interaction, F(1, 10 = 10.24, p = 0.009). Pairwise
comparisons indicated that prediction accuracy of the visuomotor group was significantly
superior to the control group in the post-test (p < .05), with no between-group differences at
any temporal occlusion condition in the pre-test (p > .05). Effect sizes reflected the superior
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prediction of the visuomotor group at the advance cue temporal occlusion conditions in the
post-test, BFI (d = 2.66, p = .001), FFI (d = 1.95, p = .007), and R (d = 3.22, p < .001). One
sample t-tests indicated that neither group were significantly above the guessing level of
33.33 percent at the advance cue temporal occlusion conditions of BFI, FFI and R in the pre-
test. The visuomotor group improved their prediction accuracy in the post-test to significantly
above the guessing level at BFI, FFI, and R temporal occlusion conditions (p < .01), whereas
the control group remained at guessing level. Both groups were significantly above guessing
level in the no-occlusion temporal occlusion condition in the pre- and post-tests (p < 0.01).
Fig.4 (a) and (b), respectively, plots mean percentage accuracy of anticipation for the
visuomotor and control group in relation to temporal occlusion conditions for the fast and
slow bowler transfer tests.
(a)
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(b)
Figure 4. Mean overall percentage accuracy of anticipation for the experimental
groups across temporal occlusion conditions for the fast (a) and slow (b) bowler transfer tests.
Horizontal line indicates guessing level of 33.33% and asterisks indicate prediction above
guessing level. Error bars indicate standard error of the mean.
For the transfer bowler tests, factorial ANOVA revealed a significant group main
effect, F(1, 10 = 147.31, p < 0.001), with no significant three-way group x bowler x occlusion
interaction, F(3, 30) = .46, p = .710). A Tukey post-hoc test indicated that prediction accuracy
of the visuomotor group was significantly superior to the control group overall across
temporal occlusion conditions and bowlers. Effect sizes reflected the superior prediction of
the visuomotor group at the advance cue temporal occlusion conditions, BFI (Fast: d = 2.10,
p = .005, Slow: d = 2.75, p = .001), FFI (Fast: d = 2.08, p = .005, Slow: d = 2.50, p = .001),
and R (Fast, d = 3.54, p < .001, Slow: d = 2.75, p = .001). One sample t-tests indicated only
the visuomotor group predicted significantly above the guessing level of 33.33 percent across
all temporal occlusion conditions for fast and slow (spin) bowlers (p < 0.01). In contrast, the
control group predicted above the guessing level only at the no occlusion condition (p =
0.005).
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Figure 5 plots mean percentage accuracy of anticipation for the visuomotor group at
the ball release temporal occlusion condition and motor pattern reproduction accuracy
relative to the training sessions. Intraclass correlation revealed strong inter- and intra-rater
reliability of (r = 0.95) and (r = 0.97), respectively, for prediction accuracy scores. Intraclass
correlation also revealed strong inter- and intra-rater reliability of (r = 0.93) and (r = 0.97),
respectively, for motor pattern reproduction scores.
Figure 5. Performance curve for percentage prediction accuracy for the visuomotor
group at the ball release temporal occlusion condition (response) and motor pattern
reproduction accuracy for the visuomotor group relative to training sessions.
In relation to the prediction accuracy response, repeated measures ANOVA revealed a
significant session effect, F(7, 35 = 5.35, p < 0.001). Post-hoc tests indicated that training
session 1 and 8 were significantly higher than training sessions 2, 4 and 5 (p < 0.05). In
relation to reproduction of the motor pattern, repeated measures ANOVA revealed a
significant session effect, F(7, 35 = 8.82, p < 0.001). Post-hoc tests indicated that training
session 1 was significantly lower than all other sessions (p < 0.05).
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The visuomotor and control mean batting averages were 39.33 and 31.41 (prior to the
study), 52.94 and 26.14 (during the study), 34.50 and 23.55 (after the study) (see Table 1:
Supplement for further statistics). T-test indicated that batting average was not different
between-groups prior to the study, t(10 = .587, p = .570). Factorial ANOVA revealed a
significant main effect for group, F(1, 10 = 6.55, p = .028), but no significant main effect of
time or interaction between group and time. A large effect size was found between the
intervention and control group batting averages during the study (d = 1.18).
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to determine whether visual-perceptual training with
acquisition of the observed bowler’s action could improve anticipation in emerging expert
cricket batsmen. The findings supported hypothesis one that visuomotor training improved
learning and transfer of anticipation based upon advance information, with no improvement
for the control group. The findings also supported hypothesis two that the intervention group
had a higher batting average than the control group.
The evidence presented here that temporal occlusion training can improve the
anticipation skill of emerging expert batsmen goes beyond previous literature that has
reported such benefits across novice to skilled players (eg., Singer et al., 1994; Smeeton et
al., 2013). This is important as it indicates that emerging expert batters are still developing
their visual anticipation skill and there is capacity using well-established methods to
accelerate this learning process. It may seem peculiar that emerging expert batsmen could not
use advance kinematic information to anticipate above chance in the pre-test, when there is
evidence to indicate that experts are superior to less skilled players at using this information
to anticipate. Closer inspection of a previous cricket batting anticipation study, however,
indicates that their highly skilled sample included well established international and state
(first class) batters that would have increased prediction to above guessing level,(Müller et
133
al., 2006), compared to this study where the skill level of participants was lower. In addition,
more recently, due to workload restrictions on bowlers in an attempt to prevent injury
(Orchard et al., 2015; Schaefer, O’Dwyer, Ferdinands, & Edwards, 2018), batters are
restricted in their opportunity to face bowler’s in standard cricket practice that results in
frequent exposure to traditional ball projection machines that do not provide advance
kinematic cues (Müller et al., 2015; Pinder et al., 2011). Therefore, temporal occlusion
training can cater to these restrictions within standard practice to challenge and improve the
pick-up of advance cues from opponents’ kinematics in emerging expert batters.
Evidence was presented in this study that both learning and transfer of anticipation
could be improved in emerging expert cricket batsmen. In terms of learning, point-light
temporal occlusion training with acquisition of the observed bowler’s motor pattern not only
improved pick-up of cues at the critical point of ball release,(Müller et al., 2006), but from
the beginning of and across the entire bowling delivery stride (BFI to FFI to R) (see Fig. 3).
This is vital to provide batters with extra time to determine the ball’s length (landing
position) and direction (swing) in order to circumvent the high time constraint of ball velocity
to guide positioning of their lower body to strike the ball (Morris-Binelli & Müller, 2017). In
relation to transfer, an important consideration is that batters face different bowler’s in
matches. The training conducted in this study again benefited pick-up of kinematic cues for
anticipation across the entire bowling delivery stride for a fast bowler and a slow (spin)
bowler not previously experienced by the intervention group (see Fig. 4a and b).
Furthermore, benefits to learning and transfer occurred on video displays after point-light-
display training, indicating that exposure to stimuli void of contour, shape and colour can
generalise to improvement of anticipation to stimuli that is like the in-situ setting.
Collectively, this implies that coupling point-light display temporal occlusion training with
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acquisition of the observed bowler’s motor pattern has benefits to anticipation of more than
one bowler.
The results related to learning and transfer are consistent with the findings of Brenton,
Müller and Dempsey (2018, under review) who found that club batsmen also improved their
capability to anticipate (learning) and transfer to different bowlers. These benefits to learning
and transfer could be due to a tight linkage established between visual and motor pattern
experience. To this, motor pattern reproduction data in this study indicated that the
intervention group acquired the opposing bowler’s action after the first session, likely
because they are emerging expert players who can easily mimic an action. Possession of the
motor pattern whilst still improving anticipation responses across sessions may have
strengthened the coupling between visual and motor experience that benefited improvement
to anticipation (see Fig. 5). Indeed, Brenton et al. (2018) also found that interfering with
acquisition of the observed motor pattern whilst receiving visual-perceptual training, impeded
improvements to anticipation. In this study, a tight coupling could have facilitated pick-up of
information from the earliest temporal occlusion condition (BFI), which corresponded with
the beginning of the bowler’s delivery action (or kinematics). Thereafter, the forged tight
coupling could have been transferred to a different fast and slow (spin) bowler, both of which
use similar kinematics across BFI to FFI, with subtle variation of the bowling arm and wrist
to the point of ball release.
The progressive challenge through training session difficulty also appears to be an
important factor in performance improvements that led to learning and transfer benefits.
There was a sharp decline in prediction from the first video occlusion training session to the
second session where point-light display training begun, which is consistent with existing
literature that point-light displays are harder to anticipate (Abernethy et al., 2001). Across
sessions four to six, however, there was an increase in prediction indicating that participants
135
were improving their performance to anticipate from pure kinematic information to a level
where session eight was no different to session one. This type of non-linear performance
curve is common in the motor learning literature and indicates that participants can regress
before they improve practice performance, which can benefit learning (Chow, Davids,
Button, & Renshaw, 2016). This is important for scientists and practitioners, who need to
consider that learning and transfer are not necessarily facilitated through linear performance
improvement during practice sessions. Furthermore, improvement in the point-light display
performance curve translated to video stimuli, indicating that improved prediction of pure
kinematics improved anticipation on real batting type stimuli.
Beyond improvements on video temporal occlusion tests of anticipation, evidence of
transfer from point-light display temporal occlusion training to batting competition
performance was found. The significantly higher batting average of the intervention group, in
comparison to the control group, during the period the study was implemented, indicates that
the training had some immediate benefit to competition batting performance. This is valuable
information for coaches and high performance staff as they are constantly searching for
methods to accelerate emerging expert athlete skill development so that it transfers to
competition. It may be argued that there are multiple factors such as quality of the pitches and
opposition bowlers that could influence batting average. At the emerging expert level,
however, pitches are prepared to a higher quality than lower competition levels and the
bowlers are equally of emerging expert level. The evidence presented here advances existing
knowledge by indicating that anticipation training not only benefits performance on in-situ
tests (eg., Hopwood et al., 2011; Müller et al., 2017; Williams et al., 2003), but also to the
competition setting. Furthermore, this is supported by evidence to indicate that laboratory-
based video-simulation methods are reflective of match performance (Gabbett, Jenkins, &
136
Abernethy, 2011; Müller & Fadde, 2016), confirming that transfer is possible from laboratory
video-based simulation tasks to competition settings.
Conclusion
Using point-light display temporal occlusion training, we showed improvement in the
anticipation skill of emerging expert cricket batsmen so they could read the kinematics of the
bowler from the beginning of the bowling delivery stride. This improvement is beneficial to
anticipation of bowlers participants had not previously experienced in the study, which is
vital as batters face different bowlers in competition. Equally valuable is that the
improvements to anticipation transferred into benefits to batting performance in competition.
Coaches and high performance staff should make consistent time during standard cricket
practice for batters to receive temporal occlusion training, which will provide greater
exposure to advance kinematic cues and assist batters to score more runs.
Practical Implications
Point-light display temporal occlusion training can improve anticipation in emerging
expert cricket batters.
Video-based anticipation training can be easily incorporated into standard cricket
practice because it only requires approximately 15 minutes per session.
Point-light display anticipation training can assist batters to potentially score more
runs.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to extend thanks to the participants who volunteered their time
and effort. Special thanks to the high performance coaches for their cooperation during data
collection period.
Conflict of Interest
The authors of this article declare no conflicts of interest in the development and
completion of this study.
137
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Supplementary Figures
Fig.1. Supplement. Still image example of point-light display of the fast bowler at the time of
ball release.
142
Figure 2 - Supplement
Qualitative Analysis of Bowling Action Components Across the Bowling Action
Temporal Sequence of the Bowling Action
Component Back-foot
impact
Front-foot
impact
Ball release After ball release
Grip
Position of
Non-
bowling
arm
Wrist
position of
bowling
hand
Follow-
through of
bowling
hand
Ball
trajectory
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CHAPTER 6
Automated vision occlusion-timing instrument for perception-action research
Abstract
Vision occlusion spectacles are a highly valuable instrument for visual-perception-action
research in a variety of disciplines. In sports, occlusion spectacles have enabled invaluable
knowledge to be obtained about the superior capability of experts to use visual information to
guide actions within in-situ settings. Triggering the spectacles to occlude a performer’s vision
at a precise time in an opponent’s action or object flight has been problematic, due to
experimenter error in using a manual button press approach. This article describes a new laser
curtain wireless trigger of vision occlusion spectacles that is portable and fast in terms of its
transmission time. The laser curtain can be positioned in a variety of orientations to accept a
motion trigger such as a cricket bowler’s arm that distorts the lasers, which then sends a
wireless signal for the occlusion spectacles to change from transparent to opaque, which
occurs in only in 8 ms. Results are reported from calculations done in an electronics
laboratory, as well as tests in a performance laboratory with a cricket bowler and baseball
pitcher are reported, which verified this short time delay before vision occlusion. In addition,
our results show that occlusion consistently occurred when it was intended, that is, near ball
release and during mid-ball flight. Only 8% of the collected data trials were unusable. The
laser curtain improves upon the limitations of existing vision occlusion spectacle triggers,
indicating that it is a valuable instrument for perception-action research in a variety of
disciplines.
Keywords: Vision occlusion spectacles, automatic trigger, laser curtain, wireless.
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Automated vision occlusion-timing instrument for perception-action research
Milgram’s (1987) invention of spectacles that can occlude the availability of visual
information to an observer has been invaluable to researchers in different disciplines
interested in visual-perception-action research. Vision occlusion spectacles have been used to
understand the time course of visual information that guides motor skills such as reaching to
grasp an object (Whitwell, Lambert, & Goodale, 2008), interception of a fast moving object
(Marinovic, Plooy, & Tresilian, 2009), and maintenance of balance in movement disorders
(Morris et al., 2015). Over the past 20 years, an increasing number of studies have used
vision occlusion spectacles to investigate the time course of visual information that guides
complex, whole-body, high-speed sports skills such as return of serve in tennis and cricket
batting. Vision occlusion spectacles are popular with researchers because they allow
availability of visual information to be manipulated within in-situ settings and coupled to
complex actions such as movements of the whole body to strike a high-speed object such as a
tennis ball.
Starkes, Edwards, Dissanayake, and Dunn (1995) were the first to use vision
occlusion spectacles to investigate the time course of visual information pick-up for
anticipation in the high-speed sports skill of serving in volleyball. Skilled and novice
volleyball players stood on a court and wore the spectacles, which were connected by a cable
to a timer on the sideline. Participants observed opponents deliver different types of serves
that were occluded (spectacles opaque) at different time points in the server’s action, and they
had to make a non-motor prediction of the serve’s landing position by placing a marker on
the court. The experimenter manually triggered the spectacles to occlude the participant’s
vision of the server’s action by simultaneously watching the server’s action unfold and
pressing the button on the timer to correspond with pre-planned kinematic events. Occlusion
was targeted at events prior to, at and after the server’s ball-hand contact. The authors
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reported that the time delay for spectacles to occlude using a cable interface was 2 ms.
However, due to error in the timing of manual triggering (likely due to reaction time delays),
a high-speed camera was used to film the server’s action and record the created vision
occlusion conditions. The footage was post-hoc sorted to confirm which trials could be
retained for data analysis upon the basis of pre-planned temporal occlusion conditions. The
findings indicated that skilled university players could predict serve landing locations with
less error than novices. Their study spawned several others within in-situ settings that have
used a manually triggered and post-hoc trial sorted approach to demonstrate that experts have
superior anticipation skills than less skilled players in squash modified game scenarios
(Abernethy, Gill, Parks, & Packer, 2001), tennis return of serve (Farrow & Abernethy, 2002,
2003; Farrow, Abernethy, & Jackson, 2005), cricket batting (Müller & Abernethy, 2006;
Müller et al., 2009; Müller, Brenton, Dempsey, Harbaugh, & Reid, 2015), and baseball
batting (Müller, Lalović, Dempsey, Rosalie, & Harbaugh, 2014).
Although manual triggering of vision occlusion spectacles and post-hoc sorting of
captured trials has allowed advancements to be made in terms of in-situ knowledge of expert
visual-perceptual-motor skill, there are also some limitations. First, the cable connection from
the vision occlusion spectacles to the manual trigger timer may restrict the broad range of
movements of performers in sports such as cricket or tennis that requires lower body
positioning and bat-ball interception. Accordingly, a cable can impede the perception-action
coupling of the motor skill that exists in the actual game setting. Recently, through use of an
automated force plate trigger and a cable connection to vision occlusion spectacles, it was
reported that a tethered system does not impede the natural striking pattern of cricket batsmen
(Mann, Abernethy, & Farrow, 2010; Mann, Abernethy, Farrow, Davis, & Spratford, 2010).
However, these studies used of a smaller range of cricket batting striking patterns. Burroughs
(1984) had previously developed a helmet where an opaque visor was triggered to occlude a
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baseball batters vision by the pitcher’s foot landing on a pressure-sensitive pad. However,
specific details such as whether the system was tethered and the time delay until occlusion
were not reported clearly. Second, high-speed sports skills such as the cricket bowler’s
delivery action and ball flight occurs under 1 s. Delays due to reaction time of the
experimenter in depression of the timer button to correspond with a simultaneously observed
bowler’s kinematic event, as well as transmission of the signal to switch the spectacles from
transparent to opaque, can be problematic in terms of precise occlusion timing relative to a
kinematic event. For example, manual triggering incurs a range of occlusion timing that is
approximately 200-300 ms (e.g., see Farrow & Abernethy, 2003; Müller et al., 2015). Again,
by means of an automated force plate trigger system, it has been reported that a cricket
batsman’s vision can be temporally occluded within a 50 ms range prior to or after ball
release of a cricket bowler’s action (Mann, et al., 2010). Third, the delay due to use of a
manual trigger of occlusion can cause loss of data because the timing of occlusion does not
correspond with the pre-planned kinematics event(s). For example, it may be necessary to
omit approximately 30% of the total completed trials per participant due to incorrect
triggering of occlusion timing in relation to the corresponding kinematic event (e.g., see
Müller et al., 2015). Loss of data has been reduced below this percentage using an automated
occlusion system (Mann, et al., 2010).
Although attempts have been made to automate occlusion timing and minimize the
limitations mentioned above associated with manual triggering, further advancements to
occlusion timing technology are necessary. As mentioned by Starkes et al. (1995), vision
occlusion technology needs to be transportable so that researchers can assess participants’
visual-perceptual-motor skill in a variety of in-situ settings, such as a performance laboratory,
actual game performance venue, or an indoor venue that can protect expensive equipment
from the weather. Vision occlusion spectacles also need to be wireless triggers in order to
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accommodate the broad range of sports skill movement patterns such as forward and
backward foot movements, or ball interception with vertical and horizontal bat swing in
dynamic and complex skills such as cricket batting. Furthermore, it would be beneficial to
consistently occlude vision at specific, pre-planned kinematic events.
This paper outlines an instrument that is capable of making these advancements in
terms of an automated wireless trigger of vision occlusion spectacles. The purpose of this
article is to: (a) outline a new automated wireless trigger of vision occlusion spectacles, (b)
present data on the time delay for automated wireless trigger of vision occlusion spectacles
from transparent to opaque, and (c) present data on automated wireless vision occlusion
timing in relation to two exemplar high-speed sport skills: cricket bowling and baseball
pitching.
Method
Participants
Two skilled male players participated in this study; one was a baseball pitcher and the
other was a cricket bowler. Both had played club level baseball and cricket, respectively. The
participants were recruited in order to obtain occlusion timing data for baseball pitching and
cricket bowling kinematic events, which are common motor skills used in the in-situ temporal
occlusion literature. Ethical approval was received from the relevant university committee
(permit number 2015/191) and participants gave written informed consent.
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Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the instrument set-up for one of the tests that was conducted
with a cricket bowler. Vertical laser tower pairs were placed on stands either side of a cricket
pitch to create a laser curtain near the point where the bowler releases the ball. The bowler
(B) ran for approximately 5 m and released the ball at the position of the laser curtain. The
control unit (CU) was connected to the laser curtain and light emitting diode (L) by cables
(indicated by solid lines). The CU communicated wirelessly with the driver controller (DC),
which was connected by cable to the vision occlusion spectacles. The high-speed camera
(solid black square) was controlled by a laptop computer (COMP) and captured the bowler’s
delivery action at the position of the light curtain and illumination of light emitting diode.
B
COMP
CU
Laser Curtain
DC
L
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Figure 2. Transmitter tower lasers mounted vertically on a stand.
Instruments
Figure 1 provides a diagrammatic representation of instrument set-up for automated
vision occlusion timing relative to kinematic events in baseball pitching and cricket bowling.
The new automated occlusion timing instrument consisted of: (i) a laser curtain wireless
device capable of triggering the vision occlusion spectacles in response to a kinematic event,
such as the pitcher’s or bowler’s arm distorting part of the laser curtain, (ii) a control unit that
operates the whole system, and (iii) a driver controller that is connected to the vision
occlusion spectacles driver.
The laser curtain consists of a transmitter and a receiver tower pair that is made of an
alloy frame to protect the lasers housed inside. The transmitter tower consists of 32, .5 mW
lasers, with the tower tethered by a direct current (DC) cable to a control unit. The receiver
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tower consists of 32 phototransistors that detect the light from each of the corresponding
transmitter tower lasers. The receiver tower is also tethered to the control unit through a
standard network cable (RJ45 connector). The towers can be set-up in any orientation, but for
the test in this article, they were mounted vertically on stands approximately 3 m apart so that
the bowler/pitcher could perform their movements in-between the towers, distort the laser
curtain, and trigger the spectacles to occlude near ball release or during ball flight (see Figure
2).
Figure 3. The unit that controls the laser curtain, light emitting diode and wireless driver
controller (connected to PLATO spectacles driver).
The control unit is used to power both towers, for instantaneous communication
between the towers, and to specify the timing of occlusion relative to a kinematic event (see
Figure 3). In turn, the control unit is powered by a 12 V supply (minimum of 4 A) and can
operate five tower pairs if needed. The top panel of the control unit includes switches that can
be positioned at stage one or two to selectively operate specific tower pairs. The center dials
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are used to select the mode of operation, such as to align lasers and use of specific tower pairs
(or stages) to create occlusion or no occlusion (in the latter case, the lasers turn on but do not
trigger vision occlusion). The lower dials are used to select time delays from the instant a
kinematic event, such as the bowling arm distorts part of the laser curtain. For example, the
delay can be set to 0 ms if the intention is to create temporal occlusion near the point of a
kinematic event such as ball release. Alternatively, if the intention is to create temporal
occlusion after a kinematic event such as ball release, then a delay (e.g., 200ms) can be set on
the dial. The ‘arm’ button is used to prepare the tower pairs to accept a kinematic event, such
as the cricket bowler’s arm that distorts part of the laser curtain, to trigger the occlusion
spectacles. The light emitting diode (LED) on the left hand side of the control unit flashes
when tower pairs are armed, is on when the spectacles are transparent and is off when the
spectacles are opaque. Thirty-two dual-colored LEDs on the right-hand side of the control
unit are illuminated during set-up to confirm laser alignment. A separate cable is connected at
one end to the control unit, and at the other end its LED is positioned in the high-speed
camera field of view to signal the time when the occlusion spectacles become opaque.
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Figure 4. The driver that is attached to, and controls the vision occlusion spectacles through
wireless communication with the control unit.
The driver controller is connected to the vision occlusion spectacles driver through a
short RJ11 lead (see Figure 4). The controller communicates wirelessly with the control unit
via a 434 MHz, modulated by an 800-µs square wave when it is idle, and changing to 300-µs
modulation to signal occlusion. The driver controller is powered by six AAA batteries housed
in a case and connected by a short cable to the driver controller. The driver controller,
spectacle driver and battery power supply are housed within a portable bag that is usually
strapped to the participant (e.g., batter), with the vision occlusion spectacles connected to the
driver, as done in previous in-situ temporal occlusion studies (e.g., see Müller et al., 2015).
A high-speed camera that sampled up to 1000 frames per second was used to capture
kinematic events such as ball release and ball flight, LED illumination, and in the foreground
the occlusion spectacles. This allowed vision occlusion time to be quantified using a frame-
by-frame analysis at 250 and 1000 frames per second.
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Procedure
First, in an electronics laboratory, the experimenters calculated the time from when
the laser curtain is distorted to the moment the vision occlusion spectacles become opaque.
Second, in a performance laboratory, one of the experimenters distorted the light curtain with
a hand for 18 trials, while the high-speed camera sampling at 1000 frames per second filmed
through the lens of the vision occlusion spectacles, in order to determine the time at which
the LED was illuminated and spectacles changed from transparent to opaque. Third, a
baseball pitcher threw 60 pitches that consisted of two pitch types (fastball and curveball),
while the pitcher’s throwing arm distorted the laser curtain near ball release. Temporal
occlusion was targeted near-ball release for 30 trials using a 0-ms delay, and in the remaining
30 trials occlusion was targeted in ball flight using a 200-ms delay. Fourth, a cricket bowler,
using a short run-up, bowled 28 balls that consisted of two ball types (balls that landed farther
away from and closer to the bowler), where, again, the bowler’s hand distorted the laser
curtain near ball release. For 15 of the balls temporal occlusion was targeted near-ball release
using a 0-ms delay, and for the remaining 13 balls, occlusion was targeted during ball flight
using a 200-ms delay. Both pitcher and bowler were filmed by a high-speed camera sampling
at 250 frames per second.
Results
The time delay from when the laser curtain was distorted till the vision occlusion
spectacles changed to opaque was 8 ms, as calculated in the electronics laboratory. Figure 5
provides a diagram of the instruments and their component time delays, as calculated in the
electronics laboratory. The diagram indicates that, within the total delay time for the vision
occlusion spectacles to be switched from transparent to opaque, the majority of the time delay
was due to the driver controller, driver and the vision occlusion spectacles. All 18 trials
captured in the performance laboratory consistently resulted in a time delay from when the
154
laser curtain was distorted until the vision occlusion spectacles became opaque of 8 ms (at a
filmed rate of 1,000 frames per second). In relation to the baseball pitcher, in the 30 trials
during which temporal occlusion was targeted near-ball release, occlusion occurred 12 ms
after ball release (at the 250-frame-per-second filmed rate). In the remaining 30 trials, during
which temporal occlusion was targeted 200 ms after ball release, occlusion occurred 212 ms
after ball release (again at the filmed rate of 250 frames per second). Only one trial in the ball
flight temporal-occlusion condition did the glasses not occlude at 212 ms. In relation to the
cricket bowler, for the 15 trials during which temporal occlusion was targeted near ball
release, in ten of the trials occlusion occurred 12 ms after ball release (at the filmed rate of
250 frames per second), with occlusion occurring in the other four trials much earlier than
ball release. In the remaining 13 trials, during which temporal occlusion was targeted during
ball flight, in 12 of the trials occlusion occurred at 212 ms after ball release (at the filmed rate
of 250 frames per second) with occlusion on the other trial occurring much later.
Discussion
In this article, it was initially outlined how vision occlusion spectacle technology has
been used in several disciplines to investigate the time course of visual information that
guides action. Thereafter, the article described a new automated laser light curtain technology
that could wirelessly trigger vision occlusion spectacles to switch from transparent to opaque
in a very short time. Quantitative evidence of the time delay for the spectacles to occlude
(become opaque) was provided on the basis of calculations conducted in an electronics
laboratory and by filming the spectacles change state at a very high frame rate. In addition,
the time delay till occlusion was tested using two striking sport skills - baseball pitching and
cricket bowling - that are commonly used within in-situ occlusion studies. Collectively,
significant advancements have been made in automating and wirelessly triggering vision
occlusion spectacles, which will benefit future research.
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The new automated wireless laser curtain trigger for vision occlusion spectacles
includes only one main physical piece of equipment in addition to what is commonly used in
existing manual trigger systems. Even with recent advancements in the automated occlusion
of spectacles, a force plate that is not portable is still required; although a pressure pad system
has been suggested as an alternative (Mann, et al., 2010), the function of the pressure pad
system is yet to be properly demonstrated with motor skills such as those used in cricket and
baseball. In their seminal article, Starkes et al. (1995) identified the importance of portable
vision occlusion spectacle technology, and in line with this vision, they used very little
equipment to create and verify the temporal occlusion conditions. The laser light curtain
reported in this paper could certainly be used on a volleyball court to measure anticipation of
the serve, as in Starkes et al.’s study, but providing the participant freedom of movement, due
to the wireless trigger for the spectacles. The light curtain could also be used in other indoor
sports venues - such as for cricket batting, baseball batting, tennis return of serve, and soccer
goalkeeping, to name a few - that will protect the equipment from weather.
The results from this article demonstrate that when the new laser curtain is triggered
by a kinematic event it can through wireless communication consistently switch the state of
the occlusion spectacles from transparent to opaque in some 8 ms. Previous studies have
reported wireless trigger delays between 10-20 ms using instrument sampling rates of 200 Hz
(see, e.g., Farrow & Abernethy, 2003; van Soest et al., 2010). Using a much higher sampling
rate of 1,000 frames per second in this article, it was possible to clarify that the actual time
delay for the wireless vision occlusion spectacles to be switched to opaque is shorter than
previously thought. The 8-ms wireless delay reported in this article is more than reasonable
when considered in relation to the seminal in-situ occlusion study by Starkes et al. (1995) that
used a cable and reported a delay of 2 ms, as well as the seminal occlusion spectacles
instrument paper by Milgram (1987) that reported a delay of 4 ms.
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The automated laser curtain trigger reduced the range over which vision occlusion is
created based upon pre-planned kinematic events. In this article, the majority of the test trials
resulted in vision occlusion consistently occurring at 12 ms after ball release (using a 0-ms
set occlusion delay on the control unit) or 212 ms after ball release (using a 200-ms set
occlusion delay on the control unit). This is a much smaller range of timings for creating
occlusion than has previously existed in the literature for manual triggering, at around 200 ms
(e.g., see Müller et al., 2015), or automated triggering, at 50 ms (Mann, et al., 2010). It may
be argued that for the ball release kinematic event, temporal occlusion in this article was
created after ball release, which can be considered different to the pre-ball release temporal
occlusion conditions in several previous in-situ studies (e.g., Farrow & Abernethy, 2003;
Mann, et al., 2010; Müller & Abernethy, 2006; Starkes et al., 1995). However, the broader
range of temporal occlusion timings prior to a key kinematic event such as ball release or
racquet-ball contact in these previous studies needs to be taken into consideration.
Accordingly, previous studies would have not consistently allowed the observer (e.g., cricket
batter) to view the final position of the distal limb segment such as the ball and hand at the
point of ball release, which has been reported to be informative to expert anticipation
(Loffing & Hagemann, 2014; Müller, Abernethy, & Farrow, 2006). Therefore, to be able to
create temporal occlusion just after ball release appears important to fully understand the
capability of performers to use complete key kinematic anticipatory visual cues.
157
Figure 5. Cumulative instrument time delays for laser curtain, control unit, light emitting diode,
driver controller and vision occlusion spectacles.
158
The automated laser curtain was highly successful in preventing the significant loss of
test trial data that commonly occurs when using manual triggering. In this article, of the total
88 test trials that were completed between the pitcher and bowler, on only 7 of these trials
vision occlusion was not created as intended, which is an 8% exclusion rate of total
completed test trials. This is considerably better than a manual wireless trigger method that
can incur a loss of approximately 30% of the total test trials. The significantly increased
retention of the number of test trials that are completed will contribute to keep trial repeats
included in the test trial matrix during the planning phase of occlusion studies (to safe guard
against data loss) to a minimum. Increased retention of trials can also minimize the time
required for participants to complete in-situ studies, particularly since professional athletes
are time limited and often have workload restrictions relating to balls bowled or pitches
thrown.
Summary
Details of a new automated wireless trigger for vision occlusion spectacles that
includes a laser curtain, driver controller and control unit. These instruments were checked in
a series of tests with vision occlusion spectacles and a high-speed camera in both electronics
and performance laboratories. Consistently very small time delays were found with electronic
measures and confirmed using complex whole-body sports skills. Temporal occlusion was
also consistently created where it was intended, relative to kinematics events of the sports
skills. The laser curtain presents promising opportunities for use in visual-perception-action
research in sport and other disciplines.
159
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CHAPTER 7
Conclusions, Implications, Limitation and Future Research
The purposes of this thesis were to: (i) extend theoretical understanding of whether
visual or motor experience is more beneficial to improve visual anticipation skill in club
cricket batsmen, (ii) use the most beneficial training method to improve visual anticipation
skill in emerging expert cricket batsmen, and (iii) determine the benefits of the interventions
to learning and transfer of visual anticipation skill. To achieve these purposes a systematic
approach was taken that included; validation of a sports-specific video simulation temporal
occlusion test (Experiment 1 - Chapter 3), manipulation of visual and motor experience
(Experiment 2 - Chapter 4), and application of findings from Experiment 2 to an emerging
expert group of athletes (Experiment 3 - Chapter 5). A new instrument was also developed
that will benefit future research to create an in-situ temporal occlusion test (Chapter 6).
Collectively, this thesis contributed to theoretical and applied knowledge within the field of
sport expertise and motor skill learning.
The findings of this thesis have provided the following conclusions that include: (a)
video temporal occlusion methodology in combination with a sports-specific motor response
can discriminate fine-grained differences in visual anticipation between skilled cricket
batsmen towards the expert end of the skill continuum (Experiment 1 - Chapter 3), (b)
addition of motor pattern training (motor experience) to visual-perceptual training (visual
experience) imparts greater improvement to visual anticipation skill than visual-perceptual
training alone in club level cricket batsmen, which advances theoretical understanding of the
mechanism that underpins improvement of visual anticipation (i.e., related to common-
coding theory) (Experiment 2 - Chapter 4), (c) visual-perceptual training with additive motor
pattern training improves visual anticipation in emerging expert cricket batsmen, together
with transfer of improvement to different bowlers and performance in match situations
163
(Experiment 3 - Chapter 5), and (d) a new instrument that can improve precision and
reliability of creating visual temporal occlusion within in-situ testing settings for future
research (Chapter 6).
The findings and conclusions from this thesis have theoretical and applied
implications related to the field of sport expertise and skill learning as follows.
Expertise Implications: ‘Having all the time in the world’
As mentioned in the introduction to this thesis, expert performers in striking sports
give the impression of ‘having all the time in the world’ to plan and execute their motor skills
(Abernethy, Farrow, & Mann, 2018; Williams, Ford, Hodges, & Ward, 2018). The series of
studies conducted in this thesis confirmed previous research that batsmen who are not well
established international or state level performers do not use advance cues in order to
anticipate (Experiments 1-3 – Chapters 3-5). Accordingly, lesser skilled performers including
youth, club and emerging expert batsmen (Experiments 1-3 – Chapter 3-5) rely more upon
ball flight information, which in the competition setting can result in their batting stroke
being ‘rushed’. Crucially, the point-light display temporal occlusion training coupled with
motor practice of the observed bowler’s movement pattern delivered to club and emerging
expert batsmen (Experiment 2 and 3 – Chapter 4 and 5), shifted these players reliance upon
ball flight information to the use of very early advance kinematic cues from the beginning of
the bowler’s delivery stride. Given the high time constraints faced by batsmen, this pick-up of
advance information will allow these batsmen more time to anticipate and execute their
stroke in competition settings. Therefore, the interventions applied in the studies of this thesis
progressed lesser skilled batsmen to anticipate more like well-established expert batsmen (see
Müller, Abernethy, & Farrow, 2006; Müller, Abernethy, Eid, McBean, & Rose, 2010).
164
Theoretical Implications
Previous research investigating the predictions of common-coding theory has
manipulated visual and motor experience to understand their contributions to visual
anticipation, focussing predominantly on open or closed skills where the stimuli viewed is
‘matched’ to the motor pattern possessed by the performer (or observer) (see Chapter 2). In
addition, several previous studies in the literature that have investigated visual and motor
experience contributions to anticipation have not used a task that requires a complementary
action response (see Chapter 2). For example, recently, visual and motor experience training
has been investigated using a task of throwing a dart that requires anticipation of the same
throwing action (Mulligan & Hodges, 2014). An observed behaviour approach was taken to
evaluate the value of visual and motor training interventions to improvement of dart location
anticipation and motor-interference tasks to probe the motor system’s contribution to
anticipation (Hodges, 2017; Mulligan & Hodges, 2014; Mulligan, Lohse, & Hodges, 2016).
Hodges (2017), however, stated that research is necessary to investigate the predictions of
common-coding theory, by manipulating visual and motor experience, using tasks
necessitating a complementary action response such as open ‘mismatched’ motor skills of
cricket and baseball batting. Furthermore, Hodges (2017) stated that measures, manipulations
and interference tasks based upon an observed behaviour approach are useful to progress
knowledge of visual and motor experience contributions to anticipation using these types of
motor skills.
The theoretical study in this thesis (see Chapter 4) used the open ‘mismatched’ skill of
cricket batting as the exemplar. Employing an observed behaviour approach to manipulate
visual and motor experience, an interference task and measure anticipation accuracy
(outcome), important theoretical advancements were made. First, evidence was provided that
the mechanism for learning (i.e., pre- to post-test improvement of anticipation) was
165
underpinned by visual and motor experience. Second, evidence was provided that the
mechanism for transfer of learning benefits (i.e., to transfer tests) was underpinned to a
greater extent by additive motor experience (or practice) of the observed opponent’s
movement pattern. Third, and most important, maximal benefits to improved anticipation
(i.e., across pre-post-transfer tests) resulted from the mechanism underpinned by learning the
observed bowler motor pattern. The intervention designed to learn the observed bowler’s
movement pattern altered the pre-existing ‘mismatched’ skill to one that was ‘matched’ after
the intervention. This ensured a tight linkage between the observed pattern and embodied
pattern within the performer that facilitated superior learning and transfer of anticipation
skill. This ‘matching’ of performer and opponent movement patterns is consistent with other
studies that have reported that possession of the motor pattern one perceives facilitates
superior anticipation (e.g., Abernethy & Zawi, 2007; Aglioti, Cesari, Romani, & Urgesi,
2008).
The theoretical findings from this thesis confirm the predictions of common-coding
theory that visual and motor information can bi-directionally influence visual-perceptual-
motor skill that includes visual anticipation (see Chapter 4). However, the theoretical findings
of this thesis extend understanding of the predictions of common-coding theory to indicate
that motor experience imparts a much stronger influence upon visual-perception
(anticipation), than does visual experience alone (see Chapter 4). It is likely that this
prominent motor system contribution to anticipation is by means of simulation or ‘emulation’
of the observed action prior to it unfolding (Mulligan et al., 2016; Wilson & Knoblich, 2005).
Some further support for this conclusion was provided through the novel interference task
used in this thesis that not only impaired learning, but maintained anticipation at chance level
(see Chapter 4). Therefore, whilst visual and motor information can be conceptualised as
166
existing in a common-code (Prinz, 1997), motor information appears to take prominence in
the interpretation of visual information.
Motor information can influence visual anticipation through what has been referred to
as an ‘internal model’ of the immediate environment (Colling, Thompson, & Sutton, 2014;
Diaz, Cooper, Rothkopf, & Hayhoe, 2013; Hayhoe, Mennie, Sullivan, & Gorgos, 2002). It is
possible that those participants who received motor pattern practice of the observed bowler’s
movement pattern, not only learnt what they observed, but also developed an ‘internal model’
of what they observed. As they continued to acquire this ‘internal model’, whilst responding
to visual cues presented during point-light occlusion training, the developing ‘internal model’
could have enhanced their capability to anticipate, as has been previously reported to occur
through experience in a novel virtual racquet-ball interception task (Diaz et al., 2013). This
implies the importance of memory and experience based processes that underlies expertise
and skill learning.
The benefits of visual and motor experience to learning and transfer of visual
anticipation was facilitated through point-light display temporal occlusion training. This is
important because previous expertise research had reported that only experts are capable of
using the pure kinematic information available in point-light displays (e.g., Abernethy, Gill,
Parks, & Packer, 2001; Huys et al., 2009). This thesis indicated that sufficient kinematic
information was available in the point-light display of a bowler, over an extended period of
time, for club and emerging expert batsmen to extract advance cues to improve anticipation
on video temporal occlusion tests. It may well be that presentation of only pure kinematic
information strengthened these players selective attention to the base visual information
known to be associated with visual anticipation, which also then contributed to learning and
transfer benefits. This is also an important contribution to the expertise and skill learning
167
literature, indicating that future intervention studies should utilise point-light displays more
frequently.
Applied Implications
Visual anticipation has been extensively investigated through performance studies
involving comparison across extreme ends of the skill continuum (i.e., expert vs. novice)
(Loffing & Cañal-Bruland, 2017; Müller & Abernethy, 2012). In contrast, much of the
existing learning studies have focused upon the novice to intermediate end of the skill
continuum (Morris-Binelli & Müller, 2017). Furthermore, very little emphasis has been
placed upon transfer of learning to contexts within the test-retest laboratory setting or to field-
based settings (Morris-Binelli & Müller, 2017). This thesis contributed to each of these
applied components in the field of sport expertise and skill learning.
First, the research in this thesis demonstrated that the use of a video temporal
occlusion method, combined with a sport-specific motor response, could identify fine-grained
differences in visual anticipation between expert, emerging expert and club batsmen
(Experiment 1 – Chapter 3). This contributes to the expertise literature to indicate that both
written (Moore & Müller, 2014; Müller, Fadde, & Harbaugh, 2016), and sport-specific motor
(Brenton, Müller, & Mansingh, 2016) response modes used in the video temporal occlusion
paradigm can detect fine-grained differences in visual anticipation. This is useful information
for the skill acquisition practitioner and scientist, who could use either of these response
modes to assess anticipation skill in athletes. Further support for the use of these response
modes is derived from evidence that large differences in visual anticipation can be detected
when comparing experts versus novices with complete perception-action coupled (Mann,
Abernethy, & Farrow, 2010) or written (Müller, Abernethy, & Farrow, 2006, Experiment 1)
responses in-situ and to a video simulation, respectively. This is particularly valuable
information because it is difficult to recruit opponents to conduct in-situ temporal occlusion
168
tests (see Müller, Brenton, & Rosalie, 2015.) The sports-specific response to video stimuli
may, however, engage and motivate the athlete to be involved in the task because it more
closely represents actual batting.
Second, it was demonstrated in this thesis that the anticipation skill of skilled players
could be improved (see Chapter 4 & 5). This again contributes to the skill learning literature
by demonstrating that visual anticipation can be improved beyond the intermediate athlete
(e.g., Smeeton, Hibbert, Stevenson, Cumming, & Williams, 2013), to those that are skilled
batsmen, as well as those who are emerging expert batsmen selected in the high performance
unit of a state sport organisation. This is highly useful information for the skill acquisition
practitioner and coach, who should be encouraged to implement point-light temporal
occlusion training into standard cricket practice. This is particularly necessary because there
are restrictions on the number of balls bowlers can deliver in standard cricket practice in-
between competition (Schaefer, O’Dwyer, Ferdinands, & Edwards, 2018). This type of
restriction is also imposed upon other athletes such as the field-hockey drag flicker and
baseball pitcher. Therefore, video or point-light display temporal occlusion training of
opponents (e.g., bowlers) can be easily developed to deliver visual-perceptual training
coupled with acquisition of the observed movement pattern to the performer (e.g., batsman),
as done in this thesis.
Third, it was demonstrated in this thesis that transfer of improved anticipation could
occur to different bowlers and to the competition setting (see Chapter 4 & 5). This is vital
evidence because batsmen do not face the same bowler in competition, but rather different
fast and slow (spin) bowlers. Accordingly, the benefits of additive motor pattern training
generalised to different opponents. More profound is that additive motor pattern training had
benefits to the average runs scored by the intervention group, but not the control group. This
provides further support to the point above that visual-perceptual training coupled with
169
acquisition of the opponent bowler’s action should be included in standard practice, because
the control groups who only participate in standard practice did not improve their anticipation
skill over the 4 to 6 week training periods. Again, this contributes to the skill learning
literature by demonstrating that training improvements extend beyond the laboratory or in-
situ tests (e.g., Hopwood et al., 2011; Williams, Ward, Smeeton, & Allen, 2004) to the
competition setting. Ultimately, the primary goal of any practitioner is to prepare the athlete
for better performance in competition.
Limitations and Future Research
A potential limitation of the research conducted throughout this thesis is the use of
temporal occlusion in both video and point-light display formats, which did not allow
participants to anticipate and attempt to strike a delivered ball. Accordingly, these tests may
not be considered as highly representative of the competition task, but video or point-light
display footage with temporal occlusion can still be considered an effective method for
applied experimental research as discussed above. That is, video and point-light displays have
been able to demonstrate fine-grained differences in anticipation at the expert end of the skill
continuum and the use of advance information in these test is consistent with in-situ
occlusion methods where overt action is engaged (Mann et al., 2010; Müller & Abernethy,
2012). The automated occlusion timer instrument developed in this thesis will make it easier
to include in-situ temporal occlusion tests in future by reducing loss of data that incurs less
repeated trials required from opponent bowlers. The challenge, however, will remain for
sports scientists to convince the same bowlers to deliver several balls (test trials) to all
participants across pre-post-transfer testing phases.
Future replication studies are required using other ‘mismatched’ sport skills such as
baseball batting and field hockey goal-keeping to confirm the findings of Experiment 2 and 3
(Chapters 4 and 5) in this thesis. This will help consolidate both theoretical and applied
170
conclusions from this thesis. Interesting lines of future research could also include training of
motor experience, that is, acquisition of the observed movement pattern alone to improved
learning and transfer of visual anticipation. In addition, visual and motor experience training
could be manipulated in near and far sports to the target sport to determine how exposure to
other sports develop anticipation skill.
Summary
Collectively, this thesis contributed to gaps in learning and transfer evidence in sport
expertise and skill learning literature. This thesis has furthered theoretical understanding of
the knowledge of visual and motor experience training to improving anticipation, advanced
practical knowledge by displaying that point-light anticipation training, with or without
combination of motor pattern training, can be easily incorporated in training sessions of club
and high performance units. Instrument improvement expanding upon present design to allow
use of temporal occlusion glasses to explore transfer of training methods from the laboratory
to the field have also been made. The findings of this thesis will be highly beneficial to
scientists, skill acquisition specialists and sports organisations alike, as evidence for further
potential research, as well as to directly implement evidence-based training capable of
accelerating development of club and emerging expert athletes.
171
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