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Management internationalInternational ManagementGestiòn Internacional
Learning Dynamics across Boundaries of IS Context: AStructural perspective to Support Knowledge ManagementLuciana Castro Gonçalves
Gestion des Connaissances dans la Société et les OrganisationsKnowledge Management in Society and OrganizationsGestión del conocimiento en la sociedad y en las organizacionesVolume 16, numéro hors-série, 2012
URI : https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/1012392arDOI : https://doi.org/10.7202/1012392ar
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Éditeur(s)HEC MontréalUniversité Paris Dauphine
ISSN1206-1697 (imprimé)1918-9222 (numérique)
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Citer cet articleCastro Gonçalves, L. (2012). Learning Dynamics across Boundaries of ISContext: A Structural perspective to Support Knowledge Management. Management international / International Management / Gestiòn Internacional,16, 41–55. https://doi.org/10.7202/1012392ar
Résumé de l'articleDans cet article nous analysons comment les organisations apprennent dansun contexte en Systèmes d’Information, où projets et communautés depratique interagissent. Notre cadre conceptuel combine la littérature enapprentissage social (Lave, 1991; Wenger; 1998, Orlikowski, 2002) et l’approchestructurationniste (Giddens, 1984). L’étude ethnographique utilisée permetd’analyser deux dynamiques d’apprentissage contrastées dans la Direction desSystèmes d’Information d’un constructeur automobile en France. Nos résultatssoulignent les attributs encastrés des connaissances ainsi que les facteursfacilitateurs et inhibiteurs du processus d’apprentissage collectif. Notrediscussion suggère une perspective intégrée du management desconnaissances (Pawlowski, Robey, 2004; Levina, Xin, 2007, Srikantaiah et al.,2010).
Differentperspectivesincontemporaryknowledgemana-gementresearchrecognizethecontextualizedcharacter
ofknowledgeandindicatethatpeopleandtheirpracticescannotbeisolatedfromembeddedworkcontexts(Cook,Brown,1999).Knowledgeisacquiredandcreatedbytheparticipationofindividualsindifferentworksituations(Lave,1991)andtheirabilitytoenactactionablepracticeinspecificcontexts(Orlikowski,2002).However,thiscontex-tualizedcharacteralsomakesknowledgetransferdifficult,(Sulanski,1996).Amisunderstandingofthewaysinwhichknowledgeis“stickytothecontext”andhowpracticesmaybeshapedwithintheworkcontextpersists(Hsiaoetal,2006).Asthislackofunderstandingcouldimpedefutureknowledgemanagementresearch,recentliteraturehastriedtocombineexplorationofknowledgeattributesandtheeffectsoftheworkcontextonknowledgemanagementproblems(Hsiaoetal,2006).Specificfocusisplacedontheroleofcommunitiesofpracticeinembeddedlearning
dynamics.Theorganizationalstructureofthefirm(rules,resources)remainsvirtuallyunexplored,despitetheinsightsitprovidesregardingembeddednessinknowledgemanage-mentsystems.
Infact,thechallengeforaknowledgesystemistoensurethecomplementaryassociationbetweenhierarchicalandcommunitymechanismstocreateacontinuousorganizationallearningprocess(Cohendet,Diani,2003).Inlightofthisanalyticalgap,weseektoexaminetheknowledgeproductionprocess(knowing)inaworkprojectcontext,takingintoaccountstructuralandcognitivefactorsthatinfluenceembed-dedpracticesandorganizationallearning.Theaimistostudyembeddednessinitsrecursivedynamicbetweenthelocallevelofactionandthegloballeveloftheorganization.Ourmaininterestliesinthespecificworkcontextofinfor-mationsystems(IS),fromthepointofviewofITworkers(Pawlowski,Robey,2004;Levina,Xin,2007).
Résumé
Danscet articlenousanalysonscommentles organisations apprennent dans uncontexte en Systèmes d’Information, oùprojetsetcommunautésdepratiqueintera-gissent.Notrecadreconceptuelcombinelalittérature en apprentissage social (Lave,1991;Wenger;1998,Orlikowski,2002)etl’approche structurationniste (Giddens,1984). L’étude ethnographique utiliséepermetd’analyserdeuxdynamiquesd’ap-prentissage contrastées dans la DirectiondesSystèmesd’Informationd’unconstruc-teur automobile en France. Nos résultatssoulignent les attributs encastrés desconnaissancesainsiquelesfacteursfacili-tateurs et inhibiteurs du processus d’ap-prentissage collectif. Notre discussionsuggèreuneperspectiveintégréedumana-gement des connaissances (Pawlowski,Robey, 2004; Levina, Xin, 2007, Srikan-taiahetal.,2010).
Mots clés: dynamique d’apprentissage,équipe projet, communauté de pratique,frontières sociales, contexte SI, manage-mentdesconnaissances.
AbstRAct
This paper seeks to analyze the extent towhichorganizationscanlearninanInfor-mationSystem(IS)contextbyfocusingontherelationshipbetweenprojectsandcom-munitiesofpractice.Adoptingatheoreticalframework combining the social learningliterature (Lave, 1991; Wenger; 1998,Orlikowski,2002)andastructuralapproach(Giddens,1984),weusedanethnographicstudytoexaminetwocontrastinglearningdynamicsintheISDepartmentofamulti-national car manufacturer. Our findingshighlight embeddedness and facilitatingand inhibiting factors in learningprocess.Our discussion suggests an integratedknowledgemanagementperspective(Paw-lowski, Robey, 2004; Levine, Xin, 2007,Srikantaiahetal.,2010).
Keywords: Learning dynamics, projectteam, communities of practice, socialboundaries, IS context, knowledge man-agement.
Resumen
EnelpresentetrabajoanalizamoscómolasorganizacionesaprendenenuncontextodeSistemasdeInformacióndondeproyectosycomunidadesdepráctica interactúan.Parahacerlo,combinamoslaliteraturaenapren-dizaje social (Lave, 1991; Wenger; 1998,Orlikowski,2002)ylateoríaestructuracio-nista (Giddens,1984).Elestudioetnográ-fico utilizado permite analizar dosdinámicas contrastadas de aprendizaje enun fabricante de automóviles en Francia.Nuestros resultados muestran atributos delosconocimientosasícomofactoresfacili-tadoreseinhibidoresdeaprendizajecolec-tivo. Nuestra discusión sugiere unaperspectiva integrada de la gestión de losconocimientos (Pawlowski, Robey, 2004;Levine,Xin,2007,Srikantaiahetal.,2010).
Palabras claves:dinámicade aprendizaje,equipo de proyecto, comunidad de prác-tica, fronteras sociales, contexto SI, ges-tióndelosconocimientos.
Learning Dynamics across Boundaries of IS Context: a Structural perspective to Support Knowledge Management1
LUCIANA CASTRO GONÇALVESESIEE Paris, Université Paris-est
1. Theauthorwouldliketothankthreeanonymousreviewersfortheirdetailedfeedbackonthemanuscript.
42 Management international / International Management / Gestión Internacional, Vol 16, numéro spécial
Consideredinourresearchasknowledgebrokers(Brown,Duguid,1991;Pawlowski,Robey,2004)2,weareparticularlyinterestedinITprojectmanagersandtheeffectsoftheirpracticewithinrecursivelearningdynamics.Theirrela-tionshipwithITprojectstakeholdersrequiresthegradualdevelopmentofsensemaking(Weick,1990)andtheintegra-tionofsocialcapital(Deltour,Roussel,2010)withrespecttotheambiguoussituationsthatemergeduringaprojectimplementation (Daft andWeick,1994,SwansonandRamiller,1997).TheseITprofessionalsinfluencethedis-semination,exploitationandcreationofknowledgeaboutbothIT(technologicalchoice,ITimplementationandtech-nicalaspects)andbusinesspractices(ITappropriation,advantagesandfunctionalaspectsofIT,effectsinusers’practices)acrosstheboundariesthatseparateworkunitswithinorganizations(Pawlowski,Robey,2004).Theiracti-vitieswithinITprojects,includingthemosttechnicalones,incorporateanimportanttacitelementandalotof“bricolage”(Ciborra,1992)thatisrarelycapturedbyknowledgemana-gementsystems.Similarly,projectstructuresimposedbyISDepartments(managementtools,processes,methodologies)areofteninsufficienttocreatetangibleroutinesorgeneratereferencepointsforcollectiveactionwithinprojects,andmorewidelywithinorganizationsinanIScontext(CastroGonçalvesetal.,2007,CatroGonçalves,2010).ThatiswhyITprojectmanagersoftenneedtodeveloplearningdynamicsoutsidetheprojects’organizationalboundariestodealwiththiscontextofcontinualchange.Thechallengeistointegrate,inalimitedtimeandwithfewerresources,severalfieldsofpractices(Bourdieu,1998)intheprojectandwidelyintheprojectpolicyinordertoreinforcethemanagementprojectmaturityofthecompany.
Foranexhaustiveanalysisofknowledgetransferandreuse,projectsneedtobeviewedintermsofaspannedactivityintheirrelationshipwiththeongoingactivities,normsandpracticesoperatingintherestoftheorganization(Scarbroughetal.2004).ThisstudysuggestsextendinganalysestomoreinformalinteractionsituationswithinIScontexts,whichfeaturedistinctiverulesandresources(Giddens,1984)anddetermineotherknowledgeandsocialboundaries.
Thepresentpaperexploreshow can IS Departments learn from local IT Project Managers’ dynamics by focu-sing on the recursive relationship between project, com-munity of practice and their structure.
ByrenderingintelligiblethelocalstrategiesdevelopedbyITprojectmanagerstohelpthemmanagethecomplexityoftheirworkcontext,weanalyzeembeddedlearningsitua-tionsgeneratedintheirdailypracticethroughtheorganiza-tionalandsocialboundariesofprojectsandcommunitiesofpractice.Theideaistooffertheknowledgemanagementfieldacomplementaryunderstandingabouthowboundary
spanningmechanismscanbecome enactedinlocalpracticesandglobalstructures.
Ourpapersummarizesfirstlytwosociallearningapproa-ches(Lave,1991;Wenger,1998,Orlikowski,2002)thatcanhelpusanalyzetheselearningdynamicsmoreclearly:theproject-basedlearningperspectiveandthepractice-basedlearningperspective.TheseapproachesofferdistinctiveresponsestothetheoreticalgapsinknowledgemanagementstudiesinanIScontext.Thisliteratureallowsustoconstructabimodalandmulti-levelanalyticalframeworkbasedonastructuralapproach(Giddens,1984).Secondly,wepresentourempiricalapproachandouranalysisoftwoembeddedcasesfromanISDepartmentofamultinationalcarmanu-facturer.Finally,wediscussthefindingsofthisresearch,focusingontheeffectsofthetwocontrastinglearningdyna-micsthatemergeinthesameworkcontext.Throughthisembeddedviewofknowledgetransferandexploration,wehighlightfacilitatingandinhibitingfactorsthatinfluencelearningdynamicsinordertofuelthedevelopmentofknowledgemanagementapproacheswithintheparticularworkcontextofIS.
Theoretical background
LeARning dynAmics AcRoss KnowLedge And sociAL boundARies
Thisresearchfitsintothecurrentliteratureonthemanage-mentoflearningsituations(Cohen1998).Researchersconsi-derknowledgeisnotonlycarriedbyindividualsbutalsobytechnicalsystems(databases,ITsolutions,machines),mana-gementrulesandvalues(Leonard-Barton1995),mobilizedinspannedbutdistinctiveworkgroups(Montgomery,Oliver,2007).Individualbehaviourcanbeaffecteddifferentlybysocialandcognitivestructures(March,Olsen,1976)withinthesameorganization.Infact,thenatureofagroup’sboun-dariesinfluencestheabilityofitsmemberstoinfluenceothermembersandgroups(Hernes,2004).Itisthereforeimportanttodistinguishbetweensociallyconstructedhierarchicalgroupsandautonomouscommunitieswhenstudyingorga-nizationallearning(Cohendet,Diani,2003).
Somesociallearningapproaches(Lave,1991;Orlikowski,2002)highlightthelearningimpactonorganizationswhen,asahierarchicalgroup,projectteammembersgobeyondknowledgeboundaries(Carlile,2002)andlearningboun-daries(Scarbroughetal,2004).Theseboundaryperspectivesrespectivelytakeintoaccountthedifferentknowledgeattri-butesinprojectsandtheabilitytotransferlearningbetweenprojectsandotherorganizationalunits,thuscontributingtothestudyofboundary-spannedactivities(MontgomayandOliver,2007).
2. The authors define knowledge brokers as people who participateinmultipleformalandinformalcommunities inorder tofacilitate thetransferofknowledgeamongthem.
Learning Dynamics across Boundaries of IS Context: a Structural perspective to Support Knowledge Management 43
TwotheoreticalperspectiveshaveprovedparticularlyusefulinunderstandinglearningdynamicsacrossboundariesinanIScontext:theproject-basedlearningperspectiveandthepractice-basedlearningperspective.Thesetheoreticallensescanreflectthe“sitesofdifference”3(Abbott,1995)foundinprojectteamsandcommunitiesofpracticepartici-pating in local and broader learning dynamics in ISDepartments.
sociAL boundARies And LeARning dynAmics fRom A pRoject-bAsed peRspective
Theproject-basedlearningperspectiveexploresthehorizontaldimensionofprojectsinordertohighlightthecapacityofthese organizational units to support acquisition andknowledgecreationacrossfunctions(Carlile,2002),withinprojects(AyasandZeniuk,2001),andbetweenprojectsandotherorganizationunits(Scarbroughetal,2004).
Projectteamsaresupportedbycross-sectordisciplinesandacanonicalmechanismsincetheyareregulatedbyahierarchicalauthority(Cohendet,Diani,2003)andtemporallyboundedtask-setting.Learningwithinprojectsdependsontherelationshipbetweenparticipantsandtheiradherencetotheprojectsinquestion(Hatchuel,1992).Morebroadly,itindicatesacooperationdevicefoundedontheunderstandingofdifferentperspectivesofactioninordertoachieveapre-determinedcommongoal.
The project is thus a boundary spanning activity(Scaboughtetal,2004),wheresocialboundariesarebasedonaprescribedareaofinteractionmadeupofformalizedrulesthatstructuremembership,discourse,participation,temporaldimensionsandauthoritystructures.Inthisworkcontext,projectmanagerscoordinateprojectteams(ITwor-kers’boundaries)andstakeholders(users’boundaries),andencouragecooperationatdifferentlevelsofinteractioninordertocompletetheirproject.Theyareboundaryspanners(Levina,Vaast,2005)inthemeaningthattheirroleistoencouragethesharingofexpertisebylinkingtwoormoregroupsofpeopleseparatedbylocation,hierarchy,orfunction.Thecooperationthroughthesedifferentboundariesisboththeprocessandtheresultofanindividual,collectiveandorganizational learningdynamic,basedoninteractionbetweenthoseinvolved.Inordertopromotethiscooperation,projectmanagersneedtoapplytheircapacitytoenact“actio-nablepractice”indifferentsituations(Orlikowski,2002).Theyoftencreateanewemergentfieldinpracticetocreatecombinedknowledgefromdifferentgroups(Levina,Vaast,2005).Thiscapacitytoenactisbasedonthreetypesofcognitiveknowledge:device(technicalknowledge),proce-dural(process,methods,rulesforaction)andstrategicknowledge (decision-making) (Gott et al,1993).Thisknowledgeisnotalwaysaspresentasdesiredintherules
andresourcesimposedorallocatedbytheISDepartmentfortheirongoingprojects.Projectteamscantransformitthroughthe“learning-by-doing”dynamicthatcanbecreatedmoreinformallyaccordingtotheprojectsituations.Suchpracticeswithinprojectsareheterogeneous,andsharingknowledgewithingroupslikecommunitiesofpracticecanreinforcethiscapacity.
Theintegrationofdifferentsetsofknowledgeintheseephemeralunitsandthediffusionproducedbytheminorganizationsarelargelydiscussedintheproject-basedperspectivebutresearchespartiallyrespondtothelimitsconcerningtheaccumulationorthedepositionofknowledgeinamorelongterm.Consideringthatprojectworkingprac-ticeshavetheirownlogicofaction(Hansen,2002,Brenenetal.,2004),wefirstsuggestthatthestrengtheningofthepractice-basedperspectivecanhelpustobetterunderstandembeddedpracticesfromITprojectworkersinamoreinfor-malandlongtermviewpoint.
sociAL boundARies And LeARning dynAmics fRom A pRActice-bAsed peRspective
Situationaltheoryoffersageneralframeworkforanalyzingactivitieslocatedandorganizedinasocialcontext.Lave(1991)forexample,isinterestedinknowledgeacquisitioninsituationsor“situational social practices”.Takingthisworkasastartingpoint,Wenger(1998)conceptualizescommu-nitiesofpractice(CoP).Thistheorizationisanchoredintheideathatlearningtakesplaceinaprivilegedwayviainte-ractionsbetweenindividualsconfrontedwiththesametasksandstronglyengagedinthesamefieldofknowing.Thistheorizationproposesasocialperspectiveforlearningbytakingtherelationsbetweenorganizationalknowledgeandcollectiveactionintoaccount.WengershowshowmembersofaCoPdealwithambiguoussituationsandinstitutionaltensionintheirdailyroutines,howtheycreatesense(theindividualaspect)andnegotiatemeaning(thecollectiveaspect)inpractice.Wengersuggeststhatlearningemergesfrompracticeandcontinuouslyevolvingroutinesindailyactivities.Practiceconstitutesasupportforcollectivememoryandcontributestocreatingtheframesofinterpretationrequi-redtoachievetasks.
Theseautonomouscommunitiesarefoundedonvoluntarymembershipaccordingtocertainvalues,normsandcollec-tivelysharedinterests.Discourse,coordinationandlearningarestructuredinthisareaofinteractionviaidentity.Themost“dramaticknowledgecreation”islikelytooccurinthiskindofgroup(Cohendet,Diani,2003).Communitiesofpracticetendtostabilizeindividualcommitmentinuncertaincontextsandupdatecooperativeforms,dependingonasituation’sspecificities.Thedualitybetween“theparticipa-tionof actors” and “reification of practices”iscentralto
3. Abotts(1995)suggeststhatsharedcognitionsandsocialconstruc-tionsrespectivelyrepresentsymbolicandsocialboundariesthatdistin-guishonegroupfromanother.
44 Management international / International Management / Gestión Internacional, Vol 16, numéro spécial
thisregulationprocess.TheparticipationofCoPmembersisrevealedthroughtheexchangeofideasandinformation,thediscussionofproblemsanddiscoveryofnewsolutions,thesharedevaluationofnewworksituations,etc.Theseinteractionscontinuouslybuildsharedpractice,whichreflectsthecollectivelearningoftheCoPmembers,andtherelationsandidentitiesthatindividualsdevelop.TheinformalandspontaneouscharacteroftheCoPsupportstheinteractionsfacilitatedbythesharedhistorythattheirmembersexperienceinaworkcontext.Thecommonknowledgethattheypro-gressivelycreategeneratesasharedrepertorythatsupportstheroutinesintheCoPandknowledgetransfer.However,itisimportanttocreatecomplementaritybetweenCoPandothermoretraditionalcoordinationmechanisms(Cohendet,Diani,2003)inordertoavoidtheriskoffailureintheCoP,suchasexclusionordeviationfromorganizationalrules(CastroGonçalves,2007).Thepractice-basedlearningpers-pectiveunderlinestheembeddednatureofknowledgeandthenotionofidentityinpractice.
Weshallnowturntohowtheseinformalandemergentorganizationsinteractswithmoreformal,ephemeralandprescribedorganizationssuchasITprojectsandhowthislevelofactioncaninteractswiththestructureleveloforganizations.
deveLoping A bimodAL And muLti-LeveL vision of LeARning dynAmics
Ouremphasisonthecomplementarityofprojectsandcom-munitiesofpracticehelpsusunderstandhowembeddedlearningdynamicsareabsorbedbyorganizations.Atpresent,researchthatfocusesononeorotherofthesegroups’pro-pertiesfailstoprovidearepresentativeviewofthecomplexityoforganizationallearning(Bootz,2009,Scabroughetal,2004).AsarguedBresnenetal.(2004),structurationtheoryhelpstoconceptualizetheintroductionofnewpracticesinorganizationsinwhichdecentralizationanddiversityofpracticearethenorm.
Toconstructatheoreticalframeworkthatdynamicallycombinesbothperspectivesofthelearningprocess,werefertoGiddens’(1984)conceptofdualityofstructure,aconceptincorporatedinthetheoryofstructuration.Thisrichandmulti-facetedsocialtheoryiscompatiblewiththevisionoftheworldadvancedbyWenger,andplacesthestudyofthedynamicsbetweentheprojectandCoPwithinabroaderorganizationallevel.
Theconceptofstructuraldualityprovidesinsightsintotherecursivearticulationbetweenstructure(rulesandresour-ces)andcollectiveaction(socialinteractions)inaccordancewitharelationshipthatfacilitatesorrestrictslearningingroups.Instructurationtheory,interactionsbetweentheparticipantsandthesocialstructuresbecomeindivisible.Thestructureenablesactionwhichisreproducedsimulta-neouslyintheinteractionsbetweenindividuals.Itisthusthemeansandtheresultoftheaction,whichitorganizesina
recursiveway.ForGroleau(2000),rulesandresourcesmakeitpossibletoconnecttechnicalandsocialaspectsofthesystemandapproachdimensionsassociatedwithpower.Actuallyrulescanbeinterpretative(rulesofsignification)andnormative(regulatethelegitimizationofactions)andresourcesareconstitutedinonehandfrompowerrelationships(resourcesofdomination)andinanotherhandfromeconomicaspects(Giddens(1984).
Rulesandresourcesaretheproductofamobilizationandknowledgecreationprocess(Romelaer,1998),whichisshapedbytheblendingofindividualinteractionsatlocallevelandbythestructureatgloballevel.Thisdynamicbetweenactionandstructurebringstotheforethecapacityofrulesandresourcestoentitleandforceaction(Giddens,1984).Collectivelearningdevelopsinaccordancewiththisdynamicandthereflexivemovementbetweenthetwolevels,asacontinuum.
Thelevelofactionwithinthisconceptualframeworkisbimodal.Rulesandresourcesaretransformedbythemobi-lizationandexplorationofknowledgeindailypractice,andbyparticipationintheprojectmodeandintheCoPmode.TheprojectisregardedasaprescribedareaofinteractionandCoPasanemergentareaofinteractioninsofarasitisnotdefinedbytheorganizationbutbythevariousinformalinteractionsthatoccurwithinit.WetakeITprojectsaspointofentryforempiricalobservationsofCoP,whichcanberelativelydifficulttolocatewithintheorganization.Thelinkbetweenthetwooperatingmodesisformedbyatransitoryareawheretheinterfaceactors,thecommonboundaryobjectsandsharedrepertoriescirculate.Theseelementsensureintermediationbetweenthetwooperatingmodesand,morebroadly,learningbetweenITprojectsthatcrossesthreeinvisibleboundaries(Hernes,2004):mentalboundaries(ideasandconceptslinkedtotechnologies),physicalboun-daries(rulesofactioninprojects)andsocialboundaries(representationofpracticesandprofessionslinkedtoidentity).Whiletheseinvisibleboundariescanbeconsideredasdis-tinguishingattributesofknowledge,theyalsoenableustoexploretherelationshipsystembetweenthisknowledgeandthestructuresinwhichitoccurs.
Thedualityofstructureconceptenablesthemicro-socialleveltobedeterminedinitsdailyactivity.Thisstudyexa-minesthewayinwhichITprojectmanagersmobilizeandexploreknowledgeacrossboundaries.Bytheirdailytrans-formationofrulesandresources,theydevelopalearningdynamicintherecursiverelationshipbetweentheproject,theCoPandtheISDepartmentstructure.Thisorganizationaldynamicisillustratedinfigure1.Thisreadingoflearningdynamicstakestheevolutionofindividuals(projectmanager)intoaccountwithinthe“sitesofdifference”(Abott,1995)thatdistinguishbothgroups(projectandCoP)andorgani-zationalchange.Thisinteractionalanalysisraiseskeyques-tionslinkedtobothcooperationandcoordinationbetweendistinctiveworkgroups,andtheroleofrepresentationsandcollectivebeliefsinthecreationofknowledgeproductionandtransfersituations(Cohendet,Diani,2003).Ourgoalis
Learning Dynamics across Boundaries of IS Context: a Structural perspective to Support Knowledge Management 45
toprovideknowledgemanagementperspectiveswithamulti-levelandintegratedapproachthatassociatesnetworkingactivitiesthroughinvisibleboundaries,learningeffectsandorganizationalchange.
Methodology
ThefindingsreportedinthispaperarebasedonaqualitativeanalysisofanembeddedcasefoundedontwoITprojectsthatinteractwiththesamecommunityofpracticeintheISDepartmentlocatedinFranceofamultinationalcarmanu-facturer.Inordertodefinetheperimeterofourstudyinthecompanyandconstructourmethodologicalapproach,wefollowedthetraditionofresearchmobilisingpracticetheory(Wenger,1998;Orlikowski,2002,Levina,Vaast,2005,Rouleau,2006).Indeed,ourpresenceduring6months(4daysaweek)intheISDepartmentallowedustodevelopanethnographicinvestigation(Golden-BiddleandLocke,1993)basedondirectempiricalobservationsofwhatpeopledo,whatpeoplesayandwithwhomtheyinteractdaily.Ourobjectivewastounderstandlearningdynamicsasasocialphenomenoninitsnaturalcontextthroughanin-depthana-lysisofonecasestudy(RoyerandZarlowski,2001).Thereby,wenegotiatedaprivilegedaccesstothisfieldwiththetopmanagementoftheISDepartment.Ourresearcherstatuswasknownfromactorsobservedduringtheimmersionphaseinthecompanybutourroleasprojectmanagementassistant,waspredominantduringdailyformalinteractions(project
meetings,formalpresentations,workinginco-presence)andinformalinteractions(coffeebreak,lunchtime,informalmeetings)withactorsrelatedtotheprojects(projectmana-gers,ITexperts,topmanagement,projectclients,consultants,workcolleagues,suppliersandhierarchicalmanagers).Thisrolewassufficienttolegitimateourpresenceintheorgani-zationasa“co-worker”withoutinfluencingthepracticesofactorsinasignificantway.Infact,wewereinchargeofperipheraltasks(organizemeetings,searchforms,readdocuments,etc.)relatedtooneoftheprojectsanalysed.Asdemonstratedbyresearchesfrompracticetheoryfield,thisinterpretativeapproachissubstantivetogainfamiliaritywiththecontextandtocapturecollaborativeprocessesinemer-genceandthecirculationoftacitknowledge,particularlythosethatareembeddedinactors’subjectivedimensionsofpractice(Gherardi,2010).
AspannedsamplewasconstructedprogressivelybyobservingandmappingthesocialinteractionsofbothITProjectManagersregardingtheirpracticeduringtheimple-mentationoftheirprojects.Thepeoplenetworkanalysisoffersarichunderstandingaboutindividuals,groupsandorganizationsrelations(Angot,Josserant,1999).First,wesetuptheworkcontextoftheHosting Website Project (goal,stakeholders, technologies, rules, informalrela-tionships,etc.),therebyidentifyingtheconnectionwiththeworkcontextoftheConverging Configurators Project (samestrategicgoalfromusers,sameclient,thefirstIT
FIGURE 1
The learning dynamic through the interaction between project, community of practice and the organizational structure
Community of practice (Emergent Area)
Project (Prescribed Area)
Transition AreaInterface actors
boundary objects, common repertories
Global level
Locallevel
STRUCTURE(Rules and Resources)
Produces and modifies
Enablesand constrains
Project Managers Spanning Practice
• Physical boundary
• Mental boundary
• Social boundary
Transition Area
ACTIONMobilization and exploration
knowledge within and between groups
46 Management international / International Management / Gestión Internacional, Vol 16, numéro spécial
ProjectManageristhepersoninchargeoftheProjectManagerofthisproject)and withacommunity of practice composed of project managers (bothITProjectManagersaremembersofthisCoP)thatemergedinatechnologicalcompetencecentre.Theseformalandinformalunitscom-posedthreeinteractionzones(Z1,Z2andZ3respectively)observedinthisresearch.ThesezonescomprisethedifferentactorsinvolvedwiththeITProjectManagers,includingthesampleof8ITProjectManagersfromtheCoP.10ProjectManagerswereinthecentreofourobservations(8fromtheCoPand2fromthebothITprojects).Thefigure2showsthespannedcharacterthatrepresentstherichnessofthesample.
Theinvestigationoftheseinteractionzoneswasguidedbyagenerallistoftopicsdrawnfromtheliteratureareasreviewedearlier(seefigure1).Wecarriedoutadetailedin situ observationtocapturethenarrationofpracticesin
differentsituationsrelatedtotheprojects(Rouleau,2006)andsharetheprojectteams’routine.Everydailyobservation(actions,discourses,interactions,behaviour)wasrecordedinanotebook.Weenjoyedtheflexibilityoftheethnographicalapproachtocombinedifferentdatacollectiontools.Ourparticipantandcontinuousobservationwascompletedwithtwoindividualsemi-structuredinterviewswitheachProjectManager(20interviewsintotalatthebeginningandthemiddleoftheobservationperiod)andacollectivesemi-structuredinterviewwiththe10ProjectManagersmembersofthecommunityofpractice(attheendoftheobservationperiod).Individualinterviewswereapproximatelyonehourandahalfinlengthandthecollectiveoneswere3hours.Allinterviewsweretape-recordedandtranscribed.Themainthemesusedininterviewguidelineswere:thefeaturesofprojects,thedifficultiesandsolutionsimplemented(goals,stakeholders,management,contextualsituations,humanresourcesmobilised,experienceandknowledgedeveloped,
FIGURE 2
A Spanned Sample through boundaries of projects and a community of practice
Z2 - Converging Configurators
Project
Domino Technology Competence Centre
Business Network, Intranet and Training Service
IS DepartmentISBU Trade and Distribution
Internet of Brands Service
Ü Client of projects (users – important power for decision making)
Z1 - Hosting WebsiteProject
� Project Managers (dedicated project resource)
u IT external workers (subcontractors – dedicated project resource)
® Internal workers (IT experts, internal consultants – puncture resource in projects)
Ë Informal contributors (colleagues, users – informal resource in projects)
Z3 - CoP
Learning Dynamics across Boundaries of IS Context: a Structural perspective to Support Knowledge Management 47
artefactscreated/explored),thefeaturesofthecommunityofpractice(members,roleofthemembers,knowledge,routines,history,artefactscreated/explored,linkwiththeprojects,ISDepartmentsupport),theperceptionofthestruc-tureISDepartment(strategy,rules,resources,culture,mana-gerial tools, relationship with hierarchical people).Backgrounddata,includingtherelevantorganizationalandprojectcontext,werealsoconsulted.Thiscombineddatacollectionmethodfacilitatestheemergenceofnewinsightsandenhancetheexternalvalidityoftheresearch.
Aswell,ourresearchdesignallowsustovarystrategiesofinterpretation(RoyerandZarlowski,2001).Westructuredchronologicallythehugevolumeofdataintoamonographaccordingtothecategoriesrequiredinqualitativeresearch(Pettigrew,1992):thecontent,thecontextandtheprocess.Byusingtheguidelinesfromgroundedtheory(Glaser,Strauss,1967),werefineddataanalysisthroughaniterativeco-evolvementbetweenexaminationsofdataanddevelopmentoftheoreticalinterpretations.Inexploringtheembeddedpracticesrelatedtothetwodifferentprojects,wewereabletocreatemaximisationandminimisationtacticsofmanyfactorsbyidentifyingsimilaritiesanddifferencesthroughthelearningdynamicsanalysed(Glaser&Strauss,1967).Thereplicationlogicappliedtothesedifferentzonesofinteractionsensurestheexternalvalidityoftheorization(Eisenhardt,1989).Theopportunitiestoverifytheplausibilityofourinterpretationsrespondedtothecriteriaofcredibilityandauthenticityofqualitativeresearch(Miles,Huberman1994).Inaddition,thefocusonthesocialdimensionandprocessesofferedanin-depthaccountofknowinginpractice(Orlikowski,2002)andrespondedtotheneedtodesignmethodologiestoexploreworkcontradictions(Engeström,2006).
The Empirical Perspective: observing practice and structure in the IS Department
the is depARtment context thRough oRgAnizAtionAL contRAdictions
Attachedtothe“InnovationQualityDepartment”,theISDepartmentisexpectedtocontributetothecompany’sinno-vationandstrategybymanagingevolutionsinISforalloftheinternationalgroup’sactivities.
Theintroductionof“newIT”ledtoacertainnumberofchangesintheISDepartment:internalizationofITprojects,growthofITdevelopments,significantcustomerdemands,andchallengingnewknowledgeandskills.TomeettheseneedsandtofacilitatethedevelopmentofbusinessknowledgefortheITworkers,aneworganizationwasdeployedin2000.TheISDepartmenthasbeenorganizedinISBusinessUnits(ISBU).Thegreatestnumberofthe1000ITworkersoftheISDepartmenthasbeenregroupedaccordingtothe5businessunits(BU)fromtheFrenchcarmanufacturer:Productand
Process, IndustrialManufacturing,HumanResourcesManagementandPurchasing,FinanceCorporation,TradeandDistribution.ThetwoITprojectsandthecommunityofpracticewestudiedwerelocatedin2ofthe3differentunitslocatedattheISBUTradeandDistribution.TheITprojectswerelocatedinthe“InternetofBrandsService”andtheCoPwaslocatedinthe“BusinessNetwork,IntranetandTrainingService”.Thethirdunitwas“MarketingandCRMService”.
OthercomplementaryactionsweredeployedinlinewiththisorganizationalstructureinordertoreinforcetheprojectmanagementpolicyandstandardisepracticeswithinITprojects.TheISDepartmenttriedtoencouragetheinternaldevelopmentofskillsandcontrolthecomplexityofdata-processingprojectsbysteppingupitsformalrulesviaanincreaseinthenumberofvalidationandfollow-upstagesintheprojectprocess.Thismadetheprocesslinearandrequiredconsiderableformalizationoftheactivitiescarriedoutduringtheprojects.Variousactionswereimplementedtothisend:creationofstandardformstofillin(specifyingthetechnicalandfunctionalprojectinformationdetails),creationofpar-tnershipcontractsbetweenthevariousparticipants(speci-fyingtheroleofeachparticipantinvolvedintheprojectandthestagestoberespected),puttingthedocumentsproducedatthetimeoftheprojectsonline,creationofaconsultationbodyandqualitymethodsaimedatcoordinatingtheteamsinthecourseoftheprojectandatre-utilizingthesuccessesofprecedingprojects.Whilethesestepmayattimesappeardifficulttofollow,theyweredesignedtobeadaptabletoalltheprojectsdevelopedintheISDepartment.Trainingfocusedontheseruleswasobligatoryforallnewprojectmanagers.Inthiscontext,internalqualityconsultantsactedastheguarantorofrulesandtheuseofactivity-formalizationtools.
AlloftheseactionsadoptedbytheISDepartmentthe-reforereinforcedITprojectboundaries.Ontheotherhand,projectteamsneededamoreflexiblecontexttoworkinsoastoappropriatenewtechnologiesandpractice.Thecom-munityofpracticethusemergedfromtheseworkcontradic-tions.Differentknowledgemanagementinitiativesbasedonasocialperspectiveofknowledgetransferwereintroducedbythehierarchy(workgroupsfocusedonintegratingnewIT,presentationofprojectsdevelopingspecifictechnologies,reportingmeetings…).Theseinitiativescentredmoreonthenewtechnologies(deviceknowledge)ratherthanontheevolutionofprojectpractice(strategicknowledge)andISDepartmentrulesandresources(proceduralknowledge)required.Mostoftheknowledgecentre’sinteractionwithactorsinanIScontextfailedtobeseriouslytakenintoaccount.ThecommunityofpracticerepresentedapoolofotherformsofknowledgeforITprojectmanagers.
the emeRgence of An it community of pRActice
Acommunityofpracticewasidentifiedwithinthisstronglyformalizedandhierarchicallyarrangedcontext,whichwasattheoriginofaLotusNotestechnologyskillshub(called
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DominoCompetenceCenter)createdontheinitiativeofonemanager.ThisformalunitwascreatedinthebeginningoforganizationalchangeintheISDepartment.Themanagerbroughttheparticipantstogetheronaprojectplatform,see-kingthetransferofoldtonewtechnologiesusinganexternalconsultantwithabrieftotakepartintheITprojectsandtotransferthistechnologyknowledge.Theorganizationalunitadopteda“learning by doing” approachinsofarasitsobjectivewastodevelopLotusNotesskillsviatheimplementationoftheprojects.Theunit,initiallycomposedof15ProjectManagers,(includingthe10thatwestudied)wascharacte-rizedbyfreedomofitsmemberstoorganizethemselvesautonomouslyandtoexchangeinformationandknowledgeaboutongoingprojects.Distinctiveoperationrulesandrou-tinesweregraduallycreatedintheISDepartment.ExternalconsultantsandinternalITexpertsparticipatedpunctuallyonthedailylifeofthisunit,duringtheimplementationofvariousITprojects.
AstheISDepartmentgraduallydevelopedthetechno-logicalskillsrequired,theProjectManagersjoinedotherdepartments.FiveofthemleftforotherdepartmentslocatedinothersitesintheParisRegionandinthesamebuilding,eightofthemintegratedthe“BusinessNetwork,IntranetandTrainingService”,andtwoothers(PierreandFrançoise)joinedthe“InternetofBrandsService”.Forthosethatstayedinthesamebuilding,inspiteofthegroup’sspreadthroughouttheorganization,informalmeetingsandritualsthathadbeendevelopedcontinuedtotakeplaceduringbreaks,atcoffeemachines,duringmealsandinoffices.Theircommonhistorythuscreatedasociallinkthatwentbeyondtheformalboun-dariesoftheskillshub,andacommunityofpractice(CoP)wasborn.Thischangeledtoanevolutionintheknowledgefieldofitsmembers,whichwasextendedtoInternettech-nologies.Subjectsofdiscussioncoveredtechnologicaldeve-lopments,theproject’simplementation,andevolutionsintheISDepartmentandITfieldsingeneral.
Thespecificlanguagedevelopedbythegroupindicatedtheirmembership.Infact,newcomerstotheISDepartment,externalconsultantsandinternalITExpertsoftenfeltexclu-dedfromtheinformalmeetings.
Thisinformalgroupthusboreallthehallmarksofacommunityofpractice:acommonhistorycreatedduringthecreationoftheskillshub,commonknowledgewhichisthatofthecontextandtheintegrationofInternettechnologiesframework,thesharedrepertoryinherenttoaspecificlan-guage,anddailyritual.
Beforepilotingthe“WebsiteHostingProject”inthe“InternetofBrandsService”,Pierrehadplayedanimportantroleinthisorganizationalunit’sdevelopment.HewasaprincipalfoundingparticipantandwasalsotheonlyonewithpriorexperienceofLotusNotestechnology.Inlinewiththehubcoordinator’saimtosupportskillsdevelopmentbysocialization,hesharedanddevelopedtheteamspirit.Insharinghisknowledgespontaneously,heencouragedsharingbetweentheotherpeopleinvolvedintheproject,andalso
builtlegitimacyamongtheothernewcomers.Afterleavingthehub,hecontinuedtotakepartintheCoP’sinformalmeetings.
TheConvergingConfigurationTechnologiesProjectManager,Françoise,wasrecruitedtodevelopanITprojectwithinthehub.ShewasdirectlylinkedtotheCoPmembers,andshegraduallyadoptedtheCoP’slanguageandroutinesuntilshewasfullyintegrated.InspiteofhersubsequentmovetoInternetofBrandsServicetopilotthisproject,shealsoremainedamemberoftheCoP.
TheCoPthusincludedtheProjectManagersofboththeITprojectsstudied.WeshallnowpresentthedynamicscreatedwithineachprojectandtheirinteractionwiththeCoPandthestructuralleveloftheISDepartment.
Analysing reflexive learning dynamic through spanned zones of interaction
BothinternetprojectsstudiedwerepartoftheimplementationoftheglobalstrategyoftheISDepartmentthataimedtocentralizeandmutualiseITresources.Theideawastocontrolthetechnologicalheterogeneitygeneratedbymultiplelocalwebsitedevelopmentswithinthecorporatesiteandinterna-tionalsubsidiaries.Aworkgroupprogramwascreatedatthesametimeasthelaunchofbothprojects.Theprogramwastodefinean“implementingandusercharter”stipulatingtherules(technologychoice,billingtointernalusers,uses,obtaining licences,etc.) forweb technologyadoption.Sometimestheinternetprojectservedasa“learningreser-voir”fortheworkgroups,offeringrepresentativesituationsintermsofnewwebtechnologyadoption.Sometimestheprojectswererestrictedbyruleswhenitwasformalizedpriortocertainactivitiesintheproject.Asmentionedtherespon-sibleoftheprogram,becauseofthetime-laginthetwostructures’activities,theworkgroupswererarelyinapositiontooffernewknowledgetointernetprojectsgivingafeelingofpracticesevolutionnotcontrolled.
“Theygoonfasterthenus!Wesaythatwewillhostawebsitewithspecificcharacteristics,butthedayafterthewebsitewon’tbethesame!”(verbatimfromtheresponsibleoftheworkgroupprogram).
The Website Hosting Project and the ConvergingConfiguratorsProjecthadthesameclients(representedbymanagersfrom5headquarters’BusinessDepartments:InternetProjectsDepartment,ExportDepartment,EuropeanDepartment,AfricanDepartmentandAsianDepartment).ThelearningchallengetotheISDepartmentwasdisregardedbytheproject’sclient.Forthem,ITprojectteamsmustbeabletorespondtotheirstrategy:masterandimplementITdevelopmentsallowingthemtocentraliseandbetterdeter-minesalespoliciesandcommunicationactionsimplementedbyinternationalsubsidiaries.
Bothprojectswerelaunchedatthesametimeandhadinitiallythesameleadtime(6months).However,theyhad
Learning Dynamics across Boundaries of IS Context: a Structural perspective to Support Knowledge Management 49
their owncontext (goals, technologies, stakeholders).Thereforewepresentandanalyseeachzoneofinteractionsrelatedtoeachprojectseparately,followedbyadiscussionwhereweofferacomparativeanalyticaloverview.
zone 1: LeARning dynAmics in the website hosting pRoject AReA of inteRAction (z1) An embedded is woRK context focused on sociAL inteRAction compLexity
TheaimofWebsiteHostingProject wastohostalltheinter-nationalsubsidiarieswebsitesofthecompany(approximatelyahundred)withinthecorporateITinfrastructure.Thedeci-siontocarryoutthisprojectwastakenduringaninformalmeetingbetweentheCEOandtheCIO.Becauseofthisatypicalorigin,differentsituationsbecamesourcesofambi-guityintheprojectandhighlighttheneedsintermsofknowledgemanagementwithinthisworkcontext:
• Poorinteractionsacrossmultipleboundariesatthelocal/globallevel:Pierrewastheonlyresourceenti-relydevotedtotheproject.TheInternalConsultantand the Technical Manager in charge of theworkgroupsprogram,werepunctualresourcesoffi-ciallyallocatedbytheISDepartment.Inaddition,Pierrewasincontactwithawiderangeofparticipantsincorporateandsubsidiarycompanieswhowerenotentirelydedicatedtotheproject(attheheadoffices:theUserProjectManagerandthefiveBusinessManagers,ateachofthehundredsubsidiariesconcer-ned:theCEO,themarketingdirector,thewebmasterandthewebagency).Inconsequenceofthesemulti-stakeholderswithdifferentperceptionsoftheprojectandtheISDepartmentactivities,Pierrehaddifficul-tiestocrossthesemultipleboundariesandpersuadeothersoftheinterestoftheproject.Thisfactornega-tivelyaffectedthehorizontalcooperationandthecollectivesensemakingwithintheproject.
• Deviantuseofaboundaryobjectintheprescribedarea:projectimplementationwasbasedonaprimarystudythatunderestimatedthecostandtheeffectsoftheprojectwithintheorganization.Thedifferentparticipantsgraduallydiscoveredthetechnological4andorganizational5complexityduringtheproject’simplementation,andtheclientsrefusedtheexcessivemodificationsintermsofcost,timeandquality.ThissituationgavetheISDepartmentapoorimagewithinthecompany.Theparticipantstendedtousethestudyasaboundary-objecttoputpressureonPierreinlinewithaformalcustomer/supplierrelationshipatthelocallevel.
• Anominatedboundaryspannerwithoutresources:theundervaluationofresourcesfortheprojectinten-sifiedtheISDepartment’sproblemintermsoflegi-timacy,especiallyforPierre.Hehadneithertheautonomy,northeauthorityneededtopursuetheproject.Inaccordancewiththeprojectmanagementpolicy,Pierrehadtoformalizeinreportsallhisactionsindetailinordertovalidatethemwiththeclients.However,respectingtherulesdidnothelphimmanagethedifficultiesinvolvedinproducingandobtainingtheresourcesneededfortheproject’simplementation(technicalandfunctionalknowledgeaboutwebsitesandmorewidelyaboutwebtechno-logies,websitehostingskills,informationaboutmarketingconstraintsinthesubsidiariesusingweb-sites,etc).
TheseambiguoussituationshighlightthecomplexityoftheITworkcontextincatalyzinginteractionbetweenthedifferentactorsthroughboundaries.WewillnowshowhowPierreattemptedtomobilizeknowledgeandtransformrulesandresourcestoovercometheproblemsofcooperationbetweentheparticipantsinZ1.
Enacting knowledge from practice and transforming Resources and Rules: a learning dynamic focused on a formalization mode
Threemainfactorsinfluencedthemobilizationandexplo-rationofknowledgeintheprescribedarea:
• Giventheabsenceofaprojectteam,theproject’simplementationwasmarkedbythestrongindividual“responsibilisation”ofPierre.Theothernon-dedi-catedparticipantsdidnotrespectthetaskschedulesorprovidetheinformationrequired.However,theruleswereformalized,widelydisseminatedandpre-sentedasaconditionoftheproject’ssuccess.Thisledtoprojectdelaysandmutualincomprehensionbetweenthedifferentstakeholders.Newprojectmana-gementtoolswerethenimplementedbytheinternalconsultantinordertocontrolthequalityofthepro-ject6.TheexplorationofthisproceduralknowledgedidnotenablePierretodevelopcooperationandnewcoordinationrules.
• Pierreusedthemonthlymeetingstopresentthepro-ject’sprogresssoastoraisetheparticipants’aware-ness of the difficulties linked to technologicalincompatibilitiesandnon-cooperationaspects.
“Itrytomakethemunderstand[the stakeholders of the project]thisprojectrepresentsthedevelo-pmentofanewactivitywithintheISDepartement.
4. OnesetofresultsoftheITworkgroupprogramshowedtheincom-patibility between different technologies used on the subsidiarieswebsitesandthedifficultytointegratethemintheexistingcorporateITinfrastructure.Theyrecommendedphasingoutsomewebsitesinordertochangethetechnologyused.
5. For example: rules of invoicing the hosting, the signing or thebreakingof technology license, the rulesofwebsitemanagementandtechnologicalchoices.
6. Wereferredtoriskmanagement tools,progressreportsandacostcontroltooltoassessthenumberofdaysworkedwithintheproject.
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Wehaveneverbeenawebsitehoster.Iftheclientsdon’tcollaborate,wecannotdeveloptheneces-saryknowledgeallowingustocarryoutthepro-ject!”(verbatimfromPierre).
Thesemeetingswereintendedtocreateacollectiveinterpretationoftheprojectandtotransferdevicesandstrategicknowledge.However,theywereperceivedasoppor-tunitiestojustifytheproject’sdelay.Inaddition,themeetingswiththeISDepartmentparticipantstookplaceseparatelyfromtheproject’scustomerparticipants.Thiscurbedthestakeholders’cohesionandfailedtopromoteknowledgeexploration.Inaddition,Pierrewasunabletoincreasehislegitimacytomobilizetheresourcesrequired.
• Theproject’sformalizedstructurebecamea“guide-rail”fortherolesinitiallydescribedintheprojecttools.Therolesremainedrootedanddidnotallowforanyadaptationtotheproject’sfrequentchanges.Pierrefrequentlyactedtoincreasehislegitimacywithregardtohiscustomersbutthisdidnotreducethe tension. He decided to reinforce the ISDepartment’sprojectpolicyrulesandrequestedtheparticipationofthetopmanagementtosupporthisdecision.Hetriedtoachievelegitimacybyreinforcingpracticesthatwerealreadyrecognizedasformsofaction.
Inthisconstrainingcontextwhichledtonumerouspro-blemsbetweentheparticipants,Pierretriedtobringnewknowledgeoutoftheboundariesoftheprescribedareaoftheproject.Twomainactionsillustratethisattemptintheemergentarea:
• Duringtheannualmeetingbetweenthewebmastersfromthedifferentsubsidiaries,Pierrehadaccesstomanydevicesandagreatdealofstrategicknowledgeaboutwebsitesandsubsidiariesworkcontext.Bypresentingtheproject’sdifficulties,heindirectlygrabbedtheparticipants’interest.Asthewebmastersexpressedtheirinterestinmorecooperationintheproject’simplementation,theprojectmanagerdecidedtoinvitethemtotheprojectmeetings.However,thefunctionaldepartmentmanagersrefusedtoacceptthisnewcoordinationandcooperationrule.Theyfeltthatthewebmastersshouldnottakepartindecisionsconcerningthesubsidiarycompanies’technologicalchoicesandtheirconfidentialbusinessactivities.
• PierrefrequentlytookpartintheCoP.However,hewasunabletomobilizeresourceswithinthisinformalunitbecausethememberswerenotfamiliarwiththespecificcontextofhisproject.Pierrehadmoreexpe-riencethantheotherCoPmembers.Heoftentrans-ferrednewknowledgeratherthanmobilizingit.ThelearningdynamicbetweentheprojectandtheCoPcouldnotbeobservedinthisfieldofinteractionbuttookplacemorewidelyinthecollectiveactionoftheISDepartment.Bysharingthestoriesoftheirprojects,
themembersoftheCoPofferedPierrenewpointsofreferenceconcerningthepracticeofITProjectManagers.
Wenowturntotheanalysisofthesecondcase.
zone 2: LeARning dynAmics in the AReA of inteRAction in the conveRging configuRAtoRs pRoject (z2) An embedded is woRK context compLexity focused on mutuAL Recognition of LAcK of KnowLedge
TheaimofthisITprojectwastomergetwodifferentconfiguratorsinauniqueITsolution.Thiswebtechnologyallowswebsiteuserstoconfigureacar(color,design,acces-sories,etc.)andsimulateitsfinancebythecompany.TheFrenchcarmanufacturecouldthenofferitspotentialclientstheoptiontopersonifytheircarbeforebuyingit.The“Frenchconfigurator”andthe“Englishconfigurator”hadagoodperformancerecordandfunctionalcomplementarities.Howeverthetechnologiesusedhaddifferentproperties.TheheadofficesofthethreebusinessDepartments(ExportDepartment,EuropeanDepartmentandInternetProjectDepartment)thereforewantedtomergethemandtheninte-gratethemintotheinternationalsubsidiaries’websites.Subsidiariesin23countrieswouldimplementtheuniqueconfiguratorsubsequently.
SourcesofambiguityinthisITworkcontextincludedmainlythelackofknowledgewithintheprojectteamandtheprivilegedrelationshipbetweenFrançoiseandherhie-rarchicalresponsible,Pierre:
• Richinteractionsacrossmultipleboundariesatthelocallevel:TheprojectteamincludedFrançoiseasISDepartmentProjectManager,anITInternalExpertandanExternalConsultantengagedbytheproject’sclient.Whiletheroleoftheconsultantwastoprovidestrategicknowledgeaboutthebusinesscompanyandtospecifytheprojectrequirements,theexpertwasthere to provide general Internet technologyknowledge.Inaddition,theITworkgroupprogramwasmobilizedtoputforwardproposalsforthepro-ject’sdevelopment.TheITprojectteamfirstlyfacedthedifficultyofmakingtheprojectexpectationsexplicit,notablytheimplementationofthedesignfeatures.ItwasonlythesecondITprojectthattheyoungProjectManagerhadbeeninchargeof.Sheneededtodevelopdeviceknowledge(Internettech-nologies,configurators,integrationwithinexistentIS,technicalaspects,etc.),proceduralknowledge(rulestoensurecoordination,agreementprocessesforoperationset-ups,thefunctionaldepartment’soperatingmode)andstrategicknowledge(evolutionofprojectrequirements,mobilizationofresources)tocarry through theConvergingConfiguratorsProject.Thirdly,theTechnicalExperthadlittleexpe-rienceof theconfigutator technologies,andthe
Learning Dynamics across Boundaries of IS Context: a Structural perspective to Support Knowledge Management 51
ExternalConsultant’sknowledgewasinsufficienttodefinetheprojectrequirements.
Theprojectteamthereforeoperatedviaexperimentationthroughanintensecommunicationprocessacrossboundariesatthelocallevel.Whiletheprojectteammembersprogres-sivelydiscoveredthetechnicalspecificitiesofbothtechno-logies,theycameupwithproposalstoimplementauniqueITsolution.Thissituationgeneratedcoordinationproblemsandmisunderstandingoftheproposalsputforward,butalsoindicated themutual recognitionof the team’s lackofknowledge.
• Anautonomousnominatedboundaryspanner:TheaffinitybetweenFrançoiseandPierreindividualswentbeyondtheirhierarchicalrelationship.PierreallowedFrançoisetoadapttheformalprojectmana-gementpolicytoherstrategicviewinordertodealwithconflictingrelationshipsbetweenbusinessmana-gers.AssaidFrançoise,thisautonomyofferedhermoreflexibilitywithintheprojectandmotivatedhertolookfornewresourcesbyrelationalactions:
“It’sadvantageouspassingthroughmyhierar-chicalresponsiblebeforecontactingotherpeoplebecausehe’sapersonwhoencourageshisteamsanditcanavoidcertainmisunderstandingsrelatedtotheimplicitrulesfromrelationalactions”(ver-batimfromFrançoise).
TheadaptationdevelopedencouragedFrançoisetodeviaterulesfromtheprojectmanagementpolicyfromtheISDepartment.Aswewillshowbelow,thisinitiativecreatedambiguoussituationswiththeBusinessManagers.
Enacting knowledge from practice and transforming Resources and Rules: a learning dynamic focused on a socialization mode
Themobilizationandexplorationofknowledgeinthisinte-ractionareaismarkedbyanintensespannedactivitybetweentheprescribedareaandtheemergentarea.Françoise’sabilitytoseizeemergentopportunitieswithinandacrosstheprojectboundariesallowedthisinteraction.Sheprivilegedsociali-zationwithintheteam(meetingstovalidateactionsortodiscusstheprojectprocess,informaldiscussions)ratherthantheformalizedmodeimposedbytheISDepartment.
Giventhelackofknowledgewithintheprojectteam,thisstrategycreatedcohesionbasedonmutualtrust.However,thiswasnotenoughtodeveloptheknowledgeneeded.FrançoisethereforecalledonacolleaguewhowasontheboundaryoftheCoP.HedidnottakepartintheinformaldiscussionsasfrequentlyastheotherCoPmembers,buthewasrecognizedasamemberandsharedtheircommonreferences.Hehadalreadycarriedoutaprojectbasedontheconfiguratortechnology.Inadditiontosharingstoriesabouttheirrespectiveprojects,Françoisequestionedhimorconsul-tedhimabouttechnicalandmanagerialaspectsregardingtheevolutionsorthedifficultiesencounteredduringthe
project’simplementation.Thetrusttheotherteammembersplacedinherenabledhertocombinethisknowledgewiththeexistentknowledgewithintheteamwithtotalautonomy.
Infact,inonesituation,whentheprojectwasrunningbehindschedule,shedeviatedfromcertainIDSprojectpolicyrulesinordertospeeduptheproject.Formalizationofactionsontherequiredformswasneitherveryregularnorverydetailed.Moreover,shedidnotvalidatethemsystematicallyaswasnormallyrequired.Thisdeviationregardingtherulesistheexpressionofa“defensiveposition”inacontextofchange(Abbott,1995).Françoisecreatednewrulesandputmorefocusonacooperativelogicinsteadofthe“client/supplierlogic”embodiedbytheprojectpolicy.
InsteadofthepositiveresultsofspannedlocallearningtotheConvergingConfiguratorsProject,thelearningdynamicispartiallyestablishedatthelocal/globallevel.ThetrustbetweenFrançoiseandherlinemanagergavehergreaterautonomyandboostedherabilitytoexploredevice-related,proceduralandstrategicknowledgeacrosstheboundariesofherworkcontext.TheCoPhadakeyroleinthecollectiveactionasitimprovedtheITprojectperformance.Françoiseincreasedthenumberofformalmeetingsasshewentalongwitchallowedhertogatherandcombinenewknowledge.Theseface-to-faceinteractionsrepresented“interpretationoccasions”allowinghertoconstructwithherteamanewfieldjoiningITandbusinessknowledge.Paradoxically,herautonomyalsocausedtensionwiththebusinessmanagers.Therepeatedinteractionsweremisinterpretedbybusinessmanagersbecauseofformalization.Withtheclient’sincreasedmistrusttowardstheISDepartmentbecauseoftheHostingWebsiteProjectdelays,theclientswerewaryoftheknowledgethathadbeengatheredand the implementationof theConverging Configurator Project, and they criticizedFrançoisefornotrespectingtheformalizationandvalidationstagesduringtheproject.BoundaryObjectscreateda pos-terioribytheprojectteamhadpowerlegitimacyoverclientsofproject.
Discussion: perspectives for knowledge management from two contrasting learning dynamics in an embedded IS work context
Thepresentstudyoffersanexploratoryaccountoflear-ninginorganizationsthroughacomparativeanalysisoftwospannedzonesofinteractioninanISDepartment.Inspiteofhavingthesamestructureintheorganizationalcontextandempiricalsimilaritiesbetweentheprojects,thestructuralapproachandthesocialboundaryperspectiveprovideduswithtwocontrastinglearningdynamics.Thesignificationandlegitimizationprocessesaredifferentaccordingtothedegreeofdominationaspectsinprojects.Thepractice-basedlensisusefultounderstandproject-basedsituationsandstructuresinorganizations.ThefindingsshowhowProjectManagersdeveloptheirsocialworkcontextbymobilisingknowledgethroughphysical,mentalandsocialboundaries
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(Gottetal,1993).Theanalysisoftherecursiverelationshipatthelocallevelofactionandthegloballevelofstructuresallowsustoidentifyfacilitatingandinhibitingfactorsinthelearningprocessandcontributetore-thinkingtheconver-gencebetweenITprojectmanagementgovernance(Lindkvist,2004)andknowledgemanagement(Srikantaiah,etal.,2010).
RenewingtechnologiesstructuresactivitiesinIScontextbutITprojectgovernanceshouldintegratestronglyrelationaldimension(networking,collaborativerelationships)throughrulesandresourcesallowingthesignificationandthelegi-timizationofnewpracticesinordertofacilitatethecirculationandtheaccumulationofknowledgeinorganisations.Thisapproachconsiststotakeintoaccounttechnologiesassocialartefacts(Orlikowski,2002)inmanagementpracticesandpolicies.Weturnnowtothespecificityoftheserulesandresourcesandtheireffects.
Autonomy And LegitimAcy As fAciLitAting fActoRs to expLoRe KnowLedge thRough boundARies in An is context
Thefirstzoneillustratesa“learningprocessbyreactionandformalization”andshowshowtheprojectmanagersfounditdifficulttoovercomesocialboundaries.Theresourceofdominationusedbytheprojectclientthroughahighlyfor-malizedrelationshipreducedtheProjectManager’sautonomy.Artefactsmobilizedwithintheproject(contract,forms,planningtools,reportsandwrittenaccounts)reinforcedthephysicalboundariesandlimitedtheProjectManager’scapa-citytomobilizestrategicknowledgewithinandwithouttheprescribedarea.HislackofautonomyandthenegativeISDepartmentrepresentationfromtheBusinessManagerswereinhibitingfactorsinthelearningprocessandreinforcedtheconstrictivecharacterofthestructurewithregardstoaction.Theimbalanceoftherulesofauthoritywiththerulesofcoordinationandcooperationcreatedaviciouscircle:thetenserthesituations,themoretheywereformalized,andthemoreformalizationtherewas,thetenserthesituationsbecamebetweentheparticipants.Significationprocessisthaninhi-bited(Giddens,1984).
ThevariousfactorsthatimpactedonPierre’spracticecreatedanimbalancebetweenthephysical,mentalandsocialboundaries,theformerbeingreinforcedtothedetrimentoftheothertwo.Thesocialboundariesbecameimpermeable,despitethenumerousinteractionsbetweenactors.Theclients’supremacykepttheProjectManagerfromcrossingphysicalboundariestomobilizenewresources.TheorganizationalrigiditiesoftheISDepartmentgeneratedtheoppositeeffect.Topmanagementonlyreactedwhentheprojectsituationbecomeextremelytenseandactionwouldotherwisehavebeenblocked.Theythusrestoredtheproject’sprogressbyimposingthelimitedandfragmentedparticipationofthestakeholders.
Thelearningprocesswasthustriggered“byforce”inreactiontotheProjectManager’smobilizationofknowledge.Theeffectsofdominationavoidtheprocess“disembedding”and“re-embedding”knowledge(Giddens,1990),“itstickswherepracticeisnotshared’(BrownandDuguid2001).Actually,Knowledgecreationremainednestedatprojectmanagerlevel.Inthiscase,theCoPprovidedmoralsupportintermsofprofessionalidentityandITProjectManagerpracticeinthecontextofcontinualISDepartmentchange.However,thisknowledgecreationwasnotenoughtoensuregoodprojectperformance.Theprojectfinishedoneyearlate.Globally,theISDepartmenttopmanagementteambecameawareoftheimpactoftheworkcontext’sspecificfeaturesontheprojectperformance.Theorganizationallearninggeneratedfromthislocaldynamicledtothecreationofanewrule(nowITprojectmanagersarephysicallyplacedinbusinessdepartmentduringtheprojectimplementation)andanewresource(atechnicaltransitoryplatform,7createdduringtheimplementationofthe“WebsiteHostingProject”,couldbewidelyusedasanewISDepartmentartefact.
Thesecondzoneillustratesa“learningprocessbyemer-gentcooperation”,andshowstheProjectManager’sabilitytoovercomeprojectboundariestomobilizeknowledgeintheCoP.Physical,mentalandsocialboundariesarecrossedbytheboundaryspannertomobilizeandcreatenewresourcesfortheproject.Despitethedominationeffectformulatedbythecustomers,theProjectManagerseizedemergentlearningopportunities,integratednewdevice-related,proceduralandstrategicknowledgeintotheproject,andthusspedupthelatter.Thecolleague“adopted”bytheProjectManagerbecameaninterfaceactortotransferknowledgeacrosstheCoPandITprojectboundaries.Thislearningdynamic,facilitatedbytheITProjectManager’sautonomy,madethemental,physicalandsocialboundariespermeable.Sheusedherlegitimacywithprojectteammembersandherhierarchicalmanagertopromoteknowledgeexplorationwithintheproject.Theexperimentationappliedbytheprojectteamhelpedthemtoresolveadverseissuesintheprojectperformance,inspiteofhavinglessexperiencethantheotherprojectmanager.Paradoxically,theISDepartmenttendedtoreinforceitsstructuralrigidities.
Bothzonesofinteractionshowtheimportanceoftheco-constructionofboundaryobjectsthroughlocal/globallevelinordertobecomeartefactsinpracticeandrecognisedbythestructure.Legitimatinga posterioriaboundaryobjectcreatedinpracticeintheprescribedareaorintheemergencearea,orwithinthetransitionarea(betweenbothareas)ishardest,inparticularifboundaryspannershavenotthesupportoftopmanagementinthestructurelevel.
Table1presentsthelearningoutcomes,theknowledgeattributesgeneratedandthefacilitating/inhibitingfactorsidentifiedineachlearningdynamic.
7. ThistechnicalspaceallowsintegratingtemporaryITintestphase,beforethephaseofindustrializationwhenITisdefinitivelyinstalledinexistingIS.
Learning Dynamics across Boundaries of IS Context: a Structural perspective to Support Knowledge Management 53
foR An integRAted sociAL peRspective to suppoRt KnowLedge mAnAgement in An is context
TheanalysisweputforwardoffersbetterinsightsintotheimpactoftheISworkcontext’scomplexitiesindailyITprojectteampractice.Thisperspectivecanfuelknowledgemanagementsystemsbasedonsocialapproachesinordertobetterincorporatethefacilitatingandinhibitingfactorsofthelearningdynamic.Ratherthancreateaseparatesystem,itimpliesimprovingintegrationintheorganization’sdailyoperationsthroughtheexistingcoordinationandcooperationmechanisms.Itisessentialtotakeacriticallookatorgani-zationalrigiditiesandprojectmanagementpolicytoavoidtheviciouscirclewherebythemoreambiguousthesituation,themoreformalizationisreinforced,therebyinhibitingbroaderlearningdynamicsbasedoncooperation.Theins-trumentationof“socializationspaces”or“interpretativespaces”(Weick,1990)asresourcesforlearningisapriorconditiontoenhancingsharedcognitionandpositivelytrans-forminglocalrules.Thisworkcontextrequiresthenegotiationofproceduralknowledgeinordertorestorethepermeabilityofsocialboundariesandconstructthecooperativerelationshipneededtosuccessfullycompleteaprojectontime.
Inacontextofpermanentchange,knowledgemanage-mentsystemscanhelpdeveloptheidentity,cultureandglobalstructureofcompanies.Thischallengecannotbeachievedwithaknowledgemanagementsystemfocused
onlyonacodificationapproach(Mansour,Gaha,2009).Threepotentialstartingpointscouldbedeveloped.Firstly,theknowledgesystemshouldtoworkontheISDepartment’slegitimacywithrespecttobusinessdepartments.Theprojectteammadetoomucheffortatlocallevelregardingtheevo-lutionoftheperceptionofISDepartmentandthisaffectedtheperformanceoftheITprojects.Itshouldtobemanagedbyanotherentity.
Secondly,wealsoneedtobeawareofcertaindeviationsinprojectmanagement.Companiesmaybetemptedtoallo-catefewerhumanresourcessolelydedicatedtocertainpro-jects.Thereisatrendtowards“splitting”theworkcontext,leadingtothefragmentationofcollectivelearning.Whenaprojectmanageronlyworkswithactorsassignedtocompletetasksona“one-off”basis,thereislessopportunitytodevelopcollectivelearning.
Finally,theknowledgesystemshouldtodevelopanongoingsearchforabalancebetweentheproject,CoPandtheorganizationalstructure,withaspecialattentiontoprojectmanagerssuchasknowledgeworkers(Horibes,1999).Thisrelationship,constructedbyprojectmanagers,hasapositiveimpactonprojectperformance.OurstudyshowsthatthecreationofinformalresourcesandrulesconditionstheconstructionoflocalstrategiesbyITprojectteams.Itimpliesacoordinationmechanismthatencouragesnetworkactivities,particularlywithinformalcommunities.Topmanagement
TABLE 1
Analyzing two Learning Dynamics across IS Department Boundaries: Recapitulative Findings of the Research
Learning dynamics Learning outcomes
Attributes of knowledge generated Facilitating factors
Inhibiting factors
IT project performance
Learning process by reaction and formalization
Reinforcementofformalproject
boundariesStrongpermeabilityoflearningatproject
managerlevel
Knowledgenegotiationattheexpenseoftechnical
andinnovativeknowledge(roleofISDepartmentandITprojectmanager)
Active“troubleshooter”withwider
organizationallegitimacy
Legitimacyoftheprojectmanagerinthe
CoP
Projectmanager’s
lackofautonomy
Learning process by emergent cooperation
Deviationofformalrulesinthestructure
(ISDepartment)Knowledge
transferacrossISDepartment
boundaries
Technicalandmanagementknowledge
Autonomyoftheprojectmanagerintheproject
Legitimacyoftheprojectmanagerinthe
CoPAvailabilityof
knowledgeaboutongoingprojectinthe
CoP
Sanctionsbythe
structure(topmanagement)
54 Management international / International Management / Gestión Internacional, Vol 16, numéro spécial
canthenplayanactiveroleasa“knowledgeambassador”inordertohelpproblematicITprojectsituationsbedealtwithsuccessfully.Bymakingtheorganizationalstructuremoreflexible,theycanensuretheporosityofboundariesandtheexplorationofnewknowledgewithinandbetweenprojectsandalsoinrelationwithinformalcommunities.Thesepointsareworthexploringinmoredepthtoimproveintegratedknowledgemanagementsystemstructureandefineamoreorganicprojectmanagementpolicy(Koskine,2004).Withregardtofutureresearch,wesuggestthattheinvesti-gationofpowerfactorsintheintegrationofembeddednessinorganizationallearningdynamicsisausefulavenuetofollow.
Conclusion
Thepresentpaperoffersanintegrativeapproachtoexaminelearningdynamicsintherecursiverelationshipbetweenproject,communityofpracticeandorganizationalstructure.LiteratureinKnowledgeManagementunderlinestheinterestforintegrativeapproaches(Carlile,2004;Montgomery,Oliver,2007).Bycombiningsocialperspectivesfocusedonproject-basedlearning,practice-basedlearningandboundaryliterature, our findings highlight embeddedness andknowledgeattributesinISworkcontexts.Weshowedthepositiveeffectofcommunitiesofpractice,asarepertoryofspecificknowledge,ontheperformanceofprojectsimple-mentedinanenvironmentoffast-pacedtechnologicalchange.
BytakingintoaccountthepracticeofITProjectManagersasboundaryspanners,ourfindingsemphasizetheroleofpowerinamoregloballearningprocess.TheautonomyandlegitimacyofITManagersandtheformalizationdegreeofthestructureclearlyaffectthepermeabilityofboundariesinrecursivelearningdynamics.Thisperspectivesuggeststheneedtobroadenembeddedanalysisfromthelocallevelofactiontothegloballeveloftheorganizationalstructure.Thestructuralapproachallowsustoexaminethetransitionfromoneleveltoanotherandprovidesamulti-levelandnon-linearresearchdesign.However,thedialecticaltensionsbetweenextremepolessuchasformal/informal,local/global,individual/collectiveareintegratedinthedeeperanalysisoftwocontrastinglearningdynamicsthroughmental,physicalandsocialboundaries.
Thus,wehaverespondedtothecallbyscholarsformoreempiricalresearchonboundaries(Montgomery,Oliver,2007)inordertocontributetotheKMliteraturefocusedontheemergenceofboundaryspanningcompetenceinpractice(Levina,Vaast2005).Asweunderlinedwithmanagerialrecommendationsinthediscussion,thefacilitatingandinhibitingfactorsidentifiedcanbefurtherdevelopedforanintegratedsocialperspectiveofknowledgemanagement.Ourfindingsshouldbeconfirmedbyfurtherresearchinotherareaswhereknowledgeacquisitionisrequiredtokeepuptechnologicalchange.
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