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Folk Music Folk songs varied locally from region to region
Different villages sang different songs ¨ They also sang different variations of the same song
Urban assimilation of villages transformed folk songs ¨ In some cases, urban popular music obliterated folk
tradition The late 18th century gave rise to folk song
transcription Educated urban gentlemen spearheaded the notation
of folk music Many of these men were amateur musicians Their work introduced folk songs into the world of art
music
Transcription
Scotland pioneered transcription, but Germany performed most important legwork
Achim von Arnim (1781-1831) and Clemens Brentano (1778-1842) compiled Des Knaben Wunderhorn (1805-1808) ¨ This folk song collection only included song
lyrics ¨ However, ensuing anthologies often featured
melodies as well
Johann Gottfried Herder Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803)
linked folk songs and nationalism This German philosopher traveled through
Europe and Russia He believed national divisions existed based on
language Herder considered folk song part of the
national, not just local, culture He was one of the first to note the national
importance of folk music Herder wrote that folk music channeled national
spirit Folk songs became part of national heritage
Transcription methods and their flaws
Before audio recording, transcribers relied solely on their memories Circumstances did not always allow the transcriber
to hear the song multiple times Even if he did, the same singer might still vary the
song Folk tradition did not stress rigid adherence to pitch and
rhythm Peasants only performed certain songs on certain
occasions Many folk songs were tied to ritual or work-related
events Thus, the transcriber only had one chance to listen These events, like weddings, often came with
distractions as well
Problems cont’d
The extensive lyrics took a long time to perform Many publishers only printed excerpts from songs
A nonsensical verse about nature might have led to a profound tale of love
Worse yet, publishers rarely indicated these omissions to the reader
Some scholarly works generally included full texts However, the general public could not easily access
these publications Even with the help of audio recording,
transcribers must still make choices Transcribers must decide which irregularities to
preserve and which to exclude
Problems cont’d Early transcribers did not bother themselves with
issues of authenticity Above all, these transcribers viewed folk songs as
market goods Transcriptions needed to appeal to domestic consumers Most arrangements involved solo voice and piano
Arrangers ignored or rewrote polyphony and heterophony These textures greatly differed from Western art music
Arrangers feared buyers would not approve Sometimes arrangers replaced Western-like idioms
to increase “folk” appeal Notated folk songs reflected urban expectation more
than rural tradition
More Problems with transcriptions
Despite their claims, arrangers always invented their own harmonies for folk melodies The original songs most often involved
only solo voice However, arrangers still claimed to use
“authentic” harmonies 20th-century arrangers became more
conscious of authenticity and accuracy
Track 1: “The Day was Breaking” This folk song derives from the Smolensk
region “The Day was Breaking” exemplifies the
protyazhnaya genre It features a long, winding melody
The melody is melismatic Each syllable stretches out over an entire
musical phrase Thus, the lyrics unfold incredibly slowly
The lyrics refer to army recruitment Russian conscripts served in the Tsarist army
for 25 years
“The Day was Breaking” cont’d - excerpt
Each verse begins with a zapev, or solo introduction The zapev centers on the interval of the fifth
Protyazhnayas often focus on this interval Mikhail Glinka described the fifth as “the soul of
Russian music” Podgoloski (“undervoices”) overwhelm the
zapev, thickening the texture Each ensuing verse becomes more dissonant At the end of each verse, the texture reverts to
unison
“The Day was Breaking” cont’d - excerpt
The song takes liberties with intervals At the outset, a minor third featuring the modal
center and the third scale degree appears However, at the end of each verse, a major
third appears This interval sounds widely tuned compared to
Western music 19th century collectors would dismiss the sound However, 20th century collectors indicated the
wider tuning in their notation The singers use “open” sounds, just as real
folk singers do
Overview Various types of “Russian folk songs” pervade the musical
world Examples include “Dark Eyes,” “Those Were the Days, My
Friend,” and “Coachman, Spare Your Horses” A few songs originated in the countryside 19th-century Russian restaurants often featured gypsy
singers and choirs Their repertoire included both true folk songs and urban-
created “folk” songs Most 18th- and 19th-century collectors focused on
notating legitimately rural folk songs These songs reflected local village traditions and rituals However, collections did include the occasional popular song
Scholars classify folk songs into genres They base these decisions based on the song’s function They also consider the lyrics and character of the song
Protyazhnaya A solo performer may sing a lyrical song without
a special occasion These songs often focus on a tale of unhappy love The best-known subgenre of lyrical songs is the
protyazhnaya Protyazhnaya literally means “prolonged”
A protyazhnaya typically features a long, winding melodic line
The melismatic aspect of the songs further increases their length Melismatic songs stretch each syllable over a musical
phrase Even native Russian speakers struggle to piece
together the slowly unfolding lyrics
The protyazhnaya took on great symbolic status in the 19th century Nikolai Gogol (1809-1852) established the
protyazhnaya as a symbol for Russia as a whole His novel Dead Souls (1842) includes a memorable
image Three horses lead a coach across an unending stretch of
Russian land The coachman sings a melancholic, interminable
protyazhnaya Thus, Gogol implies that both Russia and the
protyazhnaya are endless and tragic Many people came to believe all Russian folk songs
sounded melancholy City dwellers encountered the protyazhnaya more
frequently than other folk genres
Calendar Songs Rural peasants only performed calendar songs for
certain seasonal rituals These occasions include Advent, Christmas, Shrovetide,
and the summer solstice The lyrics of these songs often combine pagan and
Christian symbols Many Christian festivals replaced earlier pagan holidays
Calendar songs differ significantly from protyazhnaya songs Scholars believe calendar songs are much older than
lyrical ones Calendar songs use shorter, more syllabic melodic
phrases Each pitch corresponds to a single syllable of text
Other folk genres Wedding songs included joyous hymns and more depressing
tunes Tradition required the bride to sing a song lamenting leaving her
parental home Funeral laments featured naturalistic sobbing sounds The North of Russia favored byliny, or epic songs
These solo tunes recounted ancient legends and historical events
Byliny were syllabic and imitated human speech Labor songs helped coordinate group labor projects
Barge workers sang the “Song of the Volga Boatmen” The rhythm allowed the many workers to pull ropes
simultaneously Plyasovye refers to energetic dance songs
These repetitive melodies featured strong rhythms Other genres included lullabies, game songs, and military
marches
“Akh ty step” V. Sokolov arranged this Russian folk song The song reflects popular (urban) elements
rather than true rural roots Three aspects of the song reveal its
classification as a protyazhnaya Many songs of this genre feature the same
opening line: “O, ye steppes…” The melody features wide intervals
The opening starts with an ascending sixth Later, we hear an ascending octave
Like other protyazhnayas, the song sounds lyrical and sorrowful
“Akh ty step” cont’d
“Akh ty step” clearly displays urban influence This arrangement is much less melismatic than
traditional folk songs Urban styles override folk-like variants and irregular
harmonies The modern choral arrangement adds a hummed
introduction and a lengthy conclusion However, the arranger does attempt to imitate
folk devices Some of the four verses begin with expressive vocal
solos Middle voices actively participate in the harmony The ends of phrases often converge to a unison or
octave
Folk Songs Collections & Arrangements
Lvov-Pratsch (1790) The Lvov-Pratsch collection was the most
influential early folk song anthology It included both text and music
Nikolai Lvov transcribed the text Johann (Ivan) Pratsch arranged the music
City dwellers used the collection for domestic music playing
Composers included the arranged melodies in their own works
Lvov-Pratsch cont’d Accusations of Westernization contributed to the
collection’s fall from grace Critics charged Pratsch with rewriting melodies to match
urban expectation Pratsch supposedly placed accents on the wrong syllables to
match Western meter Later musicians found Pratsch’s harmonizations insensitive
and Western67 Lvov did not keep records of his sources
The sources may already have been altered from the rural originals
Thus, scholars cannot know the extent of Pratsch’s changes In the 19th century, collectors became more conscious of
accuracy and authenticity
Balakirev (1866)
The Balakirev collection stressed the distinctive sound of Russian folk music Unlike Pratsch, Mily Balakirev did not try to
urbanize folk melodies Rather, he attempted to exaggerate the differences
between folk and art music This choice reveals the abrupt shift in consumer taste
in the 19th century Balakirev favored non-Western musical ideas and
simple harmonies He often used flattened seventh degrees instead of
Western leading tones Sometimes he misrepresented sources to emphasize non-
Western sounds
Balakirev cont’d Balakirev mostly employed diatonic harmonies
In other words, he only used the pitches of a single scale Other than hymns, Western art music did not typically do this These harmonies created a modal sound
He used triads rather than four-note chords From 1600 onward, seventh chords frequently appeared in
Western art music Balakirev believed folk music should sound more ancient
Balakirev also meticulously adhered to the natural stress pattern of words He varied meter rather than sacrifice the stress pattern
Despite his scrupulous methodology, Balakirev still produced arrangements In other words, the transcriptions did not accurately reflect
folk practice However, they were more accurate than Pratsch’s approach
Melgunov and Palchikov
Before the late 19th century, collectors did not transcribe polyphony or heterophony Heterophony involves unsynchronized singers performing the same
melody It can also refer to a single melody with simultaneous variations
Polyphony refers to simultaneous melodies Russian folk collectors were not very aware of these textures in
folk song Few early transcribers made serious attempts to notate them Composers imitated the effect vaguely, but few understood the
texture well They began folk-like choruses with a soloist They then incorporated the rest of the choir The section ended in unison
Composers only became aware of these two textures after recording technology appeared
Yuli Melgunov & Nikolai Palchikov cont’d
Yuli Melgunov and Nikolai Palchikov each attempted to notate folk heterophony and polyphony before recording technology
Melgunov published his collection of folk songs in 1879 He succeeded in notating heterophony
To do so, he listened to the music in melodic, not harmonic, terms He listened to several singers in the same village performing one at
a time Then he combined these variations on a single melody into one
score His attempts did not truly transcribe a choral folk song
However, they served as good approximations of heterophony Composer Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov dismissed the collection
as “barbaric” He could not bear the heterophonic texture The idea contradicted his own method of harmonizing folk songs
Yuli Melgunov & Nikolai Palchikov cont’d
Nikolai Palchikov produced the best notation of folk polyphony Palchikov lived in a village
Thus, he could observe the same songs and singers multiple times
Unfortunately, he also remained in relative obscurity Palchikov stood next to each singer and notated
each part He then combined these separate lines into a score The result proved better than Melgunov’s compilation
Unfortunately, Melgunov’s collection received greater attention Melgunov’s arrangements introduced Russian folk
texture to the art world
Linyova (1904) Yevgeniya Linyova released her first folk
song collection in 1904 She spearheaded the use of audio recording
technology Now, composers could not deny the textures in
Russian folk music Composer Igor Stravinsky was the first to
embrace these folk textures Other 20th century composers eagerly followed
his lead At the time, composers longed to break
established composition rules
Folk Songs in Classical Music Composers’ uses for folk song
Composers used folk themes to characterize lower-class characters in operas For instance, Mikhail Glinka used folk songs to designate
peasants in A Life for the Tsar Other composers believed folk melodies made music sound
more “national” Philosophers like Herder reinforced this belief Glinka chose Russian folk songs to differentiate his work from
Italian operas The use of familiar folk melodies also garnered sympathy and
acclaim from audiences Folk music also contained new techniques
Glinka and other composers drew inspiration for technical innovations
Composers often included folk melodies for several of the above reasons
Folk Songs in Classical Music cont’d
Myths and exaggerations Many “national” composers exaggerated their
knowledge of folk traditions Often, their biographers published gross
overstatements In truth, most 19th-century composers came from
privileged backgrounds They did not grow up listening to folk music Most composers consciously studied folk music in
their adult years Rimsky-Korsakov himself denied rumors of his
familiarity with folk songs He did not experience folk music until his twenties Rimsky-Korsakov studied Balakirev’s collection of
transcriptions
Contemporary critics often exaggerated the authenticity of quoted folk songs Composers rewrote folk melodies to suit their own
works The songs themselves transformed en route from the
village to the city Rimsky-Korsakov presented a folk song melody
simply He often used a solo woodwind instrument The accompaniment consisted of subtle string pizzicato Rimsky-Korsakov kept harmony to a minimum, using
long pedal notes A pedal note refers to a long sustained note, often found in
the bass line. Usually, a pedal note contains the root of the harmony.
Audiences frequently believed all folk songs sounded like this However, the style was all Rimsky-Korsakov’s creation
Most importantly, scholars overplayed the national spirit imparted by folk songs Only peasants from a certain region would
recognize a folk song Yet composers came to associate folk song
with the entire population of Russia In other words, a tiny little-known part
represents the vast whole Folk music does not possess noticeable
“Russianness” A foreign audience unfamiliar with Russian
music would not recognize it as such
Westernization and Russian National Identity Westernization under Peter the Great
In the early modern period, Russians set themselves apart from “The West” Ivan the Terrible (r. 1547-1584) allegedly sent
several dozens of scholars abroad Unfortunately, none of these students ever returned to
share their learning Before Peter the Great, Russia rarely contacted
Europe Russia occasionally sent diplomats overseas But, the country did not engage in extended
interaction with the West
Peter the Great (r. 1682-1725) began a large-scale Westernization program During his reign, the educated elite increasingly
realized Russia’s isolation from the West This epiphany also spread throughout the general
population European civilization fascinated Peter
He traveled throughout Europe in disguise At one point, the tsar worked as a shipbuilder on a
Dutch wharf Peter the Great aimed to recreate Russia as a
major European power He intended to establish an irreversible, large-
scale program of Westernization
St. Petersburg
• St. Petersburg became the thriving center of Peter’s “new and improved” Russia• Engineers and laborers
drained a strategically located marsh to build the city
• The tsar based the city on Venice and Amsterdam• St. Petersburg featured
its own harbor and canals• It contained towering
modern buildings• The Europeanized city
did not look like any other Russian town
Peter Westernized every aspect of city life The well-organized grid of streets and identical
houses emphasized his power He renamed and remodeled all state institutions
to fit Western models He forced the aristocracy to adopt European dress
and shave their beards Nobles discarded their long robes in favor of
European breeches and coats Those who refused to shave were forcibly coerced
Peter also hosted assamblei (fashionable balls) and introduced the minuet (slow and graceful ballroom dance for two, the minuet first appeared in the French royal court during the 17th century. Its name derives from the small (menu means “small”) steps required to perform the dance. 18th-century composers often included a minuet-style piece in triple time as a movement in a larger composition.)
Despite heavy resistance, Peter the Great successfully implemented his reforms In part, he triumphed due to sheer
ruthlessness His alterations, however, did benefit some
segments of the population Still, controversies over Westernization
remained for two centuries Communism later declared itself the
supreme Westernizing force However, the Soviet Communist movement
still diverged from Western ideals
The emergence of Russian nationalism : Nationalism only gained major momentum in the late 18th century German nationalist philosophers
influenced the educated Russian elite Both nations worked to collect folk songs
Russians also began to take interest in their native Slavic language At the time, the urbanized nobility mostly
spoke French The Russian elite viewed nationalism in
completely cultural terms at this time
Napoleon Invades
Napoleon’s invasion in 1812 truly launched Russian nationalistic fervor Authorities realized that the army required
the support of the entire population Political nationalism first appeared in mass
produced patriotic posters and leaflets These advertisements urged all Russians to unite
as a single nation They asked individuals to pledge their main
loyalty to their nation
• The pamphlets succeeded in uniting the Russian population• Russian peasants fought
French invaders with axes and sticks
• Citizens set fire to Moscow rather than relinquish it to French forces
• The defeat of Napoleon gave rise to Russian national awareness
Outcomes of the Napoleonic Wars Though their victory united Russian citizens,
the 1812 Patriotic War also fostered dissent Russian military officers and soldiers realized their
country’s backwardness These men fought Napoleon back to Paris En route, they noticed the superior infrastructure
and greater equality in Europe They also realized that serfdom was incredibly
outdated (Serfdom refers to exploitation of rural peasants by the landowning nobility. The peasants, called serfs, worked for the wealthy landowners in exchange for legal protection and certain other rights. In essence, serfs lived in a condition of modified slavery, as they received no pay and depended on their landlords for all manner of legal, economic, and social welfare.)
Most European nations had outlawed serfdom centuries prior
Another Outcome: The Decembrist Uprising, 1825
• Dissatisfied soldiers revolted against the new tsar Nicholas I in December 1825• The “Decembrists”
aimed to incite social reform
• Unfortunately, their revolution failed
• The tsar hanged five of the rebel leaders
• He also exiled many other participants to Siberia
• Thus, Napoleon’s invasion also revealed growing frustration within Tsarist Russia
Establishment of Russian Nationalism In 1833, the Russian government established
Official Nationalism All Russian schools would teach students this new
state ideology Minister of Education Sergei Uvarov introduced the
doctrine He described it with a slogan: “Orthodoxy, Autocracy,
and Nationality” Orthodoxy referred to the dominant Russian religion, the
Orthodox Church Autocracy embodied the unquestionable absolute
sovereignty of the tsar However, even Uvarov did not truly understand “Nationality”
(narodnost’) At this point, dissatisfied intellectuals developed the
concept of nationalism The Russian government did not yet see nationalism as
a weapon they could employ
Pyotr Chaadayev Chaadayev’s concerns
Pyotr Chaadayev (1794-1856) expressed concern about Russia’s cultural backwardness His “Philosophical Letter” of 1829
addressed this issue Chaadayev noted that European
nations shared common history and traditions Their societies held similar views on
justice, law, order, and duty By contrast, Russia never participated
in this community Thus, Russia lacked these basic
European principles
The authorities refused to publish Chaadayev’s “Philosophical Letter” They thought his ideas too controversial Instead, they declared him insane and treated
him as such Regardless, manuscript copies spread throughout
the nation (USAD made this corrections in June.)
‘‘In his land, Peter the Great found only a blank sheet of paper, and he wrote on it: ‘Europe and the West’; since then we have belonged to Europe and the West”
Chaadayev’s work inspired two different ideological groups in the mid-19th century Westernizers believed Russians was part of Europe
They supported continued imitation of Western traditions Slavophiles focused on Russia’s “blind, superficial and
awkward imitation” of the West This group advocated the reversal of Peter the Great’s
Westernizing reforms They called to reinstate communal law and other abolished
practices Slavophiles also wanted to firmly distinguish Russian
Orthodoxy (Eastern Christianity) from Western Christianity (especially Catholicism) They claimed Eastern Christians favored authority and faith
over logic and reason Slavophiles also spoke of a new world order led by Russia,
not Europe
Like Chaadayev, many other 19th-century intellectuals compared Russians to Westerners Most comparisons were to the French and
Germans The French were old enemies from 1812 Meanwhile, the Germans made up a large part of St.
Petersburg’s high society Comparison and contrast formed the basis for
defining Russian “national character” However, this method of analysis also resulted in
national stereotypes The French were brilliant but the Russians were profound The Germans were industrious but the Russians were
humane and empathetic “Russian character” proved nothing but a
philosophical construct
Philosophical Influence on Music
19th-century Russian composers sought to differentiate themselves from the West Glinka attempted to create a new style of opera
He believed Russia displayed greater melancholy than sunny Italy
Thus, Russian opera should be more sorrowful than widespread Italian opera
The Mighty Handful would adopt similar ideas in the 1860s
National stereotypes played a major role in the creation of “Russian style” From the beginning, composers defined Russian music as
non-German German stereotypes thus became a major factor in
Russian musical development
Class Divisions
A great divide existed between the educated elite and the lower classes Late 18th-century writers claimed national character stemmed
from the lower classes “The people” (lower-class peasants) made up the majority of the
population Upper-class Russians spoke French and tended toward the
cosmopolitan Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796) descended from Germans However, she occasionally wore Russian national garb to tease
courtiers The gentry and the peasantry rarely interacted on a regular basis
Even servants in noble households did not maintain ties to their rural backgrounds
Despite their claims, the elite knew little about the general population
Abolition of Serfdom
The abolition of serfdom in 1861 sparked renewed interest in the peasantry The Peredvizhniki (Russian Realist school) did not idealize
peasant life in paintings The Narodnik (populist) movement inspired intellectuals to move
to the countryside Most narodniks were students who left their city homes to join the
peasantry The narodniks provided education and medical assistance to rural
peasants Peasants often treated the narodniks with indifference or even
resentment Interestingly, the peasants placed more stock in social hierarchy than the
wealthy The appearance of their superiors seemed unnatural
Author Leo Tolstoy worked with peasants on his land He wore a collarless peasant shirt However, he still lived off the rent from said peasants
Nikolai Palchikov moved to a village to collect folk song melodies In the village, he worked as a country judge The peasants ultimately accepted him and helped him in his transcriptions
• Composer Modest Mussorgsky (1839- 1881) revealed the greatest narodnik influence in art music• He originally hailed from the
landowning gentry• However, he lost his wealth after the
emancipation of the serfs• Despite his reversal of fortune,
Mussorgsky maintained sympathy for the poor
• He wrote songs presenting different peasant characters
• For instance, his song “Trepak” features a drunk and depressed peasant• This miserable character falls to
the snow to awaits his death
East and West
Even as they defined the West, Russians also explored the East The Russian empire spanned a huge continuous
stretch of land Finland and Poland formed the Western boundaries The Black and Caspian Seas lay to the South Eventually, the empire stretched from the Baltic to
the Pacific “The East” covered many different nationalities
and cultures Still, Russians considered a few regions
stereotypically “Eastern” These included the Caucasus region, Central Asia,
and the Far East
Russian soldiers constantly fought tribes in the Caucasus Mountains and Transcaucasia These tribes waged war on their conquerors hoping to
reassert their independence Russians stereotyped “the East” just as they did the
West The East, however, was under Russian control
Russians viewed the East as exotic These stereotypes affected musical Orientalism80
Expansion into Central Asia also influenced Orientalism to a lesser extent The Russian Far East did not influence 19th-century
music as much This region was too distant and relatively unpopulated Thus, it received little scholarly attention
Perspectives on the role of the East differed Westernizers dismissed the East entirely
They claimed the region would not contribute to Russian cultural growth
Slavophiles, by contrast, gladly emphasized the role of the East They claimed the East influenced Russian fatalism,
mysticism, and autocracy The elite emphasized both the similarities and
differences between Russia and the East They often juxtaposed Russia’s simplicity with the East’s
exotic extravagance However, Russians also “Orientalized” themselves
They emphasized their differences from the West and similarities to the East
They depicted themselves as “Barbarians” who opposed Western corruption
Track 3: “The Glory Chorus” from A Life for the Tsar
Background “The Glory Chorus” comes from the finale of
Glinka’s opera A Life for the Tsar This opera as a whole exemplifies Official
Nationalism Different elements in this work illustrate
“Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality"
Featured excerpt In the score, Glinka identifies “The Glory Chorus” as a “hymn-
march” The onstage military band emphasizes the martial aspect of the march
rhythm The rhythm imitates a Russian Orthodox chant This rhythm consists of a half-note followed by two quarter notes
Glinka also uses harmonies unusual for an opera Outer voices move in parallel thirds Such harmonies frequently appear in Orthodox hymns Glinka’s score thus indicates religious and nationalist influences
Like the rest of the opera, “The Glory Chorus” embodies Official Nationalism In addition to the “hymn” aspects above, Glinka uses church bells to
show Orthodoxy The church bells also reflect Nationality
The lyrics glorify the first Romanov tsar in keeping with the principle of Autocracy
Glinka: The Father of Russian Music
Most Russian music histories begin with Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka (1804-1857) Virtually all historians agree that true Russian
classical music started with Glinka’s work Many consider his first opera, A Life for the Tsar
(1836), the first Russian national opera Of course, opera existed in Russia before Glinka
Peter the Great began the development of Russian art music
He hoped to prove Russia’s status as an international power His assamblei featured dance music byWestern
musicians Peter hoped to recreate Western-style music as part of his
Westernization campaign
Actual opera first appeared in Russia during Tsaritsa Anna’s reign It began as a foreign
import from Italy In 1731, an Italian
company performed Calandro by Giovanni Ristori in Moscow
In 1736, Russian musicians collaborated with an Italian troupe in St. Petersburg
They performed The Power of Love and Hate by Francesco Araja
Glinka continued
From then on, opera flourished in Russia The Russian Imperial Court welcomed Italian
and French troupes Private opera houses opened in St. Petersburg
This development allowed opera to reach wider audiences
The first Russian-language libretto appeared in 1755 The story centered on the myth of Cephalus
and Procris Italian instructors trained Russian opera
singers
Glinka’s predecessors set the stage for Russian opera composition Maxim Berezovsky (1745-1777) was the first Russian opera
composer to achieve fame Audiences in Russia and abroad recognized his name Other opera composers included Yevstigenei Fomin (1761-1800) and
Dmitri Bortnyansky (1751-1825) These Italian-trained composers conformed to accepted Western
genres While studying in Italy, they wrote opera seria (“serious opera”) These works used mythology as their subject matter One could not differentiate between the Russian and Italian opera seria
In Russia, these composers created comic operas based on French archetypes However, the librettos featured Russian language The composers included distinctly Russian plots and characters Audiences reacted favorably to the familiar elements Russian comic operas thus enjoyed considerable popularity
Glinka’s Innovations Many of Glinka’s “innovations” actually existed in the
works of his predecessors Glinka’s works often incorporated folk melodies
Fomin’s Coachmen at the Relay Station (1787) also reflected folk influence
The opera’s opening chorus imitates a protyazhnaya folk song The solo singer is eventually joined by the chorus
Glinka’s A Life for the Tsar (1836) focused on a historical, not mythological, subject The story centers on peasant Ivan Susanin
He gave his own life to save the future Tsar Mikhail Romanov In 1815, Catarino Cavos premiered an opera based on the
same tale A Venetian by birth, Cavos lived and worked in St. Petersburg His version of the story remained immensely popular It took time for Glinka’s opera to step out of Cavos’ shadow
Glinka’s great ambition set him apart from his peers and predecessors His skilled originality put him on par with his
European contemporaries These peers included Vincenzo Bellini,
Giacomo Meyerbeer, and Hector Berlioz A Life for the Tsar featured no spoken
dialogue Every line was sung It was the first Russian-language opera to attempt
such a feat Cavos’ version featured long sections of spoken
text between arias and songs
Glinka’s ambition proves surprising given his upbringing He lacked any formal composition training86
In fact, Glinka regarded himself as a student even in his late years
Born to landowners, Glinka participated in his uncle’s private orchestra This ensemble mostly played fashionable
overtures Based on this experience, Glinka might have
become a composer of light, elegant songs and dances for aristocratic salons
In his apprenticeship, he did create such works However, they did not satisfy his lofty aspirations
Glinka honed his skills abroad before returning to dominate Russian opera In Italy, Glinka studied vocal composition
He could have settled for writing Italian-style arias and operas
However, he dared to dream of a purely Russian operatic form This Russian opera would draw subject matter from Russian history It would prove more serious and musically demanding than Italian
opera Glinka learned more difficult compositional techniques
in Germany There he studied with theorist Siegfried Dehn In 1834, Glinka returned to Russia after hearing of his
father’s death In Glinka’s last year of life, however, he would return to
Germany to visit Dehn
A Life for the Tsar
Glinka’s first opera, A Life for the Tsar, premiered at the Moscow Bolshoi Theatre in 1836
The opera featured a clearly monarchist message The storyline implied the divine authority of the
Romanov dynasty Russia successfully fought off a Polish invasion in 1613 Afterward, the first Romanov tsar took the throne The peasant Ivan Susanin fooled the Poles to allow the
tsar time to escape When they discovered the deception, the Poles killed
Susanin At the end of the opera, Susanin dies in a forest
The epilogue concludes with a somber march Afterward, the chorus cries, “Glory to the Tsar!”
Naturally, Tsar Nicholas I supported the performance87 Besides the imperialist storyline, the libretto came from
the court itself Baron Rosen, secretary to Nicholas’ heir Alexander II,
wrote the libretto Following the premiere, Nicholas I showered Glinka
with recognition He offered the composer a royal ring as a token of favor Furthermore, he offered Glinka the highest musical
position in his court Despite imperial recognition, Glinka did not write A
Life for the Tsar on commission He actually composed quite a bit of the music before
Rosen completed the libretto
As Glinka intended, A Life for the Tsar sounds distinctly Russian Glinka first created musical contrast between
the Russians and the Poles He characterized the Poles using two Polish
ballroom dances Russians were familiar with both the polonaise and the
mazurka Both dances involved 3/4 time and dotted rhythms
Glinka used more songlike pieces in 2/4 and 4/4 to illustrate the Russians
In Act III, Glinka dramatically juxtaposed both styles The Poles demand Susanin’s compliance in a mazurka
rhythm Susanin defies them in a protyazhnaya style
Glinka favored the imitation of folk themes rather than direct quotation The overture mimics a protyazhnaya The opera’s “Rowers’ Chorus” also
features a protyazhnaya-like melody Glinka set this melody over a pizzicato
string accompaniment The strings represent the balalaika, a
plucked string instrument In the entire opera, Glinka only quotes
two actual folk tunes
The intelligentsia admired Glinka’s technique and the opera’s apparent Russianness Glinka’s compositions alluded to Russian folk and
popular song They also reflected “Romance” influence These musical aspects made the fresh compositions
seem familiar to Russian audiences Non-Russian audiences, by contrast, noticed the
Italianate elements of the opera
Ruslan and Lyudmila (1842) Glinka based his second opera on a
narrative poem by Alexander Pushkin (1799-1837) Many considered Pushkin Russia’s greatest
19th-century poet Unfortunately, he died before he could
create a libretto for Glinka The resulting libretto received a great deal of
criticism The fairy-tale opera emphasizes musical
color over drama Thus, the five acts pass very slowly
In this work, Glinka continued to experiment with the use of color to depict nationality A quoted Finnish song characterized Finn,
a kindhearted sorcerer Glinka used many Orientalist devices to
represent Ratmir, Lyudmila’s Eastern suitor Remember, Glinka composed this opera
before Orientalist clichés developed
The evil dwarf Chernomor received special musical treatment This supernatural creature possessed a beard seven times
his height Glinka invented the whole-tone scale to depict
Chernomor’s magical existence This scale divides the octave into six equal parts instead of
eight It moves in whole steps only Glinka also called this scale his “chemical” scale
The whole-tone scale put off conventional rules of tonal harmony This effect evoked a sense of the supernatural Use of this scale indicated that human laws did not apply to
the magical creature
The public did not react enthusiastically to the 1842 premiere of Ruslan and Lyudmila Performances discontinued shortly after the
premiere Glinka’s popularity plummeted from the high point
reached with A Life for the Tsar Glinka considered this failure his greatest
disappointment As a result of his letdown, Glinka traveled abroad
extensively In Spain, Glinka took folk dancing lessons
His experiences inspired the orchestral pieces Jota Aragonesa (1845) and Night in Madrid (1848)
In the end, Glinka returned to Russian styles in Kamarinskaya (1848) This orchestral work almost reconceived variation
form
Glinka’s legacy and musical contributions
Russian composers mythologized Glinka and his contributions after his death They took his example as the foundation for a
new markedly Russian compositional style His uncommon musical devices became part of
Russian national heritage Some of these techniques came from Russian
folk music Others, however, simply arose from Glinka’s
own creativity
Glinka championed the creation of folk-like musical idioms He believed art music could benefit from elements
of folk songs and dances Only some of his folk melodies appeared as direct
quotations Glinka imitated folk music in his original material He reproduced protyazhnayas and dance songs alike
Glinka also cleverly reproduced folk heterophony He never lived with peasants or used audio technology Thus, he worked with limited understanding of the
texture
A Life for the Tsar demonstrates the composer’s affinity for folk-like sounds The introductory chorus switches between a solo singer and
the chorus Glinka varied the number of individual voices present in the choral
texture Like folk music, he wrote two or three parts that converged to a
unison Glinka also employed the folk device peremennost’
This technique involved shifting between several equally important modal centers
Unlike most Western music at the time, folk tunes did not center on one tonic
Glinka’s chord progressions reflected this influence However, he still used standard harmonies
Usually, Glinka moved between pairs of relative major and minor scales
The widespread use of 5/4 meter began with Glinka This unusual meter appears in the wedding
choruses of both A Life and Ruslan Indirectly, this device reflects folk influence
Russian folk poetry featured five-syllable lines that accented the third syllable
This characteristic frequently appeared in wedding songs
Russian folk song typically uses five notes of different length for the five syllables Glinka, however, used five equal quarter notes
Glinka’s disciples treated 5/4 as an authentic Russian meter They also experimented with other uncommon meters
Borodin employed 7/4 Rimsky-Korsakov used 11/4
The whole-tone scale from Ruslan inspired other innovative scales Rimsky-Korsakov created the octatonic
scale This scale alternates whole steps and half steps It spans eight notes, hence the term “octatonic” Rimsky-Korsakov’s invention proved more
useful than the whole-tone scale 20th-century classical and jazz music
incorporated the octatonic scale Glinka’s fans also divided their works into
sections with different musical rules
The composer also popularized “changing-background variations” In fact, Russian scholars refer to this technique as “Glinka
variations” Typical variation form changes the melody while the
accompaniment remains constant Glinka variations do the exact opposite
The melody remains unchanged All other elements (harmony, instrumentation, etc.) vary
Despite the deceptive name, Glinka did not originate the Glinka variations Beethoven uses this technique in “Ode to Joy” from his Ninth
Symphony Movement 3 from Beethoven’s String Quartet Op. 59 No. 2 also
features this device In fact, it centers on a Russian melody Possibly, this earlier work inspired Glinka
Regardless of the technique’s origin, Glinka created important examples For instance, he used folk themes with changing-background variations This musical technique honored the folk melody
Glinka’s use of different musical colors for different nationalities in opera inspired others This same principle also appeared in the West
There, composers referred to the technique as couleur locale
Glinka’s supporters focused on two operatic genres They wrote heroic national dramas like A Life
for the Tsar Also, they composed fairytales like Ruslan and
Lyudmila
Glinka’s orchestral works also influenced subsequent composers He never wrote any symphonies, only single-
movement overtures and fantasies Other composers wrote on Russian and non-
Russian folk themes Balakirev composed the Czech Overture Rimsky-Korsakov wrote the Serbian Fantasy
Glinka’s Kamarinskaya served as a model for future composers This piece features Glinka variations on two themes Similarly, Balakirev wrote Overture on Three
Russian Themes Balakirev also composed the piano piece Islamey The composer Lyapunov created the virtuosic
Lezghinka Etude for piano
Track 4: Kamarinskaya Background The single-movement Kamarinskaya involves
a slow theme and a fast theme Glinka alternates between variations on the
slow and fast themes
The Russian wedding song “From behind Tall Hills” forms the slow theme This theme occurs four times in different registers Each repetition features different texture The fourth statement appears in the bass line
“Kamarinskaya” refers to the sprightly dance tune that makes up the fast theme This melody also lends its name to the
piece as a whole Folk tradition repeated this theme in
“dance-till-you drop” variations The piece’s form defies any previously
established musical form Instead, Glinka reinvents the variation
form His techniques elevate the folk melodies
and variations
The excerpt on the USAD CD begins with the first fast section The first violin section presents the opening
statement of the theme Glinka then adds other instrumental voices to
the mix Throughout the variations, Glinka barely alters
the melody When he does, the alterations suggest virtuosic
fiddling Each phrase sounds like an ostinato pattern The 11th statement modulates from major to
minor Glinka emphasizes the opening notes of the slow
theme
The slow theme reappears for two-and-a-half statements
Then, the kamarinskaya dance tune resumes At one point, Glinka drops the melody
altogether, leaving only the accompaniment The tempo slows down slightly as Glinka
explores truly innovative variations A C-natural in the horn produces dissonance
against a D-major harmony In the end, the tempo quickens
triumphantly
The birth of Russian music conservatories The Rubinstein brothers vastly enhanced musical
education in Russia Anton Grigoryevich Rubinstein rose to fame as one of
the world’s top virtuoso pianists He also worked as a conductor and composer
Anton’s younger brother Nikolai also performed as a pianist and conductor
A Russian border-guard stopped Anton as he returned from a European concert tour Asked for his occupation, Anton replied that he was a
“self-employed artist” The guard did not recognize this profession Anton only received entry for being “the son of a
merchant of the second rank” This incident inspired Anton to work to improve the status
of Russian musicians
Between 1859 and 1860, the Rubinstein brothers formed the Russian Music Society This institution organized a series of public
concerts in St. Petersburg and Moscow Anton worked in St. Petersburg while his
brother lived in Moscow The repertoire featured major works by the
likes of Beethoven, Schumann, and Mendelssohn
For the first time in Russian history, the general population could access art music
Previously, a handful of aristocratic enthusiasts shaped most Russian musical life
The Rubinsteins also founded music conservatories in the two major cities The St. Petersburg Conservatory opened in
1862 and the Moscow Conservatory in 1866 Musicians and composers no longer needed
to enroll in private classes Instead, these conservatories offered
comprehensive five-year courses Most professors came from abroad,
especially from Germany The conservatories increased the social
prestige of musical careers in Russia Russia now entered the wider world of
international art music
The Mighty Handful led an anti-conservatory movement in Russia These composers argued against
conservatoriesdue to nationalistic concerns They feared the institutions would overly
Westernize Russian music Conservatories, they claimed, revealed too
much foreign influence
Formation of the Mighty Handful Vladimir Stasov (1824-1906) and Mily Balakirev
(1837-1910) became friends in the mid-1850s Both men loved the music world
Balakirev performed as a pianist He also composed his own pieces Glinka personally encouraged Balakirev to continue
composing Stasov worked as a prominent music critic
Both dreamed of a distinctive Russian style of music This style should appeal to both domestic and
international listeners Stasov and Balakirev hoped it would sound original and
progressive Balakirev and Stasov assembled four other musicians
who shared this goal
Stasov first referred to the group as the moguchaya kuchka Literally, this name translates to “the mighty little
heap” “Handful” sounds more elegant than the original
Russian term In English, some refer to the group as “The Five”
in reference to the five composers However, this term overlooks the sixth important
member, Stasov Stasov alone of the Mighty Handful did not compose his
own works Nonetheless, he helped establish the group’s
nationalist ideology As a critic, he also promoted the group’s music and
discredited rivals
Balakirev served as the Mighty Handful’s musical mentor He was the only full-time musician in the
group At the time, composers struggled to
maintain a living Balakirev earned the majority of his
income by teaching piano lessons He still lived in relative poverty
The opera-loving Cesar Cui worked as an engineer building military fortifications
Army officer Modest Mussorgsky played the piano skillfully However, he only composed polkas for
aristocratic ladies Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov composed
between tours of duty as a naval officer Alexander Borodin served as an
internationally acclaimed chemistry professor He played the cello in his spare time
Despite their talent, the four lacked knowledge of technique and important repertory Balakirev taught them the devices
needed for large-scale works He also introduced them to the
masterworks of famous composers
Balakirev approached teaching differently than the conservatories Of course, Balakirev stood firmly opposed to the
conservatories He favored a demanding but informal approach
Unlike conservatories, he did not assign exercises or “pastiche” composition
Instead, Balakirev played arrangements of symphonies on the piano Mussorgsky, the skilled pianist, often joined him in
duets Balakirev then pointed out interesting forms, features
and techniques Balakirev sometimes created his own terms to
explain music theory
Balakirev did assign ambitious homework projects, though He instructed Borodin and Rimsky-Korsakov to write a symphony The task required a good amount of help and advice, according to
letters Mussorgsky and Cui attempted to write operas
Despite his stringent expectations, Balakirev also proved incredibly kindhearted He himself composed passages that seemed beyond the skill of
his students When the scores were published, Balakirev did not claim credit
In the end, Balakirev’s pupils surpassed him in terms of fame He selflessly devoted his attention to cultivating the group’s
skill and creativity Thus, he did not spend enough time on his own works Completed late in his career, his works did not receive great
recognition
Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade features arabesque100 patterns in solo violin A similar device appears in the solo
clarinet from Balakirev’s Tamara Balakirev’s work probably inspired
Rimsky-Korsakov’s However, Scheherazade’s greater
popularity leads listeners to believe the opposite
Creating “Russian style” Balakirev and Stasov aimed to create the
image of a unified “musical party” Cui also proved instrumental in molding the
Handful’s public image His writings saw publication in both Russia and France
The group worked in close cooperation in the 1860s The composers wrote their first large-scale works
collectively Balakirev believed the compositional process should
involve the entire group’s input At first, the composers all pursued similar ideals In later years, however, their ideas diverged
considerably
To create “Russianness,” Balakirev mainly advocated avoidance of Western clichés Balakirev used pieces by some Western
composers as negative examples for his pupils Felix Mendelssohn’s works allegedly
represented Germanic “routine” Balakirev hated the smooth musical periods
characteristic of these pieces Balakirev also disparaged the overly
sentimental compositions of Frederic Chopin
However, Balakirev did approve of “progressive,” original Western composers Balakirev championed the works of Ludwig van
Beethoven and Robert Schumann He admired these composers’ use of strong rhythmic
motives Moreover, he liked their compelling experiments with
form Franz Liszt and Hector Berlioz also met with
Balakirev’s approval These composers skillfully wrote “program music” Their compositions used musical colors to depict
characters and events In addition to these Western composers, Balakirev
also promoted Glinka’s works
Above all else, Balakirev stressed the importance of originality in composition
“Russianness” would result from avoidance of Western devices
For instance, he instructed his students to avoid common harmonic progressions
He considered the IV-V-I cadence too clichéd Instead, he suggested skipping the dominant
(V), creating a IV-I cadence Otherwise, the composers might disguise the
dominant chord
Balakirev also taught his students to incorporate folk and Oriental idioms The Mighty Handful turned to folk song for
non-Western material Balakirev alone traveled through Russia to
collect folk melodies Most of the songs came from educated
individuals, not the peasants themselves106 Still, Balakirev published 40 of these tunes in
1866 His collection included his own original piano
accompaniments The Mighty Handful seized this material for their
own compositions
These accompaniment devices reflected Balakirev’s tastes, not the original tunes
However, due to the Handful’s widespread use, many listeners mistakenly
The Caucasus region inspired the Handful to develop the Oriental style
Balakirev absorbed Georgian, Armenian, and Turkic musical elements
¨ New melodic and instrumentation ideas shaped the Handful’s works
¨ These foreign devices helped distance the Handful from Western composers
¨ Oriental music sounded instantly non-Western ¨ It proved more difficult to make folk music sound
non-Western o Audiences reacted favorably to the Oriental style o Western listeners began to notice the Handful o For various reasons, they identified all Handful
compositions as distinctly “Russian”
Many Russian composers incorporated the new Oriental style in some of their works Balakirev began the movement in the 1860s with
his piece Islamey Finished in 1869, this piano piece centers on a
Caucasian-inspired folk dance Balakirev applied Glinka variations to the theme Liszt’s virtuosic compositions also influenced
Balakirev’s piece Rimsky-Korsakov wrote Antar (1868), a
symphonic suite The music depicted an Eastern fairy tale in Oriental
style Borodin’s opera Prince Igor featured the
Orientalist Polovtsian Dances Mussorgsky and Cui also experimented with Oriental
themes in opera
The Handful also turned to Glinka’s oeuvre (composer’s lifetime works) for inspiration
Thanks to the Handful, listeners considered Glinka’s innovations innately “Russian” In particular, these composers favored the
changing-background variations form This device proved especially useful for
pieces based on folk themes
Rimsky-Korsakov expanded on Glinka’s approach to the supernatural His fairytale and supernatural works
featured Glinka’s whole-tone scale Rimsky-Korsakov also invented the
octatonic scale This scale alternates half steps and whole
steps It contains eight pitches in an octave rather
than the typical seven Russian scholars call this device the “Rimsky-
Korsakov scale” Today, jazz composers still use the scale
Like Glinka, Rimsky-Korsakov used his unique scale to suspend tonal rules This effect resulted in an unearthly, exotic
sound In Sadko, this scale represents the
Underwater Kingdom Rimsky-Korsakov’s opera Kashchei the
Deathless also features this scale
The Mighty Handful also embraced Glinka’s use of unusual meters They realized folk melodies did not easily
conform to regular meters Thus, they switched between measures of
2/4, 3/4, and 4/4 Besides Glinka’s trademark 5/4, his
followers used 7/4 and 11/4
Second Symphony, Opening Alexander Borodin composed this
symphony Russian musicians nicknamed the piece
Bogatyrskaya o Borodin did not intend to create a
truly programmatic piece However, he thought the opening theme
represented bogatyri, ancient Russian warriors
The striking opening begins with a unison line carried by the entire orchestra The first movement repeats this first
phrase several times Each repetition sounds more grand
Borodin employs augmentation, lengthening the note values of the phrase
Two keys shape the opening section It starts out in B minor, though the first phrase
contains two chromatic pitches The repetition of the phrase modulates to D major The piece continues to hover between these two
closely related keys Unlike German symphonic allegros, the
symphony does not establish one main key The uncertainty of the key vaguely reflects the folk
technique of peremennost’ In peremennost’, a piece shifts between two modal
centers Unlike Western music, no single tonic defines the key
of the piece
Mussorgsky’s Experiments in Operatic Realism Modest Mussorgsky
Historians typically present Mussorgsky as the only significant Handful composer They celebrate his opera Boris Godunov His piano cycle Pictures at an Exhibition also receives
lavish praise Modern critics applaud him as a genius who foresaw
modernist harmonies and forms Mussorgsky’s contemporaries hardly shared
such complimentary views Even the Mighty Handful considered him half
competent His ideas seemed insane to his peers
Some believed Mussorgsky suffered from mental instability
Like the rest of the Handful, Mussorgsky strove to avoid Western clichés in his operas Mussorgsky particularly sought to
differentiate his work from Italian opera Germany dominated most other musical genres However, Italy led the operatic world
The Russian court favored Italian opera and overpaid Italian singers
Meanwhile, the Russian opera company failed due to neglect
Mussorgsky disapproved of sweet Italian melodies and complicated plots He and the Handful preferred to stage realistic
events and characters To this end, they dispensed with the formal
clichés of Italian opera
Dargomyzhsky’s influence The Handful admired the operatic work of
Alexander Dargomyzhsky (1813-69) Dargomyzhsky and the Handful interacted
on good terms in the late 1860s At that time, Dargomyzhsky began The
Stone Guest This opera centered on Pushkin’s “little
tragedy” of the same name Mozart’s famous opera Don Giovanni
revolves around a similar plot
Dargomyzhsky felt words were more important than music in an opera Thus, he decided to preserve Pushkin’s text exactly
In other words, he opted not to create a different libretto
Only two short songs appeared in Pushkin’s original As a result, Dargomyzhsky replaced the standard
arias with declamatory pieces These passages proved taxing for both audiences
and singers Listeners struggled to follow the unconventional
operatic form Meanwhile, the singers found the music more difficult
to memorize Fortunately for the listeners and singers,
Dargomyzhsky died before completing The Stone Guest
The Marriage Mussorgsky took Dargomyzhsky’s
approach a step further He decided to write an opera based on
The Marriage by Nikolai Gogol The play focuses on a commitment-shy
bachelor In the end, he does not appear at his own
wedding Gogol’s comedy was written in prose, not
verse like Pushkin’s The Stone Guest This difference complicated Mussorgsky’s
task Unlike Dargomyzhsky, he could not use the
poetic rhythms to aid his compositions
Mussorgsky painstakingly imitated the inflections of spoken dialogue To notate the intonations, Mussorgsky read
each line out like an actor He aimed to add another level of realism to
the characters through their music Furthermore, Mussorgsky rejected typical
harmonic progressions He also used musical themes to represent
stage action For instance, a light and elegant theme indicates
the buttonholes in a frock-coat After finishing the first act, Mussorgsky
discontinued work The work had become too long Regardless, he considered the experiment useful
as important practice in realism
The Marriage, though incomplete, alarmed the rest of the Mighty Handful Mussorgsky presented the first act to his
friends At the piano, he performed the parts with
gusto His fellow composers realized that
audiences would not accept such a composition The music proved incredibly challenging for
soloists Besides that, audiences would struggle to
find coherent melodies The disjointed harmonies increased doubts
of Mussorgsky’s abilities
The Marriage Mussorgsky dedicated the first act to
Stasov Stasov accepted the score but hid it away
for years ¨ He believed it would damage
Mussorgsky’s reputation as a composer The score reappeared after Mussorgsky’s
death ¨ At this point, music had progressed
considerably ¨Stasov believed that the public would
receive the performance more sympathetically
Boris Godunov After abandoning The Marriage,
Mussorgsky began a new project He created an opera based on Pushkin’s tragic
play Boris Godunov Boris Godunov takes place during the time
period after Glinka’s A Life for the Tsar The events occur immediately preceding the dawn
of the Romanov dynasty During this “Time of Troubles,” Russia
experienced political instability Unlike Glinka, Mussorgsky does not
unquestioningly venerate the Tsar Rather than spew propaganda, the opera requires its
audience to think critically
The opera questions the legitimacy of Tsar Boris Godunov’s regime Godunov takes the throne after the
murder of a child who stood in his way Most likely, Godunov himself ordered the
killing Boris’ rule seems benevolent, but a monk
records the truth Meanwhile, a rival challenges Boris’
authority The Russian people, however, will live in
poverty regardless of who rules
Boris Godunov
Boris GodunovMussorgsky produced two separate
versions of Boris Godunov The first version (1869) more closely
adheres to Pushkin’s original and operatic realismThis adaptation does not strictly
conform to standard conventions Mussorgsky does not divide the action into
separate musical numbers The score contains no arias
It does, however, include a few “ariosos,” or “monologues”
Boris Godunov Most shockingly, Mussorgsky does not
include a role for a prima donna This lead female singer often served as
the central attraction of an opera Without a prima donna, Boris Godunov
lacks a love story A dark, serious mood prevails in Boris
Godunov Some comic relief appears in the Inn
Scene The Imperial Theatres demanded that
Mussorgsky revise the manuscript
Boris Godunov Thus, in 1872, Mussorgsky unveiled a
second, more widely acceptable version He added a vivid Polish Act that allowed
him to include a prima donna Western music characterized the Polish
Marina Mniszek Thus, Mussorgsky could afford to give her a typical
love duet By contrast, Mussorgsky used experimental
techniques for Russian characters Mussorgsky also wrote some songs for a
scene between Boris and his children These tunes did not drive the plot However, they allowed the audience a break
from declamatory songs
Boris Godunov Finally, Mussorgsky created a whole new closing
scene Unlike the first version, the revision did not end
with Boris’ death Instead, the conclusion featured a peasant revolt This addition added political overtones to a
previously psychological work The opera now concerned the whole nation, not just
Boris’ conscience The second version of Boris served as an
effective compromise The extravagant effects and vocal virtuosity suited
the Imperial Theatres However, the music still fits Mussorgsky’s realist
and nationalist ideals
Boris Godunov features progressive realism and sounds distinctly Russian
Realism manifests in the characters’ speech and conversation Different characters speak in unique ways
The monk Pimen sounds noble and stately The Innkeeper sings in a folk style
Her music echoes that of the Matchmaker in The Marriage
Moreover, Mussorgsky presents the music naturally The Innkeeper sings a song to herself
rather than the audience Boris’ coronation does not feature a full-
length aria, only a few brief thoughts
Boris Godunov To create national color, Mussorgsky imitated
folk themes He represented folk choral singing more
accurately than Glinka ever did Mussorgsky also used bell-like sounds
reminiscent of the Russian Orthodox Church In the Coronation Scene, the entire orchestra
imitated the bells Lower instruments represented large bells Smaller instruments symbolized the more frequent
medium bells Rimsky-Korsakov helped Mussorgsky
orchestrate this idea
Boris Godunov Mussorgsky alternates two dissonant chords
Both chords share the same tritone interval This technique reflects the lack of precise
tuning in bells Unfortunately, many of Mussorgsky’s complex
harmonies went unrecognized His contemporaries dismissed them as evidence
of incompetence Only later did critics and audiences appreciate
his innovations
Mussorgsky and Rimsky-Korsakov
While he wrote Boris Godunov, Mussorgsky shared an apartment with Rimsky-Korsakov At the time, Mussorgsky worked as a civil
servant, copying documents The two men took turns composing at the
piano When Mussorgsky was working, Rimsky-
Korsakov wrote The Maid of Pskov Like Boris Godunov, this tragic opera also
focused on Russian history
Mussorgsky and Rimsky-Korsakov
Rimsky-Korsakov later became a Conservatory professor Thus, he rejected many of the Handful’s key ideas
Obviously, he no longer opposed the Eurocentric conservatories
After Mussorgsky’s death, Rimsky-Korsakov revised Boris Godunov In the process, he changed 80% of Mussorgsky’s original
score He also provided more acceptable harmonies Rimsky-Korsakov re-orchestrated the opera in a more
grand style For decades, Rimsky-Korsakov’s version dominated
the international scene However present-day opera houses perform
Mussorgsky’s original instead
Track 6: Boris’ Death Scene from Boris Godunov
Background This piece appears in Modest
Mussorgsky’s opera Boris Godunov125In the first version, this scene serves
as the conclusion The second version includes an additional
scene following this one In this selection, a dying Boris
Godunov gives his son a few final commands
Featured Excerpt The excerpt begins with Boris’ prayer
He sings in a solemn monotone, accompanied by a lyrical melody in the orchestra
A bell rings out, signaling the beginning of Boris’ funeral rites Boris’ impatient rival, the boyar Shuisky,
ordered the service Of course, Boris still lives, if only for a
moment
Featured Excerpt The orchestra imitates the tolling of the
bells A dissonant chord in the middle register
follows a bass note and gong An actual bell sounds as well
Offstage, the chorus sings a chant Mussorgsky uses a diatonic melody Thus, he attempts to evoke music older
than that of the Orthodox Church
Against the sound of the ceremony, Boris delivers his final thoughts Mussorgsky notates this music in speech-
like declamation However, the singer does not necessarily
follow the exact pitches in the score Mussorgsky wanted a naturalistic scene Thus, he allows the performer to decide his
style of delivery At the climax, a sudden harmonic change
pauses on a brilliant chord Boris cries “Wait! I am still the Tsar!” and
dies Mussorgsky’s beautiful score allows the
audience to sympathize with Boris
Russian Orientalism in MusicRuslan and Lyudmila by
Mikhail Glinka In the 19th century, Russia comprised
an expanding multinational empireRussian culture revealed great
interest in the exoticOccasionally, this fascination
involved political underpinnings
Ruslan and Lyudmila by Mikhail Glinka
Ruslan and Lyudmila illustrates the Russian obsession with the East Glinka uses exotic-sounding devices to
characterize Lyudmila’s suitor Ratmir Ratmir, a Khan of Khazaria, comes from the
Orient Glinka scored the male role for a contralto
female voice The English horn accompanies Ratmir’s
relaxed musical phrases It imitates the zurna, an instrument popular in
the Caucasus and Central Asia Both woodwind instruments require a double
reed
Ruslan and Lyudmila by Mikhail Glinka
A Russian woman, Gorislava, attempts to woo Ratmir as he searches for Lyudmila In the end, Ratmir and Gorislava become a
couple, joining the reunited titular pair The finale features a Turkish dance theme
Glinka envisioned Ruslan as a political representation of the Russian empire He originally planned to stage several
tableaux vivants of the empire during the finale However, this idea did not come to fruition
In the Steppes of Central Asia by Alexander Borodin
Alexander II commissioned this orchestral piece for his silver jubilee in 1880 Borodin intended In the Steppes of Central
Asia to celebrate the Russian empire The piece focused on the empire’s recent territorial
acquisitions He offered a programmatic image of a caravan
moving through the Asian desert The piece centers on two themes
One reflects Oriental character The other sounds like a Russian folk song Though stated separately, Borodin eventually
unites them with counterpoint
Prince Igor by Alexander Borodin Borodin’s only opera, Prince Igor, juxtaposes
the Russians and the Polovtsians Also called the Cumans, these nomads wandered
between Southeastern Europe and Central Asia They frequently raided Russia in the 11th
century Though he never finished the opera, Borodin
seemed to respect both forces equally The Polovtsian Act features a wide variety of
Orientalist ideas Borodin borrowed some devices from Glinka and
Balakirev However, he also invented some of his own
Prince Igor by Alexander Borodin In Act II, the first female chorus involves a
long pedal note In Western tradition, pedal notes usually
created tension and anticipation Russian music, on the other hand, uses pedal
notes to circumvent tension altogether The melody moves slowly above the pedal
note, with barely shifting harmonies It features a great deal of ornamentation135
The dance of the boys featured rapid triplet ostinato
This technique captured the fiery and wild nature of the Polovtsians
Prince Igor by Alexander Borodin
Russian Orientalism typically featured certain elements The augmented second interval reflected Turkic influence
Unfortunately, this device became clichéd in the 20th century
Orientalist pieces also frequently used chromatic harmonies For instance, chords might move in half steps over a pedal
note Composers also typically featured solo woodwinds
They favored double-reed instruments like the oboe, bassoon, and English horn
Orientalist compositions also called for a good deal of percussion
Many Orientalist works used compound meters like 3/8 and 6/8
Track 7: Scheherazade, First Movement
Background Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov premiered his
symphonic suite Scheherazade in 1888
He drew inspiration from the Persian stories in Thousand and One NightsScheherazade must entertain the
king with a new story every nightIf she fails, he will order her
execution
Track 7: Scheherazade, First Movement
The piece comprises four movements Originally, Rimsky-Korsakov assigned
each movement a programmatic title However, he later removed them
He felt they inhibited true appreciation of his music
Track 7: Scheherazade, First Movement: Featured excerpt
The first movement opens with musical representations of the king and Scheherazade An imposing unison figure in the lower register
illustrates the king Meanwhile, a solo violin represents
Scheherazade The solo line features an expressive arabesque line
of triplets Rimsky-Korsakov allows the soloist to vary tempo
freely This melody symbolizes Scheherazade preparing to
tell a story
Track 7: Scheherazade, First Movement
The tale in question centers on Sinbad and his ship Rimsky-Korsakov opens this section with music
representing the sea Like the waves, the music rises and falls Long pedal notes and slow-moving harmony emphasize the
sea’s perpetual motion Former naval officer Rimsky-Korsakov often depicted the
sea in his music Germanic music typically directed harmonic phrases
toward cadences By contrast, Russian music features more wandering
phrases with great freedom Orientalist music especially emphasized this sense of
aimlessness
Mr. Cosmopolitan: Tchaikovsky Tchaikovsky vs. the Mighty Handful
Pyotr Tchaikovsky (1840-1893) began his career differently than the Mighty Handful He was one of the first graduates of the
St. Petersburg Conservatory There, Tchaikovsky studied composition
under Anton Rubinstein After graduating, Tchaikovsky accepted a
professorship at the Moscow Conservatory
Tchaikovsky vs. the Mighty Handful Unlike the Handful, Tchaikovsky did not adhere
to strict nationalist guidelines He received criticism for producing overly
cosmopolitan works Stasov and Cui claimed Tchaikovsky did not qualify
as a Russian musician Rather, he was a Germanic composer living in Russia
Tchaikovsky disagreed with the Handful’s narrow concept of Russianness He thought himself equally Russian
The Handful convinced the world of their position However, Tchaikovsky’s music still proved
immensely popular
Tchaikovsky vs. the Mighty Handful However, in the 1860s, Tchaikovsky
actually associated closely with the Handful He especially respected Balakirev’s
compositional style Tchaikovsky incorporated some of
Balakirev’s ideas in his own works His Second Symphony centered on a
Ukrainian folk song Tchaikovsky then developed this theme with
changing-background variations
Tchaikovsky vs. the Mighty Handful
Romeo and Juliet, a concert overture, uses Balakirev’s two favorite keys The sonata allegro revolves around B
minor and D-flat major The two keys lie far apart on the circle of
fifths B minor features two sharps and D-flat
major contains five flats Tchaikovsky modulates abruptly between
the two in true Balakirev style
Romeo and JulietTchaikovsky achieved his first
major success with the Romeo and Juliet overture The beautiful love theme reflects
influence from Italian operaHe first states this theme modestly
with transparent orchestrationAt the piece’s climax, the theme
returns full-force with grand instrumentation A countermelody and other layers also
contribute to the lush texture
Romeo and Juliet
Tchaikovsky proved especially adept at composing powerful musical climaxes Typically, he raises the piece to its
highest point and slowly winds it down However, in Romeo and Juliet, he
interrupts the glorious climaxThe warring families theme
overpowers the love theme
Tchaikovsky and psychorealism Tchaikovsky also revealed a knack for
accurately portraying sequences of intense emotions Scholars termed this illusion psychorealism Tchaikovsky achieved this effect primarily
through use of harmony Listeners associate standard progressions with
emotional tension and resolution For instance, the dominant creates tension The expected tonic allows resolution of this
tension Delaying resolution increased the sense of
emotional tension Moving from the dominant to a non-tonic harmony
creates a sense of unease
Tchaikovsky and psychorealism 19th-century composers mastered the
complexities of harmonic psychorealism Tchaikovsky and Richard Wagner both
excelled at this emotional manipulation Tchaikovsky’s psychorealist techniques
appeared in his programmatic instrumental pieces He wrote pieces based on the tragedies
Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, and Manfred He also incorporated emotions in his non-
programmatic symphonies Listeners easily associate emotions to the
Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Symphonies
Tchaikovsky’s Fourth Symphony
Listeners recognize the opening fanfare as a “Fate theme” This theme returns several times to
wreak havoc against the human protagonist
Note that said protagonist is not necessarily Tchaikovsky
Tchaikovsky’s Fourth Symphony
Tchaikovsky based the Fourth Symphony’s finale on a recognizable folk theme This tune is titled “In the field there
stood a birch tree” Tchaikovsky develops the theme with
Glinka variations However, unlike the Handful, Tchaikovsky
only uses it as a component of the drama The Handful would use the theme as a
piece of national heritage
Tchaikovsky’s Fourth Symphony
The Mighty Handful took issue with Tchaikovsky’s treatment of the folk songFirst, Tchaikovsky did not exalt the
folk songWorse yet, Tchaikovsky did not
preserve the original three-measure phrases Instead, he reconfigured the piece to more
Western four-measure phrases
Tchaikovsky’s Fourth SymphonyNadezhda von Meck requested a
programmatic explanation of the finale According to Tchaikovsky, the hero
mingles with a joyous crowdHowever, he cannot forget his own
troublesIn the middle of the folk celebration,
the Fate theme reappears
Tchaikovsky’s Eugene Onegin Tchaikovsky achieved his greatest fame as a
composer of symphonies However, he also composed ten operas and
three ballets Tchaikovsky believed opera was the most
democratic art genre Unlike the Handful, he aimed to create popular
“grand operas” However, he did write a few more “realist”
operas His most famous opera, Eugene Onegin, does
not fit either of these categories This opera was one of few Russian works to enjoy
international fame
Tchaikovsky’s Eugene OneginEugene Onegin draws its plot from
Pushkin’s eponymous verse novel Tchaikovsky found the characters more
relatable than distant royal figuresHis psychorealist approach required him
to empathize with his characters The story involves unhappy love among
the rural eliteSocial circumstances restrict the
charactersAs a result, their love seems doomed to
failure
Tchaikovsky’s Eugene Onegin This opera takes place in a domestic setting
Thus, Tchaikovsky does not feature excessive stage effects or virtuosic vocal passages
Even decent amateur singers can perform most of the music
The music imitates parlor songs (“romances”) popular during Pushkin’s time
Tchaikovsky’s Eugene Onegin
The Mighty Handful did not recognize the music as Russian After all, it did not include folk-like
melodies However, Tchaikovsky’s contemporaries
would easily recognize the Russian aspects
Eugene Onegin fits a broader definition of Russianness
Tchaikovsky’s Eugene Onegin
Instead of reflecting peasant culture, Tchaikovsky uses material he better understands In other words, he uses Russian music popular
in his own social class The upper and middle classes enjoyed the
parlor songs that influenced Onegin
Track 8: Beginning of the Finale from Tchaikovsky’s Sixth Symphony
Background The Sixth Symphony was
Tchaikovsky’s last To remain true to the tragic subject,
Tchaikovsky broke conventions of symphonic form Most Western finales ended with loud,
positive-sounding fanfare Instead, Tchaikovsky wrote a short, somber
movement Many scholars consider this piece one of the
best musical depictions of grief
Track 8: Beginning of the Finale from Tchaikovsky’s Sixth Symphony: featured excerpt
A descending conjunct theme in the violins opens the movement This theme seems to end in a question The reply always sounds terse and
unsympathetic Regardless, the inquisitive theme
becomes increasingly insistent
Track 8: Beginning of the Finale from Tchaikovsky’s Sixth Symphony: featured excerpt
The second theme contrasts starkly with the first The range broadens and the whole
orchestra enters The second theme sounds more majestic
and chorale-like Unlike the first theme, the second theme
is in a major key
Track 8: Beginning of the Finale from Tchaikovsky’s Sixth Symphony: featured excerpt
As usual, the themes appear more grandly later in the piece
At the climax, a pulsating rhythm suddenly halts the forward movement The music falls through the entire
orchestral range Afterward, the speech-like phrases
recreate the original grief-stricken mood
Track 9: Beginning of Rachmaninoff’s Second Piano Concerto
Background Sergei Rachmaninoff (1873-1943)
produced five piano concertos He worked as a composer, conductor, and
virtuoso pianist146147 The Second Piano Concerto enjoys
considerable popularity even today Rachmaninoff also composed the
Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini
Track 9: Beginning of Rachmaninoff’s Second Piano Concerto
Rachmaninoff compromised between the ideals of Tchaikovsky and the Handful He included the “Russian” folk idioms of
the Handful However, like Tchaikovsky, he also favored
psychorealism and emotional drama
Track 9: Beginning of Rachmaninoff’s Second Piano Concerto – featured excerpt
The selection opens with a dramatic piano solo The pianist plays a sequence of chords
The same bass note sounds after each chord
Each successive chord builds the tension
Scholars compare this texture with musical depictions of bells in Russian music
Track 9: Beginning of Rachmaninoff’s Second Piano Concerto – featured excerpt
After the introduction, the orchestra presents the main theme The solo pianist plays a tempestuous
accompaniment The relatively conjunct melody frequently
doubles back on itself
Track 9: Beginning of Rachmaninoff’s Second Piano Concerto – featured excerpt
Rachmaninoff often uses stepwise motion in his melodies The melodies derive from vocal songs Scholars relate these melodies to Russian
Orthodox chants However, this particular melody involves a
march-like rhythm Overall, the piece reflects a mood of severe
concentration
Track 9: Beginning of Rachmaninoff’s Second Piano Concerto – featured excerpt
The piano adopts the melody The melody becomes more lyrical and
melancholic However, the music builds to an intense climax
in Tchaikovskian149 style In a momentary calm, a contrasting major
theme appears in solo piano Some features recall the Handful’s Orientalist style
Track 9: Beginning of Rachmaninoff’s Second Piano Concerto – featured excerpt
However, scholars typically attribute these harmonies to Rachmaninoff’s general style
As with Tchaikovsky’s works, the main theme reappears in a more lavish style Rachmaninoff adds rich orchestral
accompaniment
Diaghilev and Russian Music Abroad Western audiences discover
Tchaikovsky Russian music only achieved international
recognition near the end of the 19th century By this time, Glinka’s music had fallen from
favor Glinka worked in the 1830s and 1840s In Milan, a late 19th-century show of A Life for
the Tsar received little attention
Diaghilev and Russian Music Abroad Western audiences discover Tchaikovsky Tchaikovsky was the first Russian composer to
attain great fame abroad He became an international celebrity His reputation as a conductor also helped spread
awareness of his works New York’s Carnegie Hall invited Tchaikovsky to
conduct its inaugural performance During Tchaikovsky’s lifetime, several
European opera houses staged Eugene Onegin In 1892, Gustav Mahler conducted a
performance in Hamburg, Germany
The Mighty Handful abroad The Handful’s music took longer to reach
international audiences than Tchaikovsky’s France most enthusiastically welcomed the
Mighty Handful’s music Some pieces premiered at the Paris
Expositions in 1878 and 1889 Other composers received the Handful’s
scores through private means Claude Debussy first heard Boris Godunov in the
early 1890s Mussorgsky’s declamatory style influenced
Debussy’s own operas
Sergei Diaghilev: Saisons Russes This concert series almost exclusively
included compositions by the Mighty Handful Thus, Parisian society became acquainted with
Handful’s “Russianness” Diaghilev felt Parisian critics would find
Tchaikovsky’s work too Western Cui contributed to this perception by
publishing articles in the French press Between 1878 and 1880, Cui wrote that the
Handful alone created nationalist works French critics thus viewed Tchaikovsky’s works
as Germanic French audiences wanted a unique sound like
the Handful’s
The success of Saisons Russes convinced Diaghilev to stage other Handful works In 1908, Diaghilev produced a performance
of Boris GodunovHe used Rimsky-Korsakov’s revised
orchestration Fyodor Chaliapin performed the title role to
great acclaim Audiences considered him the perfect Boris
Diaghilev spared no expense on the production The elaborately ornate sets and costumes dazzled
the Parisian audienceBoris Godunov’s enduring international
success stems in part from this performance
Diaghilev staged other Handful works posthumously He produced the Polovtsian Act from
Prince Igor He reimagined Rimsky-Korsakov’s
Scheherazade into a ballet Also, he transformed Rimsky-Korsakov’s
final opera The Golden Cockerel into an opera-ballet The singers sang in the background Meanwhile, the dancers performed the
action in the forefront Sadly, Mussorgsky, Borodin, and Rimsky-
Korsakov died before seeing their fame
French composers embraced the Handful’s influence They, like the Handful, sought to create
a distinct nationalist style The French also hoped to avoid Germanic
clichés They particularly abhorred Wagner’s style
These composers admired the Handful’s originality and non-Western sound
French composers embraced the Handful’s influence Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel
integrated Russian elements in their works They studied Mussorgsky’s declamatory
operatic realist style Debussy subsequently produced the opera
Pelleas et Mélisande Ravel wrote L’heure espagnole
These French composers also assimilated Russian Orientalism and exoticism Ravel’s Spanish-style music sounds like Rimsky-
Korsakov’s Spanish Capriccio The Oriental style appeared in Ravel’s song cycle
Scheherazade
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