Motivation zWhy did you decide to attend university? zWhy did you decide to come to class tonight?...

Motivation

Why did you decide to attend university?

Why did you decide to come to class tonight?

Why did you eat supper before (after) class?

Why do you sit in the same spot as last week?

Essential Qualities of Motivational States

Emotional states are: energizing (activate or arouse behaviours) directive (guide behaviours towards

goals/needs) persistance (persist in behaviour until

goals/needs met) strength (motives differ in strength)

“Motivation involves goal-directed behaviour.”

Needs, Drives & Rewards

Needs states of deficiency lead to goal-directed behaviours failure to satisfy needs leads to

psychological or physical damage (or death)

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Needs, Drives & Rewards

Drives psychological states activated to satisfy

needs needs arousal (“physiological

activation”) arousal behavioural activation (to

satisfy needs) “If a behaviour consistently reduces a drive,

it becomes a habit.”

Needs, Drives & Rewards

Drives psychological states activated to satisfy needs needs arousal (“physiological activation”) arousal behavioural activation (to satisfy

needs) “If a behaviour consistently reduces a drive, it

becomes a habit.” BUT … why do we do things that don’t satisfy

biological needs?

Needs, Drives & Rewards

Rewards Freud - seek pleasure/avoid pain pleasure is a primary motivator

Internal and External Motivation

Internal (biological) Motivation reflect needs essential for survival “regulatory” motives

thirsthunger

neurobiology hormonesneurotransmittersbrain sites

Internal Motivation

homeostatis “tendency for body functions to maintain

equilibrium”negative feedback model

deviations from equilibrium detected physiological responses

hypothalamusi.e., sweating to cool offi.e., shivering to warm up

instrinsic - value or pleasure without direct biological goal play creativity

Internal Motivation

Instincts “unlearned, automatic actions triggered

by external cues” “produce an immediate impulse to act” fixed-action pattern

facial expressions

many “instinctive” behaviours modified by learning

descriptive but not explanatory

External Motivation

External (social) motives “purposive” motives extrinsic - external goal such as

paycheque

External Motivation

social needs depend upon experience: can have unlimited number acquired through learning & socialization

Tolman - •“more highly motivated to obtain things of

value”•“value determined to large extent by

culture”•for example, Inuit and high pay

External Motivation

social needs depend upon experience: can be extrinsic

pay cheque

can be intrinsicachievementautonomyaffiliation

Learned Helplessness

Self-efficacy “expectancy that your efforts will lead

to success”learned helplessness - the belief that

your actions will be futile

Arousal Theories of Motivation

Yerkes-Dodson Law optimal level of arousal provides rationale for intrinsic

behaviours such as dancing, listening to music, reading

contradicts “drive theories” where motivation hypothesized to tension/arousal

W. W. Norton

Arousal Theories of Motivation

Berlyne expanded Yerkes-Dodson Law what is optimally arousing depends on

initial level of arousalif low levels of arousal, then novelty,

complexity, uncertainty will (+) effect of arousal

if already at high arousal level, additional arousing events will be “aversive”

W. W. Norton

Berlyne

Hunger

Does your stomach rumble when you are hungry?

Do stomach contractions cause hunger?

Internal Motivation

Hunger

Brain Regulation in Hunger

Hypothalamus lesions of lateral hypothalamus - little or

no interest in eatingaphagia

lesions of ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus - excessive eating (could not recognize satiety?)hyperphagia blood levels of insulin fat storage

Brain Regulation in Hunger

Orbitofrontal cortex “processes info about the potential

reward value of food”

Homeostatic Regulation

Glucose (glucostatic theory) specialized glucose receptors monitor

extent glucose taken up by cells to be used for energy

Lipids (lipostatic theory) set-point for body fat deviations “initiate compensatory

behaviours to return to homeostatis”

Homeostatic Regulation

Leptin hormone released from fat cells in relation to

amount of fat stored in those cells acts on hypothalamus slow-acting

External Motivations

When did you eat lunch? Where you hungry?Classical conditioning

hungry at mealtimes even though metabolic rates differ

food - related cues (sight and smell)Learned preferences

observational learning

Genetic Predisposition

Body mass index (ratio of body weight to height): strongly related to biological parents NOT

adoptive parentsWhy, if body weight determined

primarily by genetics, has percentage of North Americans who are obese increased dramatically in the past few decades?

Genetic Predisposition

Genetics = can you become obese predisposition set-point

Environment = will you become obese

External (Social) Motivations for Overeating

Positive (?) in developing nations: improved health Social status symbol

Negative (Western world) lower socioeconomic status social conditioning

Food Addictions

Anorexia nervosaBulimia nervosa

Neural Systems in Motivation

Hypothalamus physiological responses controls autonomic and endocrine

systems maintain homeostasis

W. W. Norton

Neural Systems in Motivation

Prefrontal Cortex

W. W. Norton

Prefrontal Cortex

Formulating goals, executing behaviours to reach goals, tracking progress and modifying strategies as needed

Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex

Selecting and initiating actionsworking memory

compare current with past and future temporal organization

what steps do you need to take in what order

2-Back Working Memory

F+LF

Orbitofrontal Cortex

“planning and coordinating behaviours designed to achieve goals”

processing emotional information for decision making

“coding reward values of different behavioural outcomes”

If involves reward then -

Orbitofrontal Cortex

“planning and coordinating behaviours designed to achieve goals”

processing emotional information for decision making

“coding reward values of different behavioural outcomes”

If involves reward then - dopamine!

Anterior Cingulate

Located in PFC but also considered part of limbic system

directing attention to essential stimuli activated during novel tasks, more

complex tasks, tasks involving personal choices

“processing mood-relevent information”

Motivation and Emotion

Links between frontal lobes and limbic system orbitofrontal cortex and ______

Motivation and Emotion

Links between frontal lobes and limbic system orbitofrontal cortex and amygdala

somatic marker theory (Damasio) when think of an outcome emotional

reaction (dependent on past experience) emotional reactions promote survival and

reproduction

Somatic Marker Theory

Anticipate of desired event etc. Pleasurable emotional states behaviour designed to acquire that object, event etc.

“Anticipation of negative emotions motivates us to avoid other situations.”

Sleep

Science, 279, 91-95. Images Courtesy of Allen R. Braun, NIH.

Emotions, Stress & Coping

Are women more emotional than men?

Emotions vs Expression

Emotions innate basis

Expression cultural display rules

Adaptive Role for Emotions

Interpersonal relations facial/nonverbal expressions

communicate mood, reaction

strengthens emotional bonds

Adaptive Role for Emotions

Interpersonal Emotional Bonds: guilt

discourages inappropriate behaviours and encourages appropriate ones

demonstration of bond /b/ individualsinfluence tactic to manipulate behaviourmore environmental than genetic influence

Adaptive Role for Emotions

Interpersonal Emotional Bonds: embarrassment

“submission to and affiliation with the social group”

“recognition of unintentional social error”

Adaptive Role for Emotions

Interpersonal Emotional Bonds: jealousy

“sign of commitment to the relationship”

Adaptive Role for Emotions

Cognitive functions positive effect of good moods (dopamine

levels) on cognitive tasks good moods tend to use heuristic thinking anticipated emotions guide decision making

emotions tend to have more impact on decisions than cognition - ex. Me and cruise liners

emotion biases attention improved memory for emotional events

Subjective componentPhysiological componentCognitive component

Components of Emotional Experiences

Subjective Component

How you “feel”types of emotions

primary secondary

Primary/Secondary Emotions

primaryevolutionarily adaptiveshared across culturesassociated with biological/physical statesanger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness, ?

surprise, ?contempt

secondaryblend of primary emotionsremorse, guilt, submission, anticipation

W. W

. Nor

ton

Circumplex model

Dissociation of positive and negative affect subjective level

“mixed feelings” neurochemical level

positive emotions - dopaminenegative emotions - norepinephrine

(vigilance and arousal)

Subjective componentPhysiological componentCognitive component

Components of Emotional Experiences

Physiological Component

Physiological changes correlated with emotions

Is there a causal relationship? Observational info

sweaty palmsphysiological changes in actors’ displays of

emotions

Facial feedback hypothesis

W. W. Norton

Subjective componentPhysiological componentCognitive component

Components of Emotional Experiences

Physiological-Based Theory

W. W. Norton

Physiological & Cognitive Components - Act Independently

W. W. Norton

Physiological & Cognitive Components - Interactional Theory

W. W. Norton

Physiological & Cognitive Components - Interaction

W. W. Norton

Misattribution of arousal source

Chris Lisle/Corbis.

Physiological & Cognitive Components - Interaction

W. W. Norton

Misattribution of arousal sourceexcitation transfercognitive framing

learned helplessness

Influence on cognitive “set” on emotional reaction: p. 67

Physiological & Cognitive Components - Interaction

W. W. Norton

Misattribution of arousal sourceexcitation transfercognitive framing

learned helplessnesscounterfactual thinking

“act of imagining a possible alternative outcome that didn’t happen”example of winning a silver medal

Mood Regulation

W. W. Norton

Antecedent-focus situation selection situation modification attentional deployment cognitive change

Response-focus response modulation

Response Modulation

W. W. Norton

Effective: Humor

release of endorphins

focused problem solving distraction

Ineffective: Suppression

rebound effect

Rumination

Neurophysiological Basis

Physiological input spinal cord injury patients report feeling

less intense emotionsneurochemical input

dopamine = euphoria serotonin = lessen depression

anatomical structures

Anatomical Correlates

Am

eric

an J

ourn

al o

f Psy

chia

try,

154

, 926

-933

. Cop

yrig

ht ©

199

7 by

Am

eric

an P

sych

iatr

ic

Ass

ocia

tion

.

Based on what you know so far, which structures would you expect to be involved?

W. W

. Nor

ton

Amygdala

Processes emotional significance of stimuli

generates immediate reactionevolved as protective mechanism

emotional learning classical conditioned fear responses processing emotional content of facial

expressions damage leads to social impairments

Amygdala

Possible gender differences greater activation of left amygdala in

women greater activation of right amygdala in

men

Orbitofrontal Cortex

Assess potential reward valueprocess emotional cuesdamage

insensitive to emotions of others difficulties with emotional control

aggression/violence

fail to use somatic markersno emotion when discussing emotional topics

Emotional Asymmetry

Greater activation of right hemisphere associated with negative affect prefrontal cortex amygdala lack of motivation clinical depression

greater activation of left PFC associated with positive affect

Emotional Asymmetry

Greater activation of left hemisphere associated with positive affect left prefrontal cortex increased confidence increased effort to achieve goals

negative affective states (i.e., anxiety) may suppress left PFC

Emotional Asymmetry

In general, right hemisphere associated with:

interpretation and comprehension of emotional material (such as faces)

emotional tone of speech

Stress

Fight - or - flight response hypothalamus - pituitary activation hormonal response

Tend - and - befriend response

General Adaptation Syndrome

W. W. Norton

Read #4 on page 66

General Adaptation Syndrome

W. W. Norton

Coping Strategies

Emotion-focused coping designed to prevent emotional response enable functioning when faced with

uncontrollable stressor or high level of stress includes

avoidanceminimizing problemdistancing oneself from outcomesinappropriate strategies such as eating and

drinking

Coping Strategies

Problem-Focused Coping when stressor is perceived as

controllable usually more effective over the long run

typically use both problem- and emotion-focused coping