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Unit 1: Level of organization
Chemistry (macromolecules)
Levels of organization: Unit 1
Small to large:
atoms → molecules →macromolecules
Then larger (microscopic stuff):
cells and their parts (organelles)
Then the types of tissues cells can build, and the
specializations and functions of each tissue
Levels of Organization
• Chemical/Molecular (simple)
• Cell
• Tissue
• Organ
• Organ system
• Organism (complex)
Figure 1.4 Levels of Organization
Organism Level
Organ System Level
Organ Level
Tissue Level
Cellular Level
Chemical or
Molecular Levels
.1nm
10nm
10m
1mm
1mm
120mm
1.7m
Size
All of the organ systems must
work together for a person to
remain alive and healthy.
Integumentary Skeletal
Muscular
Nervous
Endocrine
Cardiovascular Lymphoid
Respiratory
Digestive
Urinary
Reproductive
The cardiovascular system
includes the heart, the blood,
and blood vessels.
The heart is a
complex three-
dimensional organ.
Cardiac muscle tissue
constitutes the bulk of
the walls of the heart.
Cardiac muscle tissue
is formed from interlocking
heart muscle cells.
Heart muscle cells
contain within them
contractile
protein fibers.
Complex contractile
protein fibers are
organized from molecules.
Molecules are
formed from
interacting atoms.
Levels of Organization
• Chemical
– atoms combined to form molecules
– Over a dozen elements in the body
– Four of them make up 99% of the body
• Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen
– Major classes of compounds
• Water
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Lipids
• Nucleic acids
Figure 1.4 Levels of Organization (Part 3 of 3)
Chemical or
Molecular Levels
.1nm
10nm
10m Heart muscle cells
contain within them
contractile
protein fibers.
Complex contractile
protein fibers are
organized from molecules.
Molecules are
formed from
interacting atoms.
Levels of Organization
• Cell
– made of molecules
– The smallest living unit in the body
• Tissue
– consists of similar types of cells
– Many cells and some surrounding material
• Organ
– Combination of tissues that work closely
together
Figure 1.4 Levels of Organization (Part 2 of 3)
Organ Level
Tissue Level
Cellular Level 1mm
1mm
120mm The heart is a
complex three-
dimensional organ.
Cardiac muscle tissue
constitutes the bulk of
the walls of the heart.
Cardiac muscle tissue
is formed from interlocking
heart muscle cells.
Levels of Organization
• Organ System
– Combination of various organs make up a
specific system
• For example: the stomach, small intestine, large
intestine, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas make up
the digestive system
• Organism – made up of the organ
systems
– Humans are composed of 11 organ systems
Figure 1.4 Levels of Organization (Part 1 of 3)
Organism Level
Organ System Level
1.7m
Size
All of the organ systems must
work together for a person to
remain alive and healthy.
Integumentary Skeletal
Muscular
Nervous Endocrine
Cardiovascular Lymphoid
Respiratory Digestive
Urinary
Reproductive
The cardiovascular system
includes the heart, the blood,
and blood vessels.
Molecules: (more than one atom)
• Molecules containing carbon + other atoms = organic
• Larger molecules (macromolecules) are built of linked molecules
• Categories: – Carbohydrates (built from simple sugars)
– Lipids (built from fatty acids)
– Protein (built from amino acids)
– Nucleic acids (built from nucleotides)
Molecules and macromolecules
• We eat mostly
macromolecules, and
digest them to
molecules
• We use molecules to
build components of
our tissues
• Each molecule and
macromolecule has
uses and chemical
properties
Organic Molecules
• Always contain:
– Carbon (C) and Hydrogen (H)
– A carbon atom may share electrons with another carbon atom or other atoms.
H C C C C C C C C H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
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Organic Molecules
• Macromolecules contain many molecules
joined together
– Monomers: Simple organic molecules that
exist individually
– Polymers: Large organic molecules form by
combining monomers
Organic Molecules
Polymer Monomer
carbohydrate (e.g., starch) monosaccharide protein amino acid nucleic acid nucleotide
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
A meal containing carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.
Organic Molecules
• Cells have common mechanisms
– Dehydration Reaction: an -OH and -H are
removed as a water molecule
– Hydrolysis Reaction: the components of
water are added
monomer monomer
monomer monomer
monomer monomer
OH H
OH H
b.
a.
monomer monomer
dehydration
reaction
hydrolysis
reaction
H2O
H2O
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Carbohydrates • Function for quick fuel & short-term energy storage H-C-OH
• Simple Carbohydrates
– Monosaccharides are sugars with 3 - 7 carbon atoms
– Pentose refers to a 5-carbon sugar
– Hexose refers to a 6-carbon sugar
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
OH
OH
H
H
H
H
HO OH
H O
C
C
C
C C
4
5 6
3 2
1
OH
OH
H
H
H
HO OH
H O O
CH2OH CH2OH
C6H12O6
Carbohydrates
• Disaccharides contain two monosaccharides.
– Examples – maltose, sucrose, lactose
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
OH HO
H H
O + +
O O O O
+ +
CH2OH
glucose C6H12O6 glucose C6H12O6
monosaccharide monosaccharide
CH2OH
dehydration reaction
hydrolysis reaction
CH2OH CH2OH
maltose C12H22O11
disaccharide
H2O
water
water
Carbohydrates
• Polysaccharides are long polymers that contain
many glucose subunits.
– Starch is the storage form of glucose in plants.
– Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in animals.
– Cellulose can be found in the cell walls of plants.
O
O O
H H H
H
OH H
OH
O
O
H H H
H
OH
OH
O
O
H H H
H
OH
OH
H H
O
O
H H H
H
OH
OH
H
starch
granule
cell wall
potato cells
nonbranched
branched
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
© Jeremy Burgess/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
O
O O
H H
H
H
OH H
OH
O
O
H H
H
H
OH
OH
O
O
H H
H
H
OH
OH
H H
O
O
H H
H
H
OH
OH
H
glycogen
granule
liver cells
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
© Don W. Fawcett/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
O
OH
OH H
H
H
H
H
H
OH OH
H
H
H
H H H
OH
O
H H H
OH
O
O H
O
O
H
OH H
H OH
O
O O
O
OH
OH H
H
H
H
H
H
OH OH
H
H
H
H H H
OH
O
H H H
OH
O
O H
O
O
H
OH H
H OH
O
O O
O
OH
OH H H
H
H
H
H
OH OH
H
H
H
H H H
OH
O
H H H
OH
O
O H
O
O
H
OH H
H OH
O
O O
glucose
molecules
microfibrils
cellulose fibers
CH2OH CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
cellulose
fiber
plant
cell wall
© Science Source/J.D. Litvay/Visuals Unlimited
Lipids
• Lipids function as energy storage molecules
• diverse in structure and function.
• One common characteristic – they do not dissolve in water (hydrophobic)
• Types
– Fats and oils
– Phospholipds
– Steroids
Lipids
• Fats
– Usually of animal origin
– Solid at room temperature
• Oils
– Usually of plant origin
– Liquid at room temperature
• Triglycerides
– One glycerol and 3 fatty acid molecules
• A fatty acid is a hydrocarbon chain that ends
with the acidic group —COOH
• Saturated fatty acids have no double covalent
bonds between carbon atoms.
• Unsaturated fatty acids have 1 or more double
bonds between carbon atoms. *
• Which one is better to eat?
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
+
C OH H
H
C OH H
C
C
OH H
H
H
H
C O H
H
C O H
C O H
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H
C O
C
H
H
H C
H O
H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H
C
C
C
H
H
H
O
C
H
H H H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H
C O
HO C
H
H
C
H
H
H C
H
H H H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H
C
O
C
H
H
C
H
H
H
C
H
H H H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H
C O
H C
H
H H H
C
H
C
H
C
H
H
H
HO
HO
+ 3 H2O
glycerol 3 fatty acids fat molecule
dehydration reaction
hydrolysis reaction
3 water
molecules
• Emulsification
– Fat droplets disperses in water.
– Emulsifiers contain molecules with a polar
and nonpolar end.
– Ex. Bile salts secreted by the liver
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polar end
nonpolar end
+
emulsifier emulsification fat
Lipids
• Phospholipids – Comprised of 2 fatty acids
+ a phosphate group
– Primary components of cellular membranes
– They spontaneously form a bilayer in which the hydrophilic heads face outward toward watery solutions and the tails form the hydrophobic interior.
– Purpose of bilayer?
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
1CH
2 – O
– O
R –
O – P
– O
– 3C
H2
2CH
– O
O
O O C C
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH
CH
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH
CH
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH3
CH3
inside cell
outside cell
Fa
tty a
cid
s
a. Plasma membrane of a cell
Nonpolar Tails
Polar Head
glycerol
phosphate
b. Phospholipid structure
Lipids • Steroids
– All have a backbone of four fused carbon
rings.
• Examples: Cholesterol, Testosterone, Estrogen Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
HO
CH3
OH
O
CH3
CH3
OH
a. Testosterone b. Estrogen
Proteins • Proteins have various functions in the body
• Some are enzymes that speed chemical reactions
• polymers composed of amino acid monomers.
• Amino acids
– Central carbon bonded to a hydrogen atom
– Amino group (-NH2)
– Acidic group (-COOH)
– R group varies
H N C C
amino acid OH
H H
R
O N C C
amino acid
acidic group amino group
O
H R
H
OH
H
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
H
CH3
C C
O
O–
H
CH
CH3
C C
O
O–
H
CH2
SH
C C
O
O–
H
CH2
C C
O
O–
H3N+
H3N+
H3N+
H3C
H3N+
Proteins
• Peptides
– A polypeptide is a single chain of amino acids.
– A peptide bond joins two amino acids.
dehydration reaction H2O
water
H
H
R
H N C C N C C
H
H
R O
peptide bond
dipeptide
H N C C
amino acid
OH
H H
R
O
N C C
amino acid
acidic group amino group
O
H R
H
OH
O
OH
H hydrolysis reaction
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Proteins
• Levels of Protein Organization
– The structure of a protein has at least 3 levels
of organization.
• Primary, Secondary & Tertiary
• Some can have four.
– The final shape of a protein is very important
to its function.
• Denatured – A protein loses structure and function
due to heat or pH.
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(alpha) helix
COO– amino acid peptide bond
hydrogen bond
C N CH
R
C
CH
R
C N
C
CH
R
C
N
C
CH
R
N
C
CH
R
N
CH
R
N
C
N
CH
R
CH
hydrogen bond
(beta) pleated sheet
Linear
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
(alpha) helix
disulfide bond
(beta) pleated sheet
Globular
More than 1 polypeptide chain
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
(alpha) helix
COO– amino acid peptide bond
disulfide bond
hydrogen bond
C N
CH
R
C
CH
R
C N
C
CH
R
C
N
C
CH
R
N
C
CH
R
N
CH
R
N
C
N
CH
R
CH
hydrogen bond
(beta) pleated sheet
Nucleic Acids
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
– DNA stores genetic information in the cell and
in the organism.
• RNA (ribonucleic acid)
• Both are polymers of nucleotides
– Components of a nucleotide
• Phosphate
• Pentose sugar (ribose or deoxyribose)
• Nitrogen-containing base (1 of 5)
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
O
4'
5'
3' 2'
1'
–O P O
O
O–
phosphate
nitrogen-
containing
base
pentose sugar
Nucleotide structure
C
S
C
• DNA is a double helix
• 2 strands held together by
hydrogen bonding
• Complementary base pairing
– Adenine (A) always pairs with
thymine (T)
– Cytosine (C) always pairs with
guanine (G)
• RNA is single stranded
– Several types involved in carrying
information in DNA to make
proteins
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A
A
T T G
G
C S
S
S
P
P
P
P
S
P
S
P
S
S
P
S
P
P
C
A
A
A
T
T
T
G
G C
C
S
S
P
a. b. c.
one nucleotide
a: © Radius Images/Alamy RF
Fig. 2B
1 / 2 1 / 2
MILK FRUITS GRAINS
Eat 6 oz.
every day
Eat 2 cups
every day
Eat 2 cups
every day
Consume 3
cups every
day; ages
2–8, 2 cups
Eat 5 oz.
every day
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
VEGE TABLES MEAT & BEANS
YOU ARE WHAT YOU EAT!!!
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