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MPS 1053
Testing & Evaluation in
Science & Maths Education
Week 3
Learning Theories & Assessment
Assessment
• General principles for assessment
• Traditional assessment
• Standard-based assessment
• Humanistic assessment
• OBE & Constructive Alignment
• PEKA & Project Works
How one person's abilities compare in quantity with those of another is none of the teacher's business. It is irrelevant to his work. What is required is that every individual shall have opportunities to employ his own powers in
activities that have meaning.
(John Dewey , Democracy and Education, 1916)
Learning theories
& assessment?
Learning theories
• Behaviourism
• Cognitivism
• Constructivism
• Cooperative learning
• Inquiry-based learning
• Problem-based learning
• Project-based learning
• Computer-based learning
• Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky, Gagne, Bruner…
Behaviourism
• Stimulus-Response (automatic)
• Reward-Punishment
• Assessment is based on the correct
response for the stimulus given.
• Reward is given when correct response is
demonstrated.
• Punishment is given when incorrect or no
response is exhibited.
• Refer – Pavlov, Skinner, Thorndike, etc.
Behaviourism
• Assessment is based on what can be
observed outwardly.
• The stimuli and responses are measurable.
• This satisfied the demands of school
administrators, teachers, parents and
politicians, particularly at times of
standardized testing.
Behaviourism
• If the learning theory practiced in the
educational system is as such, then the
assessment method will be to satisfy the
practice.
• If the aim of behaviourist learning is to
produce automatic response to certain
stimulus, the assessment will aim at
evaluating how fast a student can respond
to such stimulus.
Behaviourism
• When teachers are confronted with the need
to have their children perform well in an
increasing number of standardised tests,
such as SPM, the methods of learning
instant responses (to stimuli) become valid.
(Mahon, 2004)
Cognitivism
• Taking into the consideration of inward and
unobservable thinking ‘behaviours’.
• Based on information processing model –
sensory registration, short-term memory and
long-term memory.
• Refer - Gestalt, Atkinson, Shiffrin, etc.
Cognitivism
• Assessment will include thinking skills and
processes, misconceptions, problem solving
skills (not just the solutions), creativity,
metacognition, etc.
• Example: marks are allocated for the
solution paths of a question, not solely to the
answer given.
Cognitivism
• Learn from mistakes
• Errors are not rewarded with punishment but
is an important piece of information to
assess students’ learning and teacher’s
instruction.
Constructivism
• Mathematics is a cumulative, vertically
structured discipline.
• One learns mathematics by building on the
mathematics that one has previously learned.
• Assessment should be used as a tool to
enhance both the students’ learning and the
teacher’s understanding of the students’
current understanding. (asking non-
judgemental questions)
Constructivism
• Knowledge is constructed by the learner, not received.
• Learners come to science learning with existing ideas
about many natural phenomena.
• The learners’ existing ideas have consequences for the
learning of science.
• It is possible to teach science more effectively if account
is taken of the learner’s existing ideas.
• Knowledge is represented in the brain as a conceptual
structure.
• It is possible to model learners’ conceptual structures.
• Each individual’s conceptual structure is unique. (Taber, 2006)
Constructivism
• Learners are not viewed as passive but are seen as
purposive and ultimately responsible for their own
learning.
• Learning is considered to involve an active process
on the part of the learner.
• Knowledge is not ‘out there’ but is personally and
socially constructed.
• Teachers also bring their preconceptions to learning
situations in their subject area as well as in their
views of teaching and learning.
(Driver, 1988)
Constructivism
Constructivist teachers: • Encourage & accept student autonomy &
initiative
• Use raw data & primary sources along with
manipulative, interactive & physical materials.
• Use cognitive terminology when framing tasks
(e.g., classify, analyse, predict, create, etc.)
• Allow student responses to drive lessons, shift
instructional strategies & alter content
• Seek elaboration of students’ initial responses. (Brooks & Brooks, 1993)
Constructivism
Constructivist teachers: • Inquire about students’ understandings of
concepts before sharing their own understandings
of those concepts
• Encourage students to engage in dialogues both
with the teachers & with one another.
• Encourage student inquiry by asking thoughtful,
open-ended questions to teachers and each other.
• Nurture students’ natural curiosity through
frequent use of learning cycle model. (Brooks & Brooks, 1993)
Constructivism
Constructivist teachers:
• Engage students in experiences that might
engender contradictions to their initial hypotheses
and then encourage discussion.
• Allow a waiting time after posing questions.
• Provide time for students to construct
relationships and create metaphors.
(Brooks & Brooks, 1993)
Inquiry-based learning
• Learning through students’ discovery and
problem-solving.
• Problems/topics are from the students (trigger
students’ interest), especially their questions.
• Teacher doesn’t teach but helps students to
learn for themselves.
• Knowledge is built by students out of their
own interest through discovery and problem-
solving.
Inquiry-based learning
• Three components for assessment:
• Contents – mastery of concepts
• “Doing” – investigation, discovery,
problem-solving
• Thinking skills – reasoning
(Hein & Lee, 1999)
Inquiry-based learning
• Suggested assessment methods:
• Portfolio
• Performance task
• Project
• Demonstration
• Discourse assessment – oral assessment
• Rubrics - performance
• Anecdotal Notes – teacher’s observation notes
• Student-kept records – journal / diary
Cooperative learning
• Cooperative Learning is a relationship in a group of
students that requires positive interdependence (a
sense of sink or swim together), individual
accountability (each of us has to contribute and
learn), interpersonal skills (communication, trust,
leadership, decision making, and conflict
resolution), face-to-face promotive interaction, and
processing (reflecting on how well the team is
functioning and how to function even better).
(Johnson & Johnson, 2009)
Cooperative learning
• Assessment will involve students/classmates
of the same group (peer assessment).
• Additional sources of labour to conduct
assessments and communicate results.
Students are a natural source of help and
assistance to teachers when labour intensive
performance, authentic, or total quality
assessment practices are used.
(Johnson & Johnson, 2009)
Cooperative learning
•More modalities to be used in the assessment
and communication process. Learning in
cooperative groups allows for assessment
procedures that cannot be used when students
work alone, individualistically, or competitively.
•The possibility for more diverse outcomes
(many difference sources of assessment data).
(Johnson & Johnson, 2009)
Cooperative learning
•The possibility for students to learn from the
assessment and reporting experiences.
Learning is enhanced when the assessment
requires group members to discuss the
accuracy, quality, and quantity of their own
and each other's work.
•Less possibility of teacher bias affecting the
assessment and evaluation process.
•Opportunity for group and individual
assessments.
Problem-based learning (PBL)
• Knowledge is learned through group
problem-solving.
• Teacher is the facilitator giving lesser and
lesser guidance and instruction as the
students progress.
• The problems are open-ended, challenging
and sometimes there is no one correct
answer.
Problem-based learning (PBL)
• The aim is not to solve problems but to learn
from the process of group discussion in
solving problems where the students
discover knowledge through the process.
• Students are viewed as an active part of the
learning and assessment processes.
• Criterion-referenced
• Peer and self assessments
• Assessing skills in complex and
professional situations.
(MacDonald, 2005)
Problem-based learning (PBL)
• Assessment should ideally be based in a
practice context in which students will find
themselves in the future - whether real or
simulated.
• Assess what the professional does in their
practice, which is largely process-based
professional activity, underpinned by
appropriate knowledge, skills and attitudes.
(MacDonald & Savin-Baden, 2004)
Problem-based learning (PBL)
• Assessment should reflect the learner’s
development from a novice to an expert
practitioner and so should be developmental
throughout the programme of studies.
• Students should begin to appreciate and
experience the fact that in a professional
capacity they will encounter clients, users,
professional bodies, peers, competitors,
statutory authorities, etc. who will, in effect, be
‘assessing’ them.
Problem-based learning (PBL)
• Students should also be able to engage in
self-assessment and reflection as the basis
for future continuing professional
development and self-directed learning.
• Ensure that there is alignment between our
objectives and the students’ anticipated
learning outcomes, the learning and
teaching methods adopted, and the
assessment of learning strategies, methods
and criteria.
Problem-based learning (PBL)
Learning - Assessment
Belief about Learning Assessment Method
understands the same things in
different ways
Assessment items have
personalized content
holds different interests and goals assess achievements that will reveal
students' readiness to accomplish
their own goals
responds in different ways, for
example, some are better at oral than
at written expression
allow students to perform in ways
that afford them the best chance to
show what they know
thinks at their own rate, so some
people need more time to think things
through (or need other differences in
conditions) than others
allow different conditions and
amounts of time so test-takers can
demonstrate what they know
What is your practice of
learning theories?
What do you believe how
knowledge is learned by
your students?
How do/will you plan
your assessment?
References
• Brooks, J. G. & Brooks, M. G. (1993). In Search of Understanding: The Case for Constructivist Classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
• Driver, R. (1988). A constructivist approach to curriculum development. In P. Fensham (Eds.), Development and dilemmas in science education (pp.133-149). London: The Falmer Press.
• Hein, G. E. & Lee, S. (1999). Assessment in science inquiry. In Foundations – Inquiry: Thoughts, views and strategies in K-5 classroom (Vol. 2) (pp.99-107). National Science Foundation (Access online at http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/2000/nsf99148/start.htm).
• Johnson, R. T. & Johnson, D. W. (2009). The cooperative learning center at the University of Minnesota. Access online on 22nd July 2009 at http://www.co-operation.org/
• Mahon, L. (2004). Teaching, learning & assessment: The road to democracy. Australia: Victoria University. (Access online at http://www.aare.edu.au/04pap/mah04273.pdf).
• MacDonald, R. (2005). Handbook of Enquiry & Problem Based Learning. In Barrett, T., Mac Labhrainn, I., Fallon, H. (Eds). Galway: CELT
• MacDonald, R.F. and Savin-Baden, M. (2004) “A Briefing on Assessment in Problem-based Learning,” LTSN Generic Centre Assessment Series.
• Taber, K. S. (2006). Constructivism’s new clothes: The trivial, the contingent, and a progressive research programme into the learning of science. Foundation of Chemistry, 8(2), 189-219. DOI: 10.1007/s10698-005-4536-1
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