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Liquid Fuel Nuclear ReactorsMolten salt coolants

with dissolved

uranium and thorium

fluorides

promise reactors that

can generate electric

power cheaper than

from coal.

Robert Hargraves and Ralph Moir  March 29, 2010

1934: Hungarian physicist Leó Szilárd filed a patent for chain reaction fission.filed a patent for chain reaction fission.

Enrico Fermi sketched a lattice of graphite and uranium oxide.graphite and uranium oxide.

Fermi's 1942 Chicago pile illustrated iti litcriticality.

Fermi's 1944 first fluid reactor measured U‐235 critical mass.U 235 critical mass.

uranyl sulfate inuranyl sulfate in water

all the world's U-235 !

beryllium oxide neutron reflector

http://www.fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/pubs/00416628.pdf

Weinberg's PWR was heterogeneous.

uraniumuranium fuel rods

d timoderating water

The aqueous homogeneous reactor at Oak Ridge generated 140 kW in 1953Oak Ridge generated 140 kW in 1953.

Ri h d E l ddRichard Engel adds 300 g of uranium in 500 ml of heavy500 ml of heavy water to generate electric power for ptwo months.

National GeographicNational Geographic

LAMPRE

Los Alamos Molten PlutoniumMolten Plutonium Reactor Experiment

1961-1963

molten iron and plutonium fuelplutonium fuel

liquid sodium qcooled

J J Went developed a 1 MW suspension test t i 1974 t KEMA N th l dreactor in 1974 at KEMA, Netherlands.

A homogeneous slurry of uranium particles was suspended in heavy water.p y

Weinberg had proposed the PWR to Ri k ' t f l l iRickover's team for naval propulsion.

Rickover + Shippingport 100 US PWRs.

Radiation, fission products, and heat damage solid fuelheat damage solid fuel.

Zirconium cladding must contain fuel for centuriescenturies.

Spent fuel contains fission products, fi il f l d f il ifissile fuel, and fertile uranium.

3% fission products

1% plutoniumWASTE

Enriched uranium fuel

0.50% Pu-239 FUEL0.25% Pu-240 future FUEL0.15% Pu-241 FUELPower reactor

96.5% U-2383.5% U-235

96% uranium

0.83% U-235 FUEL

Power reactor

t % i ti id

0.40% U-236 future FUEL94.77% U-238 future FUEL

trace % minor actinidesNp, Am, Cm, …

France reprocesses some spent fuel.

500 T

92 Tdepleted U

1050 Tenriched UOx 

1450 Tfresh fuel

(for 59 reactors) 100 T

UOx spent fuel100 TMOX

int

(for 59 reactors) 00 TMOX spent fuel

850 TUO f l 300 T temporary or 

permanent storage

UOx spent fuel

Reprocessing

300 Tre‐

enriched in RussiaU

8 TPu

Reprocessing Plant

separates

U P

in Russia

505 T U                    stockpiledPu

http://spectrum.ieee.org/print/4891

U, Puradioactive wastes 37 T radioactive waste vitrified

Actinides fission or absorb neutrons to form new actinides, which ....

Two breeding technologies provide 102 X more energy than 0.7% U-235.10 X more energy than 0.7% U 235.

All five US LMFBRs were shut down, as th I t l F t R t j t

Fi i d t t

was the Integral Fast Reactor project.

Fission product wastes

O id t

Current thermal reactors

Fissionable U, Np, Pu, Am, Cm, … kept together+ -

Oxides to metals

Future fast ElectrorefiningNew fuel rod casting

MetalsCadmium etc

Future fast reactors

Electrorefining rod casting

In LFTR the liquid Th-232 blanket becomes the U-233 liquid fuel.becomes the U 233 liquid fuel.

Weinberg and Oak Ridge developed the first molten salt nuclear reactor in 1954.first molten salt nuclear reactor in 1954.

860 C860 C

Red hot!

100 hours

2.5 MW

235UF4 fuel in molten NaF and ZrF4 salt flowed through beryllium moderators.flowed through beryllium moderators.

intrinsic reactivity stability

automatically adjusted poweradjusted power without control rods

corrosion i t tresistant

NaK metal would transfer 200 MW thermal power to jet engines.1.4 m diameter

thermal power to jet engines.

The Molten Salt Reactor Experiment pran until 1965.

Salt flowedSalt flowed through channels in this graphite core.

The Molten Salt Reactor Experiment psucceeded.

HastelloyXe off-gasG hitGraphite

http://www.ornl.gov/~webworks/cppr/y2006/pres/124659.pdf

The Molten Salt Reactor Experiment psucceeded.

HastelloyXe off-gasG hitGraphitePumpsFluorinationFluorination

http://www.ornl.gov/~webworks/cppr/y2006/pres/124659.pdf

The Molten Salt Reactor Experiment psucceeded.

HastelloyXe off-gasG hitGraphitePumpsFluorinationFluorinationDump tanksU-233

http://www.ornl.gov/~webworks/cppr/y2006/pres/124659.pdf

17,655 hours

Weinberg had envisioned LFTR ever since the 1943 Wigner aqueous design.since the 1943 Wigner aqueous design.

"humankind's whole future depended upon this"

Global warming, overpopulation, and resources competition are increasing.resources competition are increasing.

8

10

4

6

8

0

2

Dennis Meadows’ Limits to Growth showed effects of finite resourcesshowed effects of finite resources.

RPollutionIndustrial Output

Resources

PopulationPopulationFood

http://www.aspoitalia.net/images/stories/aspo5presentations/Meadows_ASPO5.pdf

20101972

Energy cheaper than from coal is important.

Energy cheaper than from coal is important.

Copenhagen failed.p g

Energy cheaper than from coal is important.

Copenhagen failed.p g

Coal costs $40 a ton –$0.02 / kWh just for the coal.

Population is stable in developed nationsnations.10

W ld

7

8

9 World

5

6

76.7 billion 2008

3

4

1

2

USOECD

http://caliban.sourceoecd.org/vl=1260748/cl=17/nw=1/rpsv/factbook/010101.htm

0

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050

US

http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/13/38/16587241.pdf

Prosperity stabilizes population.

GDPper

82 nations with populations over 10 million.per

capitaover 10 million.

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/docs/rankorderguide.html Children per woman

Prosperity stabilizes population.

GDPper

82 nations with populations over 10 million.per

capitaover 10 million.

Stable replacement rate

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/docs/rankorderguide.html Children per woman

Prosperity stabilizes population.

GDPper

82 nations with populations over 10 million.per

capitaover 10 million.

Stable replacement rate

Prosperity

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/docs/rankorderguide.html Children per woman

Prosperity depends on energy.

$45,000

$50,000 GDPper

$35,000 

$40,000 

$45,000 percapita Nations with populations

over 10 million.

$25,000 

$30,000 

$15,000 

$20,000 

$5,000 

$10,000 

$0 

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2042rank.html Annual kWh per capita

Prosperity depends on energy.

$45,000

$50,000 GDPper

$35,000 

$40,000 

$45,000 percapita Nations with populations

over 10 million.

$25,000 

$30,000 

$15,000 

$20,000 

$5,000 

$10,000  Prosperity

$0 

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2042rank.html Annual kWh per capita

LFTR can make electricity cheaper than f lfrom coal.

100 MW LFTR $ Cost $ per mo $ per KWH100 MW LFTR $ Cost $ per mo, 40 yrs, 8% 

$ per KWH @ 90%

Construction 200 000 000 1 390 600 0 0214Construction 200,000,000 1,390,600 0.0214

100 kg U startup 1,000,000 6,953 0.000108

Thorium fuel 30 000/yr 2500 0 00000386Thorium fuel 30,000/yr 2500 0.00000386

Decomm (½ const) 100,000,000 960 0.00000148

O ti 1 000 000/ 83 333 0 00128Operations  1,000,000/yr 83,333 0.00128

TOTAL 0.0228

http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601080&refer=asia&sid=aV_2FPlVxISE

The median of five cost estimates for lt lt t i < $2/ ttmolten salt reactors is < $2/watt.

Estimate Year $/watt 2009 $/watt

Sargent & Lundy 1962 0 650 4 64Sargent & Lundy 1962 0.650 4.64

Sargent & Lundy ORNL TM‐1060

1965 0.148 1.011060ORNL‐3996 1966 0.243 1.62

Engel et al, ORNL TM7207 1978 0.653 2.16

Moir 2000 1.580 1.98

LFTR needs no costly 160-atmosphere pressure vessel and containment dome.pressure vessel and containment dome.

GE-Hitachi ABWR39 months1 356 MW1,356 MW36 x 29 meter containment1,000 ton crawler cranes

The Westinghouse Toshiba AP-1000 is massively larger than a 100 MW LFTR.massively larger than a 100 MW LFTR.

AP-1000S ChiSamen, ChinaJan 2010

The Westinghouse AP-1000 is massively larger than LFTR.larger than LFTR.

1.4 m

1.4 m AP-1000S ChiSamen, ChinaJan 2010

LFTR relies on simple, intrinsic safety t t tl d f i d thsystems, not costly defense in depth.

Stable reactivity.

Fuel already melted.

Atmospheric pressure.Freeze plug Atmospheric pressure.

Salt from rupture or leak will solidify

Freeze plug

leak will solidify.

Melting freeze plug dumps salt to tank.

High thermal energy efficiencies keep LFTR t d l tLFTR compact and low cost.

Molten salt is a highMolten salt is a high thermal capacity heat exchange fluid, better than g ,water, sodium, or helium.

Carbon composite heatCarbon composite heat exchangers presage future higher temperatures.g p

Closed cycle Brayton turbine raises power conversion efficiency to 45+%.power conversion efficiency to 45+%.

Halving rejected heat enables air cooling.

Boeing makes one $200 million aircraft per day.per day.

The learning curve experience runs counter to economy of scalecounter to economy of scale.

10% learning ratio

By‐product U‐232’s decay chain emits gamma rays hazardous to bomb builders.gamma rays hazardous to bomb builders.

nucleons Th 90 Pa 91 U 92 Np 93

235 neutron abs/decay

234

233

abs/decay(n,2n)

233

232 beta decay

231

230 neutron230 neutron absorption

Uranium from a commercial LFTR will not be used for weapons.not be used for weapons.

Breeds only as much

New U‐233 fuel

U-233 as it consumes.

Removing any will stop th LFTR

Uranium separator Fissile

nn

the LFTR.

separator

Fertile

U‐233 core

Th‐232 blanketNew Th‐232

Uranium from a commercial LFTR will not be used for weapons.not be used for weapons.

Breeds only as much

New U‐233 fuel

U-233 as it consumes.

Removing any will stop th LFTR

Uranium separator Fissile

nn

the LFTR.

U-232 contamination will be 0 13%separator

Fertile

U‐233 core will be 0.13%.

A 5 kg sphere of it radiates 4 200 mrem/hr

Th‐232 blanketNew Th‐232radiates 4,200 mrem/hr at 1 meter.

Uranium from a commercial LFTR will not be used for weapons.not be used for weapons.

Breeds only as much

New U‐233 fuel

U-233 as it consumes.

Removing any will stop th LFTR

Uranium separator Fissile

nn

the LFTR.

U-232 contamination will be 0 13%separator

Fertile

U‐233 core will be 0.13%.

A 5 kg sphere of it radiates 4 200 mrem/hr

Th‐232 blanketNew Th‐232radiates 4,200 mrem/hr at 1 meter.

After 72 hours of exposure a weapons worker will likely die.

Uranium from a commercial LFTR will not be used for weapons.not be used for weapons.

Breeds only as much

New U‐233 fuel

U-233 as it consumes.

Removing any will stop th LFTR

Uranium separator Fissile

nn

the LFTR.

U-232 contamination will be 0 13%separator

Fertile

U‐233 core will be 0.13%.

A 5 kg sphere of it radiates 4 200 mrem/hr

Th‐232 blanketNew Th‐232radiates 4,200 mrem/hr at 1 meter.

After 72 hours of India Pakistan and North Koreaexposure a weapons worker will likely die.

India, Pakistan, and North Korea demonstrated far less technically challenging and costly paths.

LFTR produces much less long lived radiotoxic actinide waste.lived radiotoxic actinide waste.

Moir and Teller proposedproposed LFTR R&D in 2005in 2005

US R&D in nuclear fission had dropped – to zero for breeders.to zero for breeders.

IAEA, via Inter. Panel on Fissile Materials Feb 2010

A prototype LFTR could be operational i 5in 5 years.

$ 1 B $ 5 B $ 70 B per year industry

Develop Scale up Produce

$ $ $ p y y

Export

2010 2015 2020

Commercialize

One LFTR per day

Commercialize

A prototype LFTR could be operational i 5in 5 years.

$ 1 B $ 5 B $ 70 B per year industry

Develop Scale up Produce

$ $ $ p y y

Export

2010 2015 2020

Commercialize

One LFTR per day

Commercialize

Rickover's Shippingport was built in 32 months.Weinberg-engineered Oak Ridge X-10 was built in 9 months.

Aim High! Zero emissions worldwide.

Install one 100 MW LFTR each day, worldwide, to replace all coal power.p p

10 billion tons CO2

1400 GWY

2

Annual emissions from coal power plants

http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/table63.xls

2020 2058

Aim High! Synthesize fuel and fertilizer.g yDissociate water at 900oC to make hydrogen: sulfur-iodine process.

CO2 + 3 H2CH3OH + H2O y g p

Methanol for gasoline

Dimethyl etherDimethyl ether for diesel

http://wwwtest.iri.tudelft.nl/~klooster/reports/hydro_slides_2003.pdf

Ammonia for fertilizer

Aim High! Check population growth, ll ti dpollution, and resources use.

Resources Industrial Output

Population

Food

Pollution

Liquid Fuel Nuclear Reactors will be published this summer.published this summer.