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Evidence that I am here- Part I!Ms. Gorney’s Biology EOC Review PART I

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04/19/23 20:55

EOC REVIEW NOTESPart 1

Spring 2009

Ecology and Scientific Method

Day 1

• Scientific Questions• Scientific investigations begin with scientific

questions – questions that can be studied through observation, testing and analysis.

• Common phrases in scientific questions:• What is …? What causes …? How does …?• When …? How long …?• Why …? What happens if …?• How are two things alike and different?• Which works better …? What is the best way

to …?

• Not all questions are scientific questions – a question that asks for an opinion is not a scientific question.

• A scientific question can be answered by making observations, conducting tests and analyzing information.

• Designing and Conducting Investigations• The scientific method is a process that guides

the search for answers to a scientific question.• After posing a question, a scientist generates a

hypothesis – a possible explanation or tentative answer to the question.

• A scientist uses the hypothesis to design a fair test to study the question. A fair test examines only one factor, or variable, at a time. A variable is the factor that might affect the outcome of the test. There are two kinds of variables:

• Independent or Manipulated Variable – the one that the scientist changes or manipulates.

• Dependent or Responding Variable – responds to changes in the independent variable & measures the effects (if any) of the independent variable.

• A reliable experiment includes both a control group and an experimental group. The control group shows what happens if there is no change in the independent variable. The experimental group has conditions identical to those of the control group except that the independent variable is changed.

• Tables, charts, graphs and other visual models are used to organize data to make it easier to interpret.

• Lab Safety Rules• Know the locations of the first aid kit,

eyewash, shower and fire equipment.• Wear eye protection whenever glassware or

solutions are heated or when fumes may be present. Avoid wearing contact lenses. Use goggles and aprons when indicated by the instructor.

• Assume all chemicals are dangerous. Read the labels on chemical bottles and make sure you understand safety precautions. Clean spills from skin and surfaces immediately. Dispose of chemicals properly.

• Many chemicals are flammable. Do not use them near open flames. Avoid inhaling chemical fumes.

• No eating, drinking or smoking in the lab. Never touch any lab equipment with your mouth.

• Avoid wearing excessively loose clothing and jewelry. Long hair should be tied back. Do not wear sandals or open-toe shoes.

• Come to the lab prepared for the experiments you will be doing. Uncertainty can be dangerous! If you are not sure about a procedure, ask you instructor before proceeding.

• Absolutely no horseplay. IMMEDIATELY report any and all incidents including spills, broken glass or personal injuries, however minor, to your instructor.

Biotic vs. Abiotic Factors• Biotic = living (plants, animals, bacteria,

fungus, protists)• Abiotic = non-living (temp, water, soil,

weather, rocks, sunlight, etc)

• Ecological Organization–Organism ~ one member of one species–Population ~ all members of one species in

a given area–Community ~ all populations in a given area– Ecosystem ~ all members of community

plus abiotic factors in the area–Biome ~ group of ecosystems with same

climate and organisms

Water Cycle

Carbon Cycle

Nitrogen Cycle

• Succession–Primary Succession = colonization of NEW

land by pioneer species until a climax community is reached. • Lava flow lichens mosses

grasses shrubs trees

Secondary Succession = existing community is destroyed and a new one begins to form• Occurs more quickly than primary

succession because soil is already present and seeds were left behind• Forest Fire mosses grasses

shrubs trees

• Ecosystem Relationships–Niche vs. Habitat• If an organism’s habitat is its address, its

niche is its occupation.

–Competition• Organisms of same or different species try

to use same resource at same place during same time.• Competition can be reduced by developing

different niches.• Ex. 3 species can easily live in same tree if

one eats leaves, one eats bark and another eats the flowers.

–Predator-Prey• Organism doing killing = predator• Organism being killed = prey

– Symbiosis – “living together”•Mutualism – both species benefit from

the relationship–Flowers may feed on insects, which

may in turn disperse pollen to other flowers

• Commensalism – one species benefits and the other is unaffected by the relationship–Barnacles attach to the skin of a whale

to catch more food particles

•Parasitism – one species benefits and the other is harmed by the relationship–Tapeworms live inside a human

intestine and feed from the human

• 1. the owl is a nocturnal hunter of small mammals, insects, and other birds. An owl is an example of a/anA. ProducerB. OmnivoreC. CarnivoreD. decomposer

• 1. Plants use nitrogen to…A. Make sugarB. Attract pollinatorsC. Make proteins and nucleic acidsD. Transport water to their leaves

• 2. In the nitrogen cycle, bacteriaA. Convert nitrogen to ammoniaB. Convert nitrogen to animal proteinC. Cause lightning strikesD. Convert nitrogen to plant protein

• 1. Man-of-war fish cluster around the venomous tentacles of jelly fish to escape larger predators. The presence of the man-of-war fish does not harm or benefit the jellyfish. This type of relationship is called…A. ParasitismB. CommensalismC. SuccessionD. mutualism

• 2. Red foxes are nocturnal and live in meadows and forest edges. They are predators to small mammals, amphibians, and insects. The scraps that red foxes leave behind provide food for scavengers and decomposers. The preceding sentences describe the red fox’s…A. CommunityB. PreyC. NicheD. Food web

• 3. a symbiotic relationship meansA. The energy cycle is not involvedB. No one benefitsC. The solar system is involvedD. One of both parties benefit

Ecology and Evolution

Day 2

• Natural Selection and Evolution– Theory of Natural Selection• Proposed by Charles Darwin in 19th Century.

• Conclusions were based on his observations of organisms on the Galapagos Islands.–Climates on islands varied greatly,

elevation and moisture were also varied on several islands.–Tortoises and Finches were very different

on each island – suited to the environment in which they were living.

•Wrote book On the Origin of the Species in 1859.• Theory includes the following ideas:–Most organisms produce more offspring

than are able to survive.–This results in competition for resources

such as food and living space.

–Although the offspring are similar, some will have variations that make them better able to survive. Those that are unsuccessful at competition die out. Those with favorable variations reproduce and pass the favorable variations on to their offspring.

• Over time, favorable variations are found in more and more offspring. A trait that improves an organism’s chance for survival and reproduction is called an adaptation. A new species may develop or evolve in this way.

• Results of Evolution– Gradualism – evolution occurs a little at a time

over a long period of time.• This is what Darwin believed occurred in natural

selection.

–Punctuated Equilibrium – evolution occurs in spurts; rapid changes and then long periods of no change at all.• Results from sudden changes in the

environment.

– Extinction – end of a species.• Occurs when environmental changes

occur too quickly for organisms to adapt.• 99% of all species that have ever lived are

thought to be extinct.

• Speciation – the evolutionary process in which a new species is formed.– Geographic isolation – a population is divided by a

barrier into two geographically separated populations that can no longer reach each other to breed.

• Natural selection on each side of the barrier causes two separated populations to become genetically different. •When the populations come into contact

again, they can no longer reproduce

–Behavioral isolation – individuals within a population may have differences in courtship rituals or other types of behaviors.• Differences among individuals causes them

to choose specific, nonrandom mates.• Continual, nonrandom mating causes

individuals to become genetically different. • Eventually, two species coexist.

• Evidence of Evolution– Fossils• Shows the changes between species that

lived in the past and those that live today.• As a result, scientists have often been able

to use fossils to reconstruct the relationships or evolutionary link between extinct species and their modern relatives.

– Anatomy – many species have a common physical, or anatomical structure. From comparative studies, it is possible to determine whether two different species developed from the same ancestor or whether their body parts developed independently.

• Energy Flow–Producers (autotrophs)• Use sunlight to make their food and

energy through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis• Only plants and some bacteria/algae are

autotrophic

–Consumers (heterotrophs)•Must acquire their energy from other

organisms• Herbivores = eat plants only• Carnivores = eat animals only• Omnivores = eat both plants and animals• Scavengers = eat dead or decaying plants

and animals• Decomposers = break down dead or

decaying plants or animals

– Feeding Relationships• Food Chains = series of steps in which

organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten–Arrow shows the direction of energy

transfer in the food chain–Ex. Grass Grasshopper Mouse

Snake Hawk• Food web = links all food chains together in

an ecosystem

• Trophic Levels–Producers – get energy from sun & use

some for own metabolism–Primary Consumers – get 10% of original

energy from producers and use some for own metabolism–Secondary Consumers – get 10% of

energy from primary consumers and use some for own metabolism–Tertiary Consumers – get 10% of energy

from secondary consumers and use some for own metabolism

Ecological Pyramids

• Populations–Population Growth• If birth rate is larger than death rate =

growing• If birth rate is smaller than death rate =

shrinking• Immigration = movement into a

population• Emigration = movement out of a

population

– Exponential Growth (J-shaped Curve)• Occurs when

individuals reproduce at a constant rate (ex. every individual has 2 kids)• Will occur under

ideal conditions with unlimited resources

• –Carrying Capacity (S-

shaped Curve)• A population’s

growth slows or stops following a period of exponential growth• Carrying capacity =

largest number of individuals that a given environment can support

– Limiting Factors• A factor that causes a population’s

growth to decrease• Competition, predation, disease, climate

extremes, human disturbance

–Density-dependent vs. Density-independent• Density-dependent = limit a population

according to population size–Competition, predation

• Density-independent = affects all populations the same, regardless of size–Natural disasters

• Human Environmental Impacts–Human population is growing exponentially

with no slowing in sight because of technological advances in medicine.–Humans are clearing habitats of plants and

animals to have more room for cities & suburbs as well as space to grow more food for the growing populations.

– Pollution• Ozone depletion–Ozone protects us from harmful UV

radiation from the sun–Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) destroy the

ozone layer–CFCs are banned, but their affects are

lasting as the ozone layer slowly heals itself

• Global Warming–Burning of fossil fuels adds excess

carbon dioxide in the atmosphere–Carbon dioxide is an insulator and

traps heat in the atmosphere causing the global temperature to slowly rise.

–Higher global temperatures could have devastating effects such as melting of glaciers and changes in weather patterns.

• Pesticide Use–DDT and other pesticides are

dangerous because they can contaminate groundwater and other water sources.–Biological magnification –

concentrations of a harmful substance increase in organisms at higher trophic levels in a food web or a food chain.

»Ex. algae pick up toxin from water they live in – plankton eat much algae to survive – small fish eat the plankton – large fish eat the large fish there is much more DDT in the large fish than the plankton because it has concentrated up the food chain.

• 1. anything that restricts a population is called…A. Bad omenB. Restricting factorC. PredatorD. Limiting factor

• 2. a population will tend to grow if…A. It has no environmental limitationsB. The number of births exceeds the number of

deathsC. The immigration rate exceeds the emigration rateD. All of the above

• 3. a density-dependent factor…A. Limits a population in a given area regardless of

sizeB. Limits the population when the population

reaches a certain sizeC. May include weather or natural disasterD. Often affects small, sparse populations

• 4. an active volcano under the ocean erupts, and the build-up of cooled lava eventually forms a new island. What type of succession will immediately occur on the newly formed island?A. PrimaryB. SecondaryC. Both primary and secondaryD. No succession

• 1. the human population growthA. Will stop at a reasonable numberB. Is in the middle of an exponential growth curveC. Will never stop or slow downD. Will not strain the planet’s natural resources

• 2. the greenhouse effect may be responsible forA. Global warmingB. Thermal pollutionC. PhotosynthesisD. Clear cutting of rain forests

Biochemistry and Evolution

Day 3

• Homologous Structures – similar body parts found in different species.–Ex. Forelimb bone structure in

mammals.

• Analogous Structures – serve the same purpose in different species, but evolved independently.–Ex. Wings on bats, birds & insects.

• Vestigial Structures – structures that were once functional in ancestor, but have little or no function in current organisms.–Ex. Human appendix & tail bone.

Wings on ostrich. Eyes on mole rat.

– Embryology – study of the early stages of life before birth. •Many organisms are very similar in

appearance and have common features as embryos but vary significantly as adults.• These similarities provide evidence for

evolution from common ancestors.

–Pesticide Resistance & Antibiotic Resistance• Occasionally, some insects or bacteria in

a population have slight variations that make them able to survive the pesticide or antibiotic used to kill them.

• Those organisms survive and reproduce to create a new generation of insects or bacteria that are resistant to the pesticide or antibiotics.• This requires different and stronger

pesticides and antibiotics to be continuously created to kill these resistant organisms.

• 2. Ideas about evolution– A. have already been thought– B. are perfect and need no refinement– C. may change based on new data– D. only involve animals

• 1. If two organisms evolve in response to each other, which evolutionary pattern is demonstrated?– A. natural selection– B. gradualistic method– C. co-evolution– D. adaptive radiation

• 2. Natural selection states that individuals– A. with adaptive traits are more likely to survive– B. on the bottom level of a hierarchy have the

greatest reproductive success– C. demonstrating altruistic behavior are the ones

with the most mutations– D. remain unchanged over a period of time

• 3. The human appendix was once useful, but no longer has a function. The appendix is an example of…– A. a homologous structure– B. a vestigial structure– C. a vital organ– D. a mutation

• Organic Molecules• Organic molecules are those that include

carbon.• There are four classes of organic molecules:

Objective 2.01-Biomolecules

Biomolecule Building Block Elements Function Examples

Carbohydrate Monosaccharide (simple sugar)DisaccharidesPolysaccharides

Carbon, hydrogen,oxygen

Primary (fast) source of energy

Sugar, starch

Lipid Fatty acids (insoluble in water –hydrophobic)

Carbon, hydrogen

Insulation, protection, long term energy source

Oil, wax

Protein Amino Acids (held together by peptide bonds)

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen

Growth and repair of tissuesSpeed up reactions

enzymes

Nucleic Acids Nucleotides Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus

Carries hereditary information

DNA/RNA

• • Enzymes Special group of proteins that aid

in speeding up the rate of chemical reactions.– Enzymes work by lowering the activation energy

required for a chemical reaction to proceed.– Enzyme action can be stopped through a change

in temperature or a change in pH = denaturation.

• Acids, Bases & pH–pH scale indicates the concentration of H+

ions in a solution.–Acids – contain more H+ than water – given

values below 7 (1 = most acidic)–Bases – contain less H+ than water – given

values above 7 (14 = most basic)

• Cells & Cell Theory• Cell Theory–Combines the work of von Leeuwenhoek,

Hooke, Schleiden, Schwann and Virchow.– Says that:• All living things are made of cells.• Cells are the basic unit of structure and

function in all living things.• New cells come from pre-existing cells.

• Prokaryotes–No cell organelles

or nucleus–Very small in size– Single-celled

organisms– Ex. Bacteria

• Eukaryotes–Has organelles• Cytoplasm – fluid filling cell• Nucleus – contains genetic information

(control center of the cell)• Ribosomes – make proteins• ER – transport of molecules within the

cell

• Golgi complex – packages & labels molecules for transport•Mitochondria – site of cellular respiration

(powerhouse of the cell)• Vacuole – storage of food, water and

waste (much larger in plants than animals)

• Lysosome – breakdown and digestion of cell materials• Chloroplasts – site of photosynthesis• Cell Wall – add support to cell in plants• Plasma Membrane – controls what

enters and exits the cell

–Much more complex than prokaryotes– Ex. Plants, Animals, Fungi & Protists

• 1. Structures that give support and shape to plant cells are:A microbodiesB golgi bodiesC nucleusD cell walls

• 1. Ribosomes A are the site of protein synthesisB are made by other ribosomesC have their own DNAD none of the above

• 2. The mitochondrion of the cell– A has only one membrane– B has no membrane– C is circular– D is where cellular respiration occurs

• 3. the storage of hereditary information in a eukaryotic cell is in the A cytoplasmB nucleusC centriolesD lysosomes

• 1. Nucleotides are to nucleic acids as amino acids are to…A DNAB polypeptidesC proteinsD carbohydrates

• 1. enzymes are A catalysts used by living thingsB catalysts used in all reactionsC chemicals used to increase activation energyD fats used by living things to help speed up chemical

reactions

• 2. EnzymesA function at any temperature and pHB function at an optimum temperature and pHC

Biochemistry

Day 4

Cell Membrane

• Diffusion–Particles move from area of high

concentration to areas of low concentration until equilibrium is reached

• Osmosis–Diffusion of water– If a cell is placed in a solution with a higher

salt concentration than the cell, water will move out of the cell and it will shrink.– If a cell is placed in a solution with a lower

salt concentration than the cell, water will move into the cell and it will swell/burst.

• Facilitated Diffusion–Diffusion of large particles through a

transport protein channel in the membrane

• Active Transport– Movement of particles from low concentration

to high concentration – Requires ENERGY

• Biochemical Reactions• ATP = Adenosine Triphosphate– The cell’s energy source.– Energy is stored between the 2nd and 3rd

phosphate of the molecule.

• Photosynthesis–Carbon Dioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen

–CO2 + H2O C6H12O6 + O2

–Occurs in the chloroplasts of green plants.

– Two phases:• Light Dependent – Electron Transport Chain–Light strikes the chlorophyll in thylakoid

membrane which carries out ETC–Produces Oxygen, ATP and NADPH–Uses water & light

• Light Independent – Calvin Cycle–Uses ATP, NADPH & Carbon Dioxide–Produces Glucose, which is used by

the plant as “food”

• Aerobic Cellular Respiration– Glucose + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water

–C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 + H2O

–Occurs in mitochondria of plants and animals

– Three phases:• Glycolysis – in cytoplasm breaks down glucose to form

pyruvic acid and 2 ATP • Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) – in mitochondrial matrix

uses pyruvic acid to form 2 ATP, NADH and FADH2

• Electron Transport Chain – in mitochondrial membrane uses oxygen, NADH and FADH2 to form water and 32 ATP• Total ATP produced through aerobic cellular

respiration = 36

• Anaerobic Respiration = Fermentation – releases energy from food in the absence of oxygen–Glycolysis occurs in cytoplasm to produce

pyruvic acid and 2 ATP

–Alcoholic Fermentation – Produces ethyl alcohol as a byproduct of fermentation• Process associated with yeast (bubbles =

carbon dioxide)– Lactic Acid Fermentation – Produces lactic

acid as a byproduct of fermentation.• Process associated with burning and sore

muscles during or after exercise.

• 1. A ______________ is a group of different tissues that work together to perform a certain function

A organ systemB organC cellD tissue

• 2. Which of the following is part of the cell theory?A are eukaryoticB are prokaryoticC have nucleiD come from other cells

• 1. The movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration is called…A. Active transportB. DiffusionC. OsmosisD. hypotonic

• 2. The movement of substances into and out of a cell without the use of energy is called…A. active transportB. Passive transportC. ExocytosisD. endocytosis

• 3. A type of membrane which allows only certain molecules to pass through is called...– A. permeable– B. semi-permeable– C. Active– D. porous

• 1. What is released when ATP is broken down into ADP and one phosphate?– A. oxygen– B. water– C. energy– D. hydrogen

• 2. In photosynthesis, plans use carbon dioxide, water and light to produce– A. carbon monoxide– B. energy– C. glucose and oxygen– D. chlorophyll

• What form of energy is used by cells?– A. enzymes– B. cofactors– C. ATP– D.DNA

• 1. Cellular respiration takes place inside– A. an animal cell only– B. a plant cell only– C. both plant and animal cells– D. neither plant or animal cells

• 2. _____________ are the main product of the cell.– A. lipids– B. amino acids– C. proteins– D. carbohydrates

• 3. Cellular energy is stored in the form of – A. chemical bonds– B. enzymes– C. membrane potential– D. protein shapes

• 4. Complex carbohydrates break down into– A. enzymes– B. amino acids– C. simple sugars– D. ATP