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27 November 2013 - 1 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
NASA Aircraft Particle Emission Research:
Highlights and Future Work
Bruce Anderson Science Directorate
Langley Research Center
27 November 2013 - 2 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
Sponsoring Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate Programs
Atmospheric Effects of Aviation Project (AEAP)
Ultra-Efficient Engine Technology (UEET)
Fundamental Aeronautics Program, Fixed Wing Project (FW)
Objectives AEAP: Assess climate and chemical impacts of aircraft emissions
UEET: Characterize particles; assess environmental impacts
FW: Develop and validate tools for predicting emissions; evaluate
performance of drop-in, alternative aviation fuels
27 November 2013 - 3 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
Aircraft
MD80a
MD80b
B737
B747
DC-8
T39
T38
B757
1014 1015 1016 1017 1018
Particle Emissions at Cruise Altitude
Particle Number EI (#/kg)
AIRC
RAFT
Flew Instrumented T-39 within flight corridors and
behind NASA DC-8; measured particles, H2SO4
and wake vortex motion
Made detailed measurements behind > 8 commercial
airliners; observed that volatile aerosols dominate particle concentrations within aged
exhaust plumes of all aircraft
AEAP SNIF Experiment: 1996
27 November 2013 - 4 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
75020 75030 75040 75050 75060 75070 75080
UNIVERSAL TIME
1000
10000
100000
1000000
10000000
B757 Particle Emissions
5/4/96
NONVOLATILE TOTAL CN
soot
high sulfur
low sulfur
NASA LaRC B757 was flown with 70 ppmS fuel in left wing tank and 700 ppmS in right. Exhaust was sampled from T-39
Particle concentrations were 10 to 20 times
greater within the high S exhaust plume
AEAP SUCCESS Experiment: 1996
27 November 2013 - 5 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
AEAP/SONEX DC-8 Flight Campaign: 1997 Based in Shannon and Bangor, project examined pollution in North Atlantic flight corridor
Time41300 41400 415000
20
40
60
80
100
-1.0
-0.6
-0.2
0.2
0.6
1.0
Ultra
fine A
eroso
ls (1
000/
cm3)
SONEX MISSION 16High Altitude Flight Corridor
Reactive Nitrogen (ppbv)
Uf
NOy
Approximate Age (sec)
Numb
er of
Plu
mes
3000 10000 300000
10
20
30
40
50
1000
Norm
alize
d Freq
uenc
y
Emission Index (#/kg)
14 15 16 17 180
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
10 10 10 10 10
Nonvolatile CNFine CN Ultrafine CN
NOy and CN times series in crossing Aircraft plume crossings (+) at altitude
Histograms of CN number EIs for 223 plumes Ages estimated from NOy dilution
27 November 2013 - 6 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
Flew T-39 behind F16 aircraft from NJ and
Vermont ANG; burned JP-8 with varying levels
of Sulfur
Confirmed that sulfur plays significant role in
regulating volatile particle emissions
AEAP SNIF-III Experiment: 1997
27 November 2013 - 7 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
Fuel Type
0.01
0.1
1
10Em
issio
n In
dex
(1E1
5/kg
)
JP8 Low_Sul Med_Sul High_Sul
Test Cell > 10 nm
F100 Particulate Emissions
JP8+100
Airborne > 4 nm
Airborne > 16 nm
SNIF-III/PSL F100 Comparison: 1997
Same engines, same fuels—Vastly different results. Why?
27 November 2013 - 8 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
Field Phase: Compared inlet probes and sampling systems while
sampling T-38: identified particle losses within inlet tips and sample lines as a huge, unaccounted for
problem
Lab Phase: Compared measurements from all groups
involved in AEAP airborne and ground-based test venues;
Instrument saturation a common problem
AEAP Particle Measurement Workshop: 1999
T-38 Emission Index at 1 Meter Using nASA Data
40 60 80 100
1610
X Probe w/H2O
afterburner
X Probe w/o H2O
Emis
sion
Inde
x (#
/kg)
Engine Power (%)
LaRC Probe
1410
1710
1510
27 November 2013 - 9 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
AEAP/UEET EXCAVATE: 2002
0 20 40 60 80 100
1E14
1E15
1E16
1E17High Sulfur Fuel
1 m Inlet Probe
25 m Inlet Probe
Aero
sol N
umbe
r EI (
#/kg
)
Percent Max Thrust
NASA LaRC B757 Rolls Royce RB211-535E4
40,100 lbs thrust Fuels: 810, 1050, 1820 ppmS
Inlets: 1, 10, 25, 35 m Powers: 6,23,45,60,75%
EXCAVATE observations of B757 particle mass, size and number emissions consistent
with SUCCESS measurements at cruise altitudes
=> Careful ground measurements representative of airborne emissions
27 November 2013 - 10 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
Results consistent with previous airborne and ground-based
measurements; set the stage for systematic collection of data from a
broader range of aircraft and engines with wide community
support 0 20 40 60 80 100
1E14
1E15
1E16
1E17High Sulfur Fuel
1 m Inlet Probe
30 m Inlet Probe
Aero
sol N
umbe
r EI (
#/kg
)
Percent Max Thrust
UEET APEX-1: 2004 Aircraft: NASA Dryden DC-8 Engine: CFM-56 Fuels: Hi, Lo S; Hi Aromatic Inlets: 1, 10, 30 m Powers: 4,7,30,45,65,85,100% COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT
27 November 2013 - 11 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
UEET Engine Studies: 2005 JETS/APEX-2
Oakland CA; Aug ‘05 Four Southwest 737’s with CFM-56-3-B1 or CFM56-
7B24 Engines
APEX-3 Cleveland; November ’05
9 Aircraft CFM-56-3, CJ610, AE3007-
A1E, PW4158, RB211-535E4 Engines
27 November 2013 - 12 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
FAP Particle Emission Foci: 2006-2008 1. Improve measurement techniques/develop standard approach -validate line-loss model; use predictions to optimize sampling system -select and characterize best set of instruments -develop better techniques for sampling combustor emissions -develop approach for calibrating instruments and sampling systems 2. Develop better understanding of soot emissions -characterize morphology and microphysical properties of engine soot -investigate pressure, fuel atomization, fuel/air ratio effects in combustor -determine fuel matrix dependencies -verify that sector=>annular combustor=>engine -develop soot inception model; validate; incorporate into NCC 3. Develop better understanding of volatile aerosol formation and growth -identify volatile aerosol constituents (oil, unburned HC, sulfate, etc.) -investigate effects of fuel, ambient conditions, engine operation etc. -further develop and validate volatile aerosol model
27 November 2013 - 13 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
FAP Sampling System Characterization: 2006
#1 – APEX3 gas
#2 – APEX3 loop
#8 – APEX1 aerosol
#3 – APEX3 Aerosol
#5 – Engine Aerosol
#6 – APEX3 aerosol
#7 – test Aerosol #4 – straight-thru
Probes were mounted on cross bar suspended over engine exhaust. Examined probes from most recent experiments conducted by UTRC and NASA; Results still pending
Using “Start Cart” as an emission source, compared relative penetration efficiencies of a variety of sample inlet probes
27 November 2013 - 14 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
FAP Sampling System Characterization: 2006
GRC, November Study Measured particle transmission through inlet probes and sampling lines; intercompared more than a dozen particle instruments
LaRC, July lab study Using combustion source, measured transmission losses through sampling systems used in APEX and QL tests; Compared sizing instruments
27 November 2013 - 15 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
JSF Quick-look Tests: 2006
Sponsored by DOD and conducted at PW West Palm Beach Facility to evaluate emissions from new Joint-Strike Fighter Engines. Experiments examined procedures for sampling particles from high velocity, high temperature, exhaust plumes and led to improvements in inlet probes and sample transport systems
27 November 2013 - 16 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
Tinker AFB Tests of F-100 Engine: 2007
Conducted at Tinker AFB in Oklahoma and sponsored by SERDP, the project used a tes-stand mounted F100 engine to test new methods of sampling aircraft engine exhaust.
10 10050
60
70
80
90
100
110
HOT
COLD
Sam
plin
g Li
ne T
rans
miss
ion
Effic
ienc
y
Particle Diameter (nm)
Aerosol Transport Line A
Findings suggest that heated sampling lines produce additional losses, probably due to thermophoresis, not seen in lines operated at ambient temperature.
27 November 2013 - 17 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
Fixed-Wing Environmental Foci: 2008-2015 1. Investigate the performance and emissions of alternative fuels -Characterize fuel thermodynamic and combustion properties in lab tests -Examine fuel impacts on soot formation in flame-tube experiments -Examine fuel effects on performance and emissions in on-wing studies -Examine fuel effects on APU emissions 2. Develop understanding of factors controling contrail ice formation Using SE-11 altitude simulation chamber: -Examine effects of soot size and concentration on ice nucleation -Investigate effects of sulfate and organic coatings on soot ice nucleation -Determine influence of background aerosols on contrail formation -Using APU soot generator, examine fuel effects on contrail formation 3. Determine how fuel properties effect contrails and cruise emissions Using instrumented aircraft: -obtain PM and ice measurements in exhaust aircraft burning standard
and blended alternative fuels -Evaluate the role of fuel sulfur and soot concentrations on ice properties
27 November 2013 - 18 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
Ultra-High Bypass Engine Test: 2007-2008
Conducted at the Pratt and Whitney test facility in West Palm Beach, the test examined emissions from a high-bypass engine and included a number of runs using a blend of JP-8 and Fischer-Tropsch fuel.
27 November 2013 - 19 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
PW308 Emissions Test: 2008
Conducted at the Pratt and Whitney test facility in West Palm Beach, the test examined emissions from a small turbofan engine and included a number of runs using a blend of JP-8 and Fischer-Tropsch fuel.
27 November 2013 - 20 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment (AAFEX-1): 2009
Objectives • Create gaseous and particulate
emission profiles as a function of fuel-type and engine power;
• Investigate the factors that control volatile aerosol formation and growth
• Establish aircraft APU emission characteristics and examine their dependence on fuel composition
• Evaluate new instruments and sampling techniques
Huge PM Emissions Reductions Seen when Using Alt Fuels
NASA Fundamental Aeronautics Fixed Wing Project
27 November 2013 - 21 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment (AAFEX-2): 2011
15:36:38 15:38:18 15:39:58 15:41:38 15:43:18 15:44:58
0
20
40
60
80
Rela
tive
Parti
cle N
umbe
r Em
issoi
ns
Local Time
Total Particles Nonvolatile
Objectives • Evaluate alt fuel effects on engine
performance and fuel-handling equipment • Determine the effects of HRJ fuels on
engine PM and gas phase emissions • Investigate the role of sulfur in regulating
volatile aerosol formation in engine exhaust plumes
• Examine exhaust plume chemical evolution • Conduct tests to support SAE E-31
development of standard exhaust sampling methods
Summary of Findings • Negligible effect of fuel type on engine
performance, but some slight fuel system leakage with neat HRJ and F-T fuels
• Alt fuels greatly reduce black carbon number and mass emissions and volatile particle formation in exhaust plume
• High fuel sulfur promotes rapid volatile particle formation in exhaust, but downstream aerosol number EIs do not vary linearly with fuel sulfur content
• Sulfate aerosols create nucleation mode and coat soot particles to enhance solubility
NASA Fundamental Aeronautics Fixed Wing Project
27 November 2013 - 22 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
SE-11 Altitude Chamber Experiments: 2010-present
Humidifier
Liquid Nitrogen
Vaporizer/ Heat
Exchanger
P ~ 1 atm, T~673 K
Vacuum Exhaust
Flow control valves
Chamber
Xenon Source Spectrometer
Simulated Exhaust
Emissions
OPC
OPC
OPC
Tests examine the links between soot emissions/properties and ice formation
• Flow-through chamber can simulate conditions up to 50,000 ft • Particles monitored using Optical Particle Counters and Light Scattering • Can control soot size, number density, and sulfate and organic coatings
NASA Fundamental Aeronautics Fixed Wing Project
27 November 2013 - 23 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
“Contrail” visible for CN > 1e6/cm3
Soot 4% RH
Light Source
Exhaust Jet
High PM Concentrations Required for Ice Formation
• Tests are being conducted with partial FAA sponsorship and in collaboration with Aerodyne, which is using the data to validate contrail model • Tests explore particle size and solubility effects on ice formation • New APU particle source will allow us to study alternative fuel-effects on contrails
SE-11 Altitude Chamber Experiments: 2010-present NASA Fundamental Aeronautics Fixed Wing Project
27 November 2013 - 24 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
Alternative-Fuel Effects on Contrails and Cruise Emissions (ACCESS-1): 2013
Accomplishments
• Field mission initiated February 19 in Palmdale, completed April 13, 2013
• Conducted 5 successful contrail sampling flights, with Falcon collecting measurements behind DC-8 as it burned both JP-8 and blended alternative fuels
• Completed 4-hour-long DC-8 ground study, collecting detailed aerosol and gas emissions data as the aircraft burned blended and JP-8 fuel at a range of power settings
• Completed ground-station fly-bys to verify instrument calibrations
• Conducted two-day study of aircraft emissions at LAX, collecting idle, takeoff and landing data from multiple airframe/engine combinations
24
NASA Fundamental Aeronautics Fixed Wing Project
27 November 2013 - 25 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
Significant Results
• Burning a 50:50 blend of HEFA and standard jet fuel JP-8 does not degrade gas-turbine engine performance on the ground or at cruise altitudes, hence blended fuel is a suitable, drop-in substitute for standard petroleum fuel
• Blended fuel does not reduce engine NOx or CO production, but does slightly decrease total hydrocarbon emissions at low engine powers
• Black carbon mass and number emissions are reduced 30 to 50% in both ground and cruise altitude operations when burning the alternative fuel blend compared to burning standard jet fuel.
• Total aerosol mass emissions are reduced by more than 50% at cruise altitudes due to large reductions in sulfate, organics, and black carbon
Pure JP8 50:50 JP8-HEFA Blend
NASA Fundamental Aeronautics Fixed Wing Project
Alternative-Fuel Effects on Contrails and Cruise Emissions (ACCESS-1): 2013
27 November 2013 - 26 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC 2
DLR Falcon 20
LaRC HU-25 Facon
ACCESS-II will engage international partners to examine fuel effects on cruise emissions and contrail properties
ACCESS-II: May 2014 NASA Fundamental Aeronautics Fixed Wing Project
DFRC DC-8
NRC T-33
27 November 2013 - 27 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
Future Research NASA Fundamental Aeronautics Fixed Wing Project
• SE-11 APU fuel tests to: Establish Black Carbon (BC) concentrations and
characteristics as a function of fuel aromatic-hydrocarbon/hydrogen content
Investigate fuel sulfur oxidation and volatile particle formation
Examine the links between soot characteristics and cloud and ice nucleation potential
• Sample contrails in national airspace to: Establish range of BC concentrations and
characteristics in exhaust from a wide range of modern aircraft
Examine the links between BC properties and contrail ice concentrations and micro-physical characteristics
Investigate the evolution of exhaust PM and contrail ice over minutes to hours as plumes mix with background air
27 November 2013 - 28 Fixed Wing Project Bruce Anderson, NASA LaRC
Future Research NASA Fundamental Aeronautics Fixed Wing Project
• Sample taxi, approach and takeoff plumes at airports to: Establish the range of PM number and mass
emissions from next generation aircraft burning current fuels
Determine the composition and CCN potential of aged aircraft PM emissions
Further examine the links between fuel sulfur and volatile particle formation
• Conduct ground and airborne exhaust sampling experiments with modern aircraft burning alternative fuels to: Establish detailed PM emission
factors for next generation of aircraft engines
Examine effects of low PM emissions on contrail ice and radiation characteristics
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