View
1
Download
0
Category
Preview:
Citation preview
Report to the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation
Logic Models and Outcomes for Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
By
Jacinta Bronte-Tinkew, Ph.D.
Zakia Redd, M.P.P.
Project Director, Kristin Moore, Ph.D.
September 17, 2001
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Executive Summary................................................................................................................................... 3
Glossary of Outcome Measurement Terms.............................................................................................5
Introduction................................................................................................................................................ 6
Background................................................................................................................................................ 6Why and how are youth entrepreneurship and vocational programs important for youth development?. 7
Prior research: A framework for assessing the relationship between entrepreneurship programs and youth outcomes................................................................................................................................ 10
What are the pathways through which entrepreneurship may be influenced?.......................................10
DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation- Youth Entrepreneurship Programs............12Youth Entrepreneurship Conceptual Model.......................................................................................................12What youth outcomes are most often influenced by entrepreneurship and vocational programs?.........13Youth Entrepreneurship Logic Model- Analysis and Recommendations................................................17Outcome Measurement..........................................................................................................................17
Summary, Integration and Conclusions................................................................................................18
Table 3.1: Summary Table of Youth Entrepreneurship Programs of the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation....................................................................................................................19Figure 3.1: Conceptual Model of Entrepreneurship Program Outcomes for Youth...................................24Box 3.1: Summary of Outcomes for Youth in Entrepreneurship Programs...............................................25Table 3.2: DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation Youth Entrepreneurship Program Logic Model......................................................................................................................................................... 26Table 3.3: Outcome Measures for Youth Entrepreneurship Programs......................................................31
References............................................................................................................................................... 37
Youth Entrepeneurship Programs
Executive Summary
The primary purpose of this report is to provide a revised logic model and measurable outcomes
for the youth entrepreneurship programs of the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation
(DCCYIT). The logic model was revised from the initial draft of the Board of Directors of DCCYIT using
the framework and terminology developed by the United Way Foundation of America.1 The report
combines both an academic and applied research perspective on youth development, and is intended to
complement, not duplicate in any way, the work that has already been completed by the DCCYIT in this
program area.
The report focuses on youth entrepreneurship and contains a brief overview of the research
literature that informs our conceptualization of the logic model and proposed outcomes. The proposed
outcomes cover a range of domains. Valid measures may differ by age and by the purpose of the
program. This report can be used as a tool by individual programs to determine which outcomes and
measures are most pertinent.
We recommend that funders and practitioners embrace modest expectations for some of these program outcomes; no single program strategy can accomplish all of the outcomes that these programs have been implemented to address. Also, though progress made can be substantial
over the long-term, expectations should be tempered regarding immediate change for any one outcome.
We urge programs of the DCCYIT to track appropriate outcomes in order to assess program
effectiveness. This process should help to improve program quality.
The outcomes identified here are not exhaustive, and they can be measured in many ways. The
indicators we have suggested range from simple to advanced assessments. What is easiest to document
may not be the most meaningful and accurate measure. In addition, outcome monitoring must take into
consideration the issues regarding the different data collection strategies required for children. A large
part of the decisions regarding which outcomes are monitored will depend on this factor as well as the
costs associated with the various alternatives.
Youth Entrepreneurship ProgramsThe nine youth entrepreneurship programs of the DCCYIT have varying degrees of
entrepreneurial activities, but all of them provide career, vocational and personal development
experiences for youth between the ages of 12 and 21. Although some of the programs target specific
demographic groups (e.g., disabled youth, low-income youth, minority youth, high school dropouts, single
mothers age 14-21), these programs share at their core the desire to prepare adolescents for a
productive and independent adulthood. Several outcomes for programs in this area may be used by the
DCCYIT for performance tracking. Initial outcomes focus primarily on changes in participants’ knowledge
1 United Way of America (1996). Measuring Program Outcomes: A Practical Approach. Alexandria, VA: United Way of America Press. See glossary of outcome measurement terms for details.
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
3
and attitudes. Intermediate and longer-term outcomes are related to new skills acquired, educational and
economic achievements, and positive behaviors.
Initial outcomes for youth in entrepreneurship programs are expected to include increases in knowledge
and changes in attitudes with regard to the following:
Entrepreneurship
Work readiness and employability
Civic engagement
Interpersonal skills
Academics
Intermediate/longer-term outcomes for youth in youth entrepreneurship programs include increases in:
Life skills
o Problem-solving skills
o Interpersonal communication skills
o Technology skills
Employability and work readiness
Employment and earnings
Academic achievement
Educational Attainment
Positive interpersonal relationships
Civic engagement
Health status
Reduction in risky behaviors
o Low rates of youth crime and delinquency activities
o Fewer arrests
Positive psychological well-being
o Low rates of depression, anxiety and other mental disorders
o High rates of optimism and positive sense of self
We have selected these outcomes using a combination of theory and pragmatism. Many of these
outcome measures have established scientific validity and reliability, and are sturdy enough to provide
guidance to the practitioners of DCCYIT funded programs who wish to use them for assessment.
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
4
Glossary of Outcome Measurement Terms2
Inputs are resources that are dedicated to or consumed by programs. Examples include facilities, staff
time, volunteer time, money, and supplies. Inputs also include constraints such as laws and regulations.
Activities are what the program actually does, using inputs, in order to fulfill its mission. For example,
providing classes for youth in order to disseminate knowledge/information about job preparation skills, or
providing entrepreneurship activities for youth.
Outputs are the direct products of program activities. They are usually measured by the amount of work
accomplished, for example, the number of entrepreneurship classes taught, or the number of youth who
participated in vocational activities.
Outcomes are benefits for the people served by the program during or after participation. Outcomes
include changes in knowledge, skills, attitudes, or behavior, and can be divided into three categories:
Initial outcomes are the first changes for participants, and are very closely influenced by the
program. Initial outcomes are often changes in knowledge, attitudes, or skills. For example, an initial
outcome for youth who participate in an entrepreneurship class might be an increase in knowledge about
the requirements for the establishment of a new business.
Intermediate outcomes are the step between initial outcomes and longer-term outcomes. They
can be changes in behavior that result from the acquisition of new knowledge and skills. To follow from
the previous example, an intermediate outcome might be that youth are establishing their own businesses
or are self-employed.
Longer-term outcomes are the ultimate outcomes a program wants to achieve. They can be
changes in participants’ condition or status. For example, if an intermediate outcome is that youth are
establishing their own businesses, a longer-term outcome might be that youth are employed have a
sense of mastery and self-reliance, and are economically independent.
Indicators are used to help a program know whether the desired level of inputs, activities, outputs, and
outcomes are being achieved. They are observable, measurable changes, and they must be
unambiguous. For example, terms such as “adequate” and “substantial” (i.e., “participants show
substantial improvement”) are not specific enough, but finding a change in the number and percent of
participants achieving an outcome is specific and measurable.
2 United Way of America (1996). Measuring Program Outcomes: A Practical Approach. Alexandria, VA: United Way of America Press.
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
5
YOUTH ENTREPRENEURSHIP PROGRAMS
Introduction
This section of the report provides revised logic models and outcomes for youth in
Entrepreneurship Programs. We describe why and how youth program interventions focused on
entrepreneurship and vocational training are important for adolescent development. We also describe the
pathways through which entrepreneurial and vocational training impact youth development, as well as the
outcomes that are most likely to be affected by such intervention programs. This theoretical review
provides a basis for the identification of outcomes for entrepreneurship and vocational programs that can
be tracked and monitored over time by the DCCYIT.
Background
The research on school-to-work transitions and youth entrepreneurship has consistently
demonstrated the usefulness and importance of job-readiness and vocational programs for youth
development.3,4 Data show that about 50 percent of high school graduates continue on to college, and
that 25 percent of those that do, actually obtain college degrees.5 Without any goals or sense of what is
required to achieve such goals, many young people end up jobless or in low-wage jobs with little
advancement opportunities. It is important for youth to be able to recognize and to create opportunities
and to be prepared for them when presented. Increasingly, policy-makers have also recognized the need
for youth to attain employment- readiness skills, an education that covers basic skills and prepares youth
for work. Such initiatives as the Future Entrepreneurs of America Act 6, and the passage of the School-to-
Work Opportunities Act 7, have also been introduced to empower youth. Other relevant policy initiatives of
the school-to-work transition include Education for All Handicapped Children Act, Rehabilitation Act, Carl
D. Perkins Vocational Education Act, and the Job Training and Partnership Act (JTPA).8
According to the Census Bureau’s Current Population Survey data, unemployment rates for youth
are much higher than rates for other age groups. Fourteen percent to 20 percent of youth aged 15-19 are
currently unemployed. Low-income youth as well as Black and Hispanic youth also tend to have much
higher unemployment rates.9 DCCYIT youth entrepreneurship programs address this unemployment,
and work-readiness issues through training and preparing youth for work.
3 National Research Council (1998). Protecting Youth at Work. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.4 Kourilsky, M.L., & Esfandiari, M. (1997). Entrepreneurship education and lower socioeconomic black youth: An empirical investigation. The Urban Review, 29(3), 205-215.5 Panel on High-Risk Youth. (1993). Losing generations: Adolescents in high risk settings. Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.6 The Future Entrepreneurs of America Act (H.R. 1331) was introduced in the 106th Congress to promote entrepreneurship education in grades 7 through 12.7 The School-to-Work Opportunities Act was passed in 1994 with the goal of reinvigorating entrepreneurship and vocational education programs which include coops, youth apprenticeships, and mentoring programs in which students participate in paid employment.8 Lowry, C. M. (1990). Helping at-risk youth make the school-to-work transition. ERIC Digest. Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Career and Vocational Education.9 U.S. Department of Labor. Report on the Youth Labor Force. Revised, November 2000. Washington, D.C.: Author.
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
6
The nine youth entrepreneurship programs of the DCCYIT have varying degrees of
entrepreneurial activities, but all of them provide career, vocational and personal development
experiences for youth between the ages of 12 and 21. Although many of the programs target specific
demographic groups (e.g., disabled youth, high school dropouts, low-income youth, single mothers aged
14-21), these programs share at their core the desire to prepare adolescents for productive adulthood.
DCCYIT programs provide opportunities and supports that help its participants gain the competencies
and knowledge needed to make a successful transition from school to employment or self-employment.
These experiences form a basis of knowledge about the function and operation of a business, help young
people develop new attitudes towards business and some level of familiarity and comfort with the
business environment. In addition to providing youth with the tools and skills needed to start their own
businesses or to find gainful employment, many of the programs have the goal of empowering youth by
enabling them to provide needed goods and services to the distressed, underserved neighborhoods in
which they live. DCCYIT programs provide a combination of training and employment opportunities for
youth, such as business start-up training and apprenticeships. They offer youth opportunities to work and
interact with caring adults in professional settings. Detailed summaries of these programs are provided in
Table 3.1.
Why and how are youth entrepreneurship and vocational programs important for youth development?
The existing research, though limited, shows that school-to-work, entrepreneurship and
vocational programs provide a variety of opportunities for youth.10 The research findings on the impact of
such programs on youth are few, and many programs have met with mixed success. 11 There is evidence
however, that if these programs are well organized, they can work to positively benefit youth. While
anecdotal information is available on the effectiveness of many entrepreneurship programs, rigorous
evaluations of the effects of entrepreneurship program participation on youth have yet to be conducted.
However, it is clear that these programs provide many opportunities for young people: for example, they
provide an environment for youth to interact with caring adults in actual work settings; they incorporate
training and on-the-job learning experiences; and they focus on the present employment needs in young
people’s lives, as well as on long-term career and life goals. Youth entrepreneurship interventions also try
to nurture other skills in youth, including leadership skills (e.g., planning and implementing projects,
positive risk-taking, and problem-solving), self-esteem and efficacy (a sense of being able to make a
difference), and teamwork.
As stated above, few evaluations of entrepreneurship programs have been conducted. However,
there have been rigorous evaluations of other employment initiatives targeted towards youth. Many of the
DCCYIT have activities that are vocational or employment-based, so we feel that these studies are
relevant to the DCCYIT programs. It is important to note, for example, that vocational educators have
10 Kourilsky & Esfandiari, 1997.11 Rasheed, H.S. (2000). The Effects of Entrepreneurial Training and Venture Creation on Youth Entrepreneurial Attitudes and Academic Performance. College of Business Administration, University of South Florida: Florida.
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
7
come to recognize that starting a business is a natural outgrowth of vocational skills training.12 There are
also longitudinal studies that have examined short-term and early adult outcomes of adolescent
employment. Experiences from the field have shown that youth who are involved in vocational and
entrepreneurial activities through programs or in education settings may experience a variety of positive
outcomes:
Improvements in academic performance . Early evidence from New York City’s Career Magnet
Schools13 indicates that the schools give students a career focus and improve their achievement in
core subjects including reading and math.14 Similar evidence of improved grades was found in other
school-based programs.15
Increased problem-solving ability .16
Educational expectations . Students participating in the Youth Incentive Entitlement Pilot Projects had
a higher percentage than those in a comparison group reporting that they expected to finish high
school. However, the same proportion of youth in comparison and program groups reported that they
expected to attend a post-secondary institution.17
Educational attainment . Youth employment appears to be a predictor of high school graduation,
however, it is not clear if this relationship is causal or if people who are highly motivated tend to work
while in high school.18 Studies evaluating the effect of program participation on student educational
attainment outcomes have had mixed findings, yet some are able to positively impact high school
graduation, GED attainment and/or college enrollment.19 It is possible that programs increasing
employment among youth may have no effect or even a negative effect on educational attainment
outcomes. Several studies indicate a positive relationship between moderate amounts of work (20
hours per week or less), and higher levels of subsequent educational attainment. 20
School attendance . School-to-work and vocational programs have been effective in increasing
school attendance. 21
12 Ashmore, M.C. (1990). Entrepreneurship in vocational education. In Entrepreneurship Education: Current Development, Future Promises. Westport, CT: Quorum Books.13 Crain, R. Heebner, A. & Si, Y.P. (1992, April). The Effectiveness of New York City’s career magnet schools: An evaluation of ninth grade performance using an experimental design. Berkeley, CA: National Center for Research in Vocational Education.14 Jobs for the Future. (1995). Promising Practices. A Study of ten school-to career programs. Cambridge, MA: Author.15 Elliot, M.N., Hanser, L.M., & Gilroy, C.L. (2000). Evidence of positive student outcomes in JROTC career academies. Santa Monica, CA: RAND; Hughes, K., Baily, & Mechur, M.J. (2001). School-to-work: Making a difference in education. New York: Institute on Education and the Economy, Teacher’s College, Columbia University.16 Leffert, N., Sairo, R.N., Blyth, D.A., & Kroenke, C. H. (1996). Making the case: Measuring the impact of youth development programs. Minneapolis, MN: The Search Institute.17 Farkas, G., Sit, D., Stromsdorfer, E., Trask, G., & Jerret, R. (1982). Impacts from the Youth Incentive Entitlement Pilot Projects: Participation, work, and schooling over the full program period. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation; Farkas, G., Olsen, R., Stromsdorfer, E., Sharpe, L., Skidmore, F., Smith, D., & Merrill, S. (1984). Post-program impacts of the Youth Incentive Entitlement Pilot Projects. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation.18 D’Amico, R. (1984). Does employment during high school impair academic progress? Sociology of Education, 57, 152-164; U.S. Department of Labor (2000, November). Report on the Youth Labor Force. Washington, D.C.: Author.19 Jekielek, et al. (2001).20 Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2000). The relationship of youth employment to future educational attainment and labor market experience. In Report of the Youth Labor Force. US Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. http://www.bls.gov/opub/rylfhome.htm21 Valiquette, E. (1998). State Strengthening Community Project Overview. Available (On-line) http: www. Reeusda.gov/4h/cyfar/stst/ctcom5ov.htm; Kemple, J.J. & Snipes, J.C. (1999). Career academies: Building career awareness and
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
8
Practical skills . Such programs also improve skills in teamwork, problem-solving, money
management, decision-making, personal responsibility and public speaking.22
Growth in the development of leadership .23
Job readiness . Evaluations of entrepreneurship and vocational programs have shown that such
programs can contribute to positive outcomes among youth, including life skills, employment
readiness and skills.
Improvements in student’s knowledge of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial attitudes .24 The New
Youth Entrepreneur is an experience-based program for middle and high school age youth with a
curriculum that is anchored by core entrepreneurship concepts including opportunity recognition, the
marshaling of resources, and initiating a business venture in the face of risk. Programs such as this
have been known to enhance self-esteem and build positive attitudes towards entrepreneurship
among youth.25
Short-term economic advantages . Programs that provide employment to those who would not be able
to find employment are important. Findings on the short-term and long-term earnings and
employment effects of evaluated employment initiatives are mixed.26 However, clear evidence exists
that programs are able to increase short-term and long-term employment and earnings for various
disadvantaged subgroups, although such outcomes vary by program and by subgroup.27
Consistent gains in factual knowledge related to the actual experience .28 This experience encourages
young people to think about their future occupational goals as well as encourage reflection on issues
of greater significance for vocational development.29
Social development . Such programs have been know to contribute to social development and
maturity (e.g., a sense of social responsibility and political efficacy). 30 The performance of work place
tasks, in cooperation with adults, can promote a sense of contribution, being “grown up” and
egalitarianism.31
work-based learning activities through employer partnerships. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation; Cave, G. & Quint, J. (1990). Career Beginnings impact evaluation: Findings from a program for disadvantaged high school students. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation; Elliot, M.N., Hanser, L.M., & Gilroy, C.L. (2000).22 Valiquette (1998).23 Hamilton (1990).24 Walstad, W.B. & Kourilsky, M.L. (1996). The findings from a national survey of entrepreneurship and small business. Journal of Private Enterprise, 11(2), 21-32.25 Ibid.26 Jekielek, S., Hair, E., Moore, K., & Cochran, S. (2001). Employment initiatives and youth development: A synthesis. Draft Report prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, DC: Child Trends; Panel on High Risk Youth (1993).27 Schochet, P.Z., Burghardt, J., & Glazerman, S. (2000). National Job Corp study: The short-term impact of Job Corps on participants’ employment and related outcomes. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor; Burghardt, J., Schochet, P.Z., McConnell, S., Johnson, T., Gritz, R.M., Glazerman, S., Homrighausen, J., & Jackson, R. (2001). Does Job Corps work? Summary of the National Job Corps Study. Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, Inc; Farkas, et al. (1984); Kemple, J.J., Poglinco, S. & Snipes, J.C. (1999). Career academies: Building career awareness and work-based learning activities through employer partnerships. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation; Cave, G., Bos, H., Doolittle, F., & Toussaint, C. (1993). Jobstart: Final report on a program for school dropouts. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation.28 Hamilton, S. (1990). Apprenticeship for Adulthood. New York: Free Press.29 Mortimer, J. T., & Finch, M.D. (1995). Work, family and adolescent development. Annals of Child Development , 11, 131-166.30 Hamilton (1990).31 Mortimer, et al. (1996).
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
9
Enhanced social psychological development (self-esteem, ego development, self-efficacy) . Such
programs can not only help students see the relevance of what they are studying, but also helps them
gain the self-confidence many youth lack though their capability to accomplish tasks.32
Improvements in interpersonal relationships . Such programs can reduce the negative influence of
peers by exposing young people to constructive adult peer groups.33
Perceived health status . Early evidence from the National Job Corp program indicates that program
participants had significantly fewer reports of being in poor or fair health.34
In sum, there is substantial evidence that entrepreneurship, school-to-work and vocational
programs can positively influence youth development. Such programs can promote positive economic,
intellectual, social and psychological outcomes. These types of programs can have positive influences on
academic success as a result of “hands-on” experiences which help build self-esteem, feelings of self-
efficacy, leadership skills, interactions with others, and promoting an overall decrease in problem
behaviors.35 Youth entrepreneurship programs can also encourage career exploration, decrease overall
youth unemployment, and improve self-confidence.36 Although there is evidence programs have been
able to improve youth outcomes, much of the evidence of the effectiveness of past evaluated programs in
doing so is mixed. That is, the evaluated programs vary in their effectiveness in improving outcomes of
their youth and young adult participants in comparison to non-participants, and these programs vary in
their activities and in their target populations. It is also important to emphasize the point that longitudinal
youth employment studies can demonstrate a predictive relationship between such programs and youth
outcomes, but cannot prove causality.
Prior research: A framework for assessing the relationship between entrepreneurship programs and youth outcomes
What are the pathways through which entrepreneurship may be influenced?
The question of how youth entrepreneurship and job-readiness interventions affect adolescent
development is embedded within a broader set of issues about the nature of youth development, and the
growth of competence and responsibility during this phase of life.37 Employed teens may feel themselves
to be more dependable and responsible than those who are not employed and are perceived to be more
independent. 38 In general, vocational education during adolescence has generally been felt to be a
32 Lerman, R.I. (1999). Improving links between high schools and careers. In D.J. Besharov (Ed.), America’s Disconnected Youth: Towards a Preventative Strategy. Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, CWLA Press.33 Lerman, R. (1996). Building hope, skills, and careers: Making a U.S. youth apprenticeship system. In I. Garfinkel, J. Hochschilld, & S. McLanahan (Eds.), Social Policies for Children (pp.136-172). Washington DC: The Brookings Institute.34 Burghardt, et al. (2001).35 Leffert, et al. (1996). 36 Leffert, et al. (1996).37 Steinberg, L. & Cauffman, E. (1995). The impact of employment on adolescent development. Annals of Child Development , 11, 131-166.38 Brown, B. (2001). Teens, jobs and welfare: Implications for social policy. Washington, DC: Child Trends.
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
10
character-building exercise, and youth who work during this phase of life evidence changes in domains
such as self-reliance, self-esteem, and practical knowledge, while showing reductions in problem
behaviors such as delinquency and alcohol use. There are three major avenues through which potential
entrepreneurship may be influenced: self-perception as a potential entrepreneur; educational preparation;
and socialization.
Self Perception as a Potential Entrepreneur: One avenue through which entrepreneurship may be
encouraged among youth is through the creation of positive perceptions of entrepreneurship. Once young
people perceive themselves as having the potential to be an entrepreneur, the foundation for becoming
an entrepreneur is laid. Social psychological models39 have emphasized that a necessary preexisting
condition for becoming an entrepreneur is to be prepared to accept an opportunity. Some researchers
have found that preparation is the key element for developing potential entrepreneurs because
opportunities can be seized by individuals who are prepared to seize them. 40 One pathway, therefore, for
increasing the number of entrepreneurs is to increase the pool of youth who see themselves as “potential”
entrepreneurs. The supply of entrepreneurs can, therefore, be strongly affected by providing youth at
early ages with positive and self-enabling perceptions about their potential to be an entrepreneur. This
supports the realization that entrepreneurship may be feasible as well as personally and socially
desirable. 41
Educational Preparation: Entrepreneurship education is important at the pre-college ages and is
an important avenue for achieving impacts on potential entrepreneurs.42 Such programs provide a
business-management –oriented curricula and “hands-on” experience. The participants often construct
their own knowledge, make decisions, and bear the consequences of their decisions; to enable these self-
actuated processes, students are often guided through firsthand, real-world entrepreneurship experiences
by an instructor, who takes on a facilitator roles for the curriculum.43 Models of entrepreneurial potential
emphasize that education improves the perceived feasibility of entrepreneurship by increasing
knowledge, building confidence, and promoting self-efficacy 44. Such education and exposure also
improves the perceived desirability for entrepreneurship by showing youth that this activity is highly
regarded and socially desirable. When conducted at younger age groups in a supportive environment, it
increases youth interest in entrepreneurship, their preparation for it, and enhances self esteem.45 This
39 Shapero, A. & Sokol, L. (1982). Social dimensions of entrepreneurship. In C. Kent, D. Sexton, & K. Vesper (Eds). The encyclopedia of entrepreneurship (pp. 72-90). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 40 Krueger, N.F. & Brazeal, D.V. (1994). Entrepreneurial potential and potential entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 18(2), 91-104.41 Walstad & Kourilsky (1996).42 Ibid43 Ibid.44 Krueger & Brazeal (1994).45 Kourilsky, M.L. (1995). Entrepreneurship education: Opportunity in search of curriculum. Business Education Forum, 50(10), 11-15.
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
11
educational exposure is particularly important for at-risk and disadvantaged youth since in many cases it
provides entrepreneurial role models and opportunities to prepare youth to start a business. 46
Socialization: Career theories 47 emphasize that socialization plays an important role in
contributing to entrepreneurial careers. The schooling years provide a key opportunity to introduce
students to entrepreneurship as a career option and as an alternative to more traditional occupations.48
Socialization and education in entrepreneurship may therefore be of great value because they highlight
career options that may not be usually realistically considered. For at-risk youth, it may develop the skills,
knowledge, and attitudes that make youth more productive citizens, regardless of what occupation is
eventually chosen.49
DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation- Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
Youth Entrepreneurship Conceptual Model
Youth entrepreneurship and vocational education programs are built on validated models derived
from learning theory and based on the premise that education can be used as an intervention tool to
influence youth attitudes toward entrepreneurship as a career option.50 While research in this area is
limited, the foundation for the design of entrepreneurship and vocational programs are grounded in the
notion that if students can improve their motivation to achieve, their locus of control and self-esteem, as
well as demonstrate creativity, the more likely they are to avoid self-destructive behaviors such as teen-
age pregnancy, drug-abuse, violence and gang participation.51 Therefore, to be effective in preparing
youth for a changing society, vocational education and entrepreneurship education must be
complementary. Such programs offer students an incentive for thinking creatively about an industry, and
broadening their understanding of career opportunities.52 Entrepreneurship and vocational education
therefore provide students with the opportunity to learn that (1) although a job may be successfully
accomplished one day by performing a given set of tasks, different skills and strategies may be required
to tackle a new set of tasks the next day; and (2) because businesses are always changing, workers need
to find new ways to do a given job or new ways to do a given job better.53
The conceptual model that provides a simple framework of how program participation may lead to
positive outcomes is provided in Figure 3.1. As aforementioned, evidence exists that many program
goals are able to be achieved through the delivery of key training and services to youth and young adults.
46 Development Associates, Inc. (1993). Awareness and attitudes of minority youth and young adults towards business ownership. Report of the Minority Business Development Agency, U.S. Department of Commerce.47 Dyer, W.G. (1994). Toward a theory of entrepreneurial careers. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 19(2), 7-21.48 Kourilsy (1995).49 Walstad & Kourilsky (1996).50 Rasheed (2000).51 Ibid.52 Eric Clearinghouse on Adult Career and Vocational Education. (1991). Vocational Education and Small Business Development. Digest No.118. (On-line) Available: www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed338899.html53 Ashmore, M.C. (1989). The power of entrepreneurial vision. Vocational Education Journal, 64(8), 28-29.
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
12
As is outlined in the conceptual model, DCCYIT youth entrepreneurship programs provide entrepreneurial
training, vocational training, employment preparation and career services, academic support, and
opportunities to work with community business leaders and workers in a given field through shadowing
and mentoring relationships, and hands-on work experience. Through the provision of these services,
youth may be enabled to increase their 1) knowledge of how to start a business; 2) tools for searching,
gaining, and maintaining employment; 3) work readiness skills and employability; and, 4) educational
credentials and basic academic preparedness necessary for working successfully.
What youth outcomes are most often influenced by entrepreneurship and vocational programs?
There are a limited number of studies that have examined outcomes for youth in
entrepreneurship and vocational programs, although many proponents of vocational education have
argued that such experiences are generally positive for adolescents. The limited number of experimental
studies in this area makes it difficult to draw definitive conclusions, however several domains that may be
influenced by such programs can be identified. In an effort to identify outcomes for youth that may be
influenced, we also borrow extensively from the literature on work and adolescent development. The
outcomes that we have identified may be short term or longer term in nature for youth.
Entrepreneurial Skills
Some studies have indicated that entrepreneurial training among youth can change the
psychological tendencies and propensities associated with business ownership.54 Students receiving
entrepreneurial training have been found to have significantly higher motivation to achieve, a higher
sense of personal control, a higher self-esteem, are more innovative, have more personal control and
higher achievement motivation. Studies have also show that actually starting a business as well as
experiencing entrepreneurial education increases creativity in students.55
Job-Readiness Skills
Research findings concerning work and practical skills indicate that young people may learn
practical skills and work habits from vocational programs as well as exposure to work. These are often
skills that are not usually acquired in schools, and include the development of interpersonal
competencies-a stronger sense of personal responsibility, learning how to deal with customers, how to
get along with co-workers, how to follow directions—and those involving knowledge of the world of work,
such as being able to find a job.56 Findings concerning work and money management are mixed.
Although some studies have shown that exposure to work may help speed the development of knowledge
54 Rasheed (2000).55 Walstad & Kourilsky (1996). 56 Steinberg & Cauffman (1995).
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
13
about money management and personal finances,57 in some cases, such wages may be spent on drugs
and alcohol.58
In the 1990s, the U.S. Department of Labor sponsored the Secretary’s Commission on Achieving
Necessary Skills (SCANS) to define the skills needed for employment, and propose acceptable levels of
proficiency.59 The development of these necessary skills among youth has become the focus of many
entrepreneurship programs. Work entails an interplay among a three-part foundation and five
competencies. The three-part foundation consists of basic skills, thinking skills, and personal qualities:
Basic Skills : Reading, writing, performing arithmetic and mathematical operations, listening
and speaking.
Thinking Skills : Thinking creativity, making decisions, solving problems, visualizing, knowing
how to learn and reasons.
Personal Qualities : Displaying responsibility, self-esteem, sociability, self-management,
integrity and honesty.
The five competencies are:
Resources : The ability to identify, organize, plan and allocate resources (e.g., time, money,
materials, facilities and human resources).
Interpersonal skills : The ability to work with others (e.g., leadership, negotiation, work with
diversity).
Information : The ability to acquire and use information (e.g., acquire and evaluate
information, organize and maintain information).
Systems : The ability to understand complex relationships (e.g., to understand systems,
monitor and correct performance, improve and design systems).
Technology : The ability to work with a variety of technologies (e.g., select technologies, apply
technology to task).
At this point, it is still too early to determine the success rate of programs that have attempted to achieve
these outcome among youth in their programs.60 However, efforts in this direction are promising.
Economic Outcomes and Subsequent Labor Market Experience
Some studies have indicated that there is a positive relationship between youth employment and
subsequent labor market experiences. Outcomes in this domain are mainly short-term and are often
visible in the first few years immediately following graduation from high school.61 There is ample evidence
57 Jonston, Bachman, & O’Malley (1982).58 Greenberg, E. & Steinberg, L. (1986). When teenagers work: The psychological and social costs of adolescent employment. New York: Basic Books.59 U.S. Department of Commerce (2000). What work requires of schools: A SCANS report for America 2000. The Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, U.S. Department of Labor.60 Lerman (1999).61 Steinberg & Cauffman (1995).
Youth Entrepeneurship Programs
that adolescents who acquire more work experience earn higher wages in subsequent years.62 For
example, the lack of work experience among young black males accounts for about half of the differences
between their wages and those of young white males, five years after graduating from high school.63
Other research has also pointed to the fact that first school year employment is associated with short-term
economic advantages, both with respect to earnings and the likelihood of employment immediately
following high school.64 In a recent study that assesses the impact of the Job Corp program, it was also
found that youth in this program generated employment and earnings gains. Impacts were found to be
similar for both males and females.65
Psychological Well-Being
There are inconsistent findings on the effects of work and job-readiness programs on youth
feelings about themselves and their competencies. Some studies report that work negatively affects self-
reliance and self-esteem,66 while others report different and positive effects for males and females.67
Several writers have suggested the impact of such programs on adolescent psychosocial development
may vary as a function of the characteristics of the adolescent’s employment.68 Some findings also show
that adolescent’s sense of mastery is influenced by the quality of work, although effects are different for
males and females. 69
Education and Academic Achievement
The early research on the effects of working on the educational outcomes of adolescents in
school has yielded mixed findings.70 In some cases, such programs reduce study time and school
aspirations for youth. 71 In other cases, such work programs have been found to foster high achievement
orientation in boys.72 Findings from the High School and Beyond73 study for example have shown that
work during the last years of high school affects such outcomes as going to college, high school
attendance, parent involvement, senior educational aspirations, and standardized test scores. Of 22
62 Pergamit, M.R. (1995). Assessing school to work transitions in the United States. Discussion Paper. Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (Report: NLS 96-32).63 Mortimer, J.T., Finch, M.D., Ryu, S., Shanahan, M.J., & Call, K.T. (1996). The effects of work intensity on adolescent mental health, achievement and behavioral adjustment: New evidence from a prospective study. Child Development, 67(3), 1243-1261.64 Mortimer et al. (1996).65 Burghardt (2001).66 Steinberg, L., Fegley, S. & Dornbusch, S. (1993). Negative impacts of part-time work in adolescence: Replication and elaboration. Developmental Psychology, 17, 304-313.67 Yamoor, C. & Mortimer, J. (1990). Age and gender differences in the effect of employment on adolescent achievement and well-being. Youth and Society, 22, 225-240.68 Greenberger, E., & Steinberg, L.D. (1986). When teenagers work. New York: Basic Books.69 Mortimer et al. (1992). 70 Bachman, J. G., Bare, D.E., & Frankiew, E.I. (1986). Correlates of employment among high school seniors. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.71 Mihalic, S.W. & Elliott, D. (1997). Short and long term consequences of adolescent work. Youth and Society, 28(4), 464-498.72 Stevens, C.J., Ruchtell, L.A., Ryu, S., & Mortimer, J.T. (1992). Adolescent work and boys’ and girls’ orientation to the future. The Sociological Quarterly, 33(2), 153-169.73 Marsh, H.W. (1991). Employment during high school: Character building or a subversion of academic goals? Sociology of Education, 64, 172-189.
Youth Entrepeneurship Programs
outcomes examined in this study, 17 were significantly affected by working; all but one of these outcomes
were negative. In a recent study that examines the influence of the Job Corps74 vocational training
program on youth, it was found that this intervention increases educational attainment. Participants in this
program exhibited improvements in literacy and numeracy skills. Involvement in this program also
increased the receipt of GED and vocational certificates, although the program had no effects on college
attendance.
Risky Behaviors
Studies of the effects of work and mental health do not find strong effects on internalized distress
for youth.75 In general, youth who are exposed to work are neither more nor less depressed than non-
workers, once pre-existing psychological states are accounted for. Drug and alcohol use has however
been found to be higher among working than non-working youth, especially among those who work long
hours. 76 Several studies suggest that working may also be associated with increases in antisocial
behavior such as aggression,77 school misconduct, and minor acts of delinquency. This behavior may
also be a consequence of menial, repetitive, unchallenging work that is done in the absence of close adult
supervision.78 In a recent study that assesses the impact of the Job Corp program on youth, it was found
that this program significantly reduces involvement with crime. Participants had reduced convictions,
incarcerations resulting from a conviction, and crimes committed.79
Social Relationships
Little research has examined the effects of adolescent work on social relationships. However,
some studies have shown that working long hours distances adolescents from their parents and results in
diminished emotional closeness. 80 However, it is difficult to know whether these findings signify that
adolescents who seek autonomy tend to self-select into jobs that require long working hours, or if working
long hours, especially in settings where the young people are working mostly with adults, actually leads to
premature independence and decreased parental control.81 Also, we cannot assume that working and
participating in a youth entrepreneurship or vocational program will lead to the same outcomes. DCCYIT
programs that have young people participate in entrepreneurial training or activities in a group setting with
peers may have somewhat different effects on social relationships. These programs may encourage
parental involvement or try to enhance parental knowledge so that they may assist their children in finding
74Burghardt, J., Schochet, P.Z., McConnell, S., Johnson, T., Gritz, R.M., Glazerman, S., Homrighausen, J., & Jackson, R. (2001). Does Job Corps work? Summary of the National Job Corps Study. Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.75 National Research Council (1998).76 Ibid.77 Ibid.78 Ibid. 79 Burghardt (2001).80 Manning, W.D. (1990). Parenting employed teenagers. Youth and Society, 22, 184-200.81 Steinberg & Cauffman (1993).
Youth Entrepeneurship Programs
employment opportunities. In contrast, it may be expected that these programs would improve parent-
adolescent relationships if parent involvement in their child’s activities is increased.
It is important to note that youth entrepreneurship and vocational programs, such as those
sponsored by the DCCYIT, try to provide enriching experiences for young people in which they are
exposed to workers in the field who are caring adults who sought to work with or volunteer to teach young
people. DCCYIT programs provide mentors and shadowing opportunities for young people. Through
these mentoring and shadowing relationships, young people will be exposed to new opportunities and will
develop their personal contacts, which are important for attaining employment. Furthermore, research
has shown that caring relationships with non-parental adults can lead to positive outcomes for youth.
Young people who seek to participate in the youth entrepreneur programs may be considered to be
motivated, so participation in the program may improve the peer networks by connecting them with other
young people who are interested in participating in productive activities, such as learning entrepreneurial,
global employment, and academic skills. Although it may be expected that peer relationships outside of
work or outside of the program may be affected by program participation, the effect that a program may
have is unclear. One study, for example, found that working had little effect on the quality or quantity of
adolescents’ time with friends. 82 Again, we cannot assume that working and participating in a youth
entrepreneurship or vocational program will lead to the same outcomes.
Youth Entrepreneurship Logic Model- Analysis and Recommendations
The Youth Entrepreneurship logic model has been revised using the framework provided by the
United Way of America83 and is theoretically driven. The DCCYIT provided us with preliminary logic
models to which we added inputs, activities, outputs, and outcomes. Additional information required to
revise the logic model was obtained from DCCYIT program descriptions. Readers are advised to refer to
the glossary of outcome measurement terms for an understanding of the terms used in the logic models.
Similar to what was done for the identification of early childhood outcomes, and out of school time
outcomes, we have used a combination of theory, research and pragmatism to guide our choice of
outcomes and measures. In these models, youth outcomes are linked to program activities, goals and
objectives. The development of outcome measures in this field of research is rudimentary at best, so we
have identified few measures that have been evaluated (not using rigorous randomized trials.) The
revised logic model for youth entrepreneurship programs of the DCCYIT is presented in Table 3.2.
Outcome Measurement
The measures selected reflect the goals of the programs. Wherever possible, we have selected
measures with established validity and reliability, and for which norms are available. While some of these
82 Greenberger et al. (1980).83 United Way of America (1996). Measuring program outcomes: A practical approach. Alexandria, VA: United Way of America Press.
Youth Entrepeneurship Programs
measures are currently being used in local and national studies, others are not. However, we recommend a wide range of measures, ranging from simple to more advanced assessments. What is easiest to document in terms of time and cost (e.g., knowledge and attitude changes concerning
youth skills, measured through the use of paper-and-pencil questionnaires) may not be the most
meaningful or the most accurate measure. For example, tracking changes in youth knowledge or attitudes
about entrepreneurship may not be as important as monitoring changes in entrepreneurial activity. We
therefore recommend outcomes that require various techniques for assessment, including standardized
tests, and youth reports of their own behaviors or attitudes. The measurement of outcomes may include
youth self-administered questionnaires, interviews with teachers, instructors and mentors, observations of
youth activities and interactions with peers/co-workers, and reports by independent observers.
Assessments of youth outcomes may include standardized tests, as well as multiple measures or sub-
scales of a single test. The more precise the measurement technique, the more valid and reliable, the
more well-known in the research literature, and usually the more costly. A description of selected outcome
measures is provided in Table 3.3.
Summary, Integration and Conclusions
The workplace represents an important setting for the development of youth. Vocational and
youth entrepreneurship programs represent an essential vehicle through which the economic self-
sufficiency of youth may be improved. Research on this topic is relatively new, and clearly further
empirical research is need to clarify some of the mixed result reported in many studies. It is challenging to
identify outcomes for performance tracking based on mixed findings. Our review of the small number of
evaluations of youth entrepreneurship programs provides preliminary support for the identification of
outcomes in the following domains: entrepreneurial skills; job-readiness; academic
achievement/performance; psychological well-being; risky behaviors; service activities; and social
relationships.
These outcome measures are consistent with the program’s overall objectives and the
mechanisms that are targeted for change. For outcome monitoring, we suggest combining information
from standardized assessment tools, staff (mentors) assessments, and participant feedback, to assess
outcomes.
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
18
Table 3.1: Summary Table of Youth Entrepreneurship Programs of the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation
Program Program Objective Activities Population Served
Type of Intervention
Length/Intensityof Intervention
East of the River Community Development Corporation
To provide entrepreneurship training and employment for youth
Summer program offers: Training and employment in the fresh
produce market
Ward 8 youth Classes Field trips Buying and selling of
produce
6 week summer program
Chinatown Service Center
To provide services to Asian immigrant families. To teach students about computer basics, maintenance. To assist students with job searches and interviews.
Training in computer basics (word processing, spreadsheet and graphic presentations and applications)
Training in computer maintenance (troubleshooting, maintaining, upgrading of personal computers and small-scale local networks)
Training in job search and interview skills
Asian immigrant families and children. Families with limited English proficiency and low financial resources Goal of 20-25 students at a time, serving 140 students over the course of a one year period
Classes in computer labs. Job Skills/Interview Skills course (4 weeks).
WVSA Arts Connection To provide youth with disabilities training in applied arts, fine arts, basic technical skills. To provide training that improves functional literacy and that helps them to master employment skills and independent living skills. To enhance parents of program participants’ capacity to support their children in finding employment. To improve academic performance and work-readiness. To support community needs.
Develop Individual Objectives Plans Training in global work behavior,
work-readiness, and technology-oriented skills.
Fine arts training Business start-up training Apprenticeships Parent involvement Mentors Follow-up career planning and
placement services Business plan development (to sell
and distribute participant artwork) Assisted employment opportunities
within the WVSA cottage enterprise.
Youth with disabilities Ages 14-21 Up to 40 youth
TrainingApprenticeships with entrepreneurs and in businessesAssisted employmentPart-time employmentOne-to-five ratio (instructor-participant)One-on-one mentors
Intense 12 week training 12 week apprenticeships and 10 week part-time employment experiences Follow-up employment services
Brain Food, Inc. To improve academic Food Venture, a small-scale youth 10-40 students Classroom lessons Academic year
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
19
Program Program Objective Activities Population Served
Type of Intervention
Length/Intensityof Intervention
performance and to increase entrepreneurial and vocational skills and knowledge about food, nutrition, and cooking. To provide youth with a sense of belonging in the program and the community.
entrepreneurial food business, offers: Hands-on training in the food
business Business planning and business
development activities
Students ages 14-18 taught by local entrepreneurs using curriculum designed to teach entrepreneurial skills Hands-on experience
Summer Year round
Covenant House of Washington
To equip at-risk youth with transferable, marketable work knowledge, skills, and experience to increase their global employability and self-employment readiness. To increase educational attainment, academic achievement, community involvement, and health and well-being. To decrease crime and violence among youth. To contribute to economic development of the Anacostia/Congress Heights community
Woodworking classes Apprenticeship programs Formal entrepreneurship training Business planning and writing classes Placement of some youth in apprenticeship programs Developing strategic business and marketing plans for the CHW woodworking enterprise
Youth in Southeast (Anacostia/Congress Heights) Youth ages 16-21
Courses Training Job placement
Year round
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
20
Program Program Objective Activities Population Served
Type of Intervention
Length/Intensityof Intervention
Marshall Heights Community Development Corporation
To improve the economic, educational, and social status of the Ward 7 community and their inhabitants. To develop and expand employment/career/ business/ entrepreneurship opportunities. To create business development opportunities. To increase access to employment support networks, employment services. To increase employment skills and to improve job readiness. To increase employment and business startups among participants. To decrease involvement in risky behaviors.
Assessment On the job training (OJT) Job shadowing mentoring Business skills development Community service Vocational skills development Job readiness training Job placement Academic support or enhancement activities Arts exposure College preparatory services Entrepreneurial exposure.
Ward 7 youth (serving youth in Lincoln Heights, Benning Terrace, East Capitol Dwellings, Stoddert Terrace, Marshall Heights neighborhoods so far) Ages 14-21 200 youth
Classes Training Mentoring Hands-on
experience
Year round
Columbia Heights Youth Club
To provide a safe, nurturing environment to youth enhancing their social, physical, and intellectual growth. To expose youth to health careers and health practitioners. To enhance reading skills, comprehension, critical thinking, verbal presentation skills. To increase high school completion, college readiness, college entrance. To increase knowledge of youth and their families about health related topics.
Focus on Health programs: Development and implementation of health promotion and/or disease prevention project. Shadowing health professional
25 youth Ages 14-18 Columbia Heights youth
ShadowingHands-on experience
Rigorous 5 week exposure programs
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
21
Program Program Objective Activities Population Served
Type of Intervention
Length/Intensityof Intervention
Lydia’s House To provide technology-based entrepreneurial training, personal development experiences. To provide students with access to technology and business support. To expose youth to career options. To increase employability, work and self-employment. To improve student self-esteem, reduce youth violence and school absenteeism, increase educational attainment into post-secondary education. To increase entrepreneurial opportunities among youth with disabilities.
Tech Zone program offers: Biz Tech: online learning system teaches entrepreneurship, information technology and workplace concepts. Technology training (basic computer literacy, resume and job preparation, operating systems, networks, hardware, computer productivity, HTML website design, internet project). Youth leadership training with a focus on school to work transition Training on the principles of economics Develop business plans
Ages 14-21 180 Youth
20 students in each training session.Classroom with computers
Two training sessions are held per quarter
Class held from 8:30-12:00 and from 6:30-8:30
Wider Opportunities for Women
To help low-income, disadvantaged young women with children achieve economic independence and equality of opportunity.To place participants in high-wage employment.
Keys to the Future program offers: Intake and assessment Skills assessment Career services Pre-vocational training Job placement, retention, follow-up services Stipends for books and college tuition Individual Development Accounts/ financial literacy training MELD/Even Start services Crisis intervention and consultation Access to T-PACE, abuse prevention and parenting program 23 hour child care program
Fort Totten area youth At-risk youth (low literacy skills, school dropouts, homeless, runaways, foster children, pregnant teenagers, offenders) Low-income single parents Young women ages 14-21 and their families Group of 50 receives different services
Individualized support T-PACE, abuse prevention program lasts for 10 weeks.
Source: Program descriptions from the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust corporation website (www.cyitc.org)
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
22
Conceptual Model of Entrepreneurship Program Outcomes for Youth
The model presented in Figure 3.1 identifies outcomes for youth participating in Youth Entrepreneurship Programs of the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation.
The large circle in the model represents program elements that are provided to youth by the various Youth Entrepreneurship programs of the DCCYIT.
The two smaller rectangles in the model represent short/intermediate and long-term outcomes for youth.
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
23
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
24
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
25
Box 3.1: Summary of Outcomes for Youth in Entrepreneurship Programs
Initial/ Intermediate
Work readiness and employability attitudes and skills
Civic engagement attitudes
Interpersonal skills
Academic attitudes and knowledge
Longer-term
Life skills
o Problem-solving skills
o Interpersonal communication skills
o Technology skills
Employability and work readiness
Employment and earnings
Academic achievement
Educational Attainment
Have positive interpersonal relationships
Civic engagement
Health status
Reduction in risky behaviors
o Low rates of youth crime and delinquency
o Fewer arrests
Positive psychological well-being
o Low rates of depression, anxiety and other mental disorders
o High rates of optimism and positive sense of self
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
26
Table 3.2: DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation Youth Entrepreneurship Program Logic Model
Bolded items are from the original DC Trust model. Non-bolded items are Child Trends’ additions.
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
27
Inputs Activities Outputs OutcomesInitial Intermediate Longer-term84
Program staff, materials, equipment, and other non-personal services
Youth ages 14-21 from low-income families
Funding, resources
Infrastructure in place (e.g., space in buildings)
Mentors
Health and business professionals (for shadowing)
Tutors/Trainers
Constraints on the program:
Language barriers
Outreach to bring youth into the program
Assessment of the needs and interests of youth in the program
Education and training to youth in how to develop and operate a small business
Connecting youth with supportive services in the community
Providing mentoring and guidance from local business leaders
Providing seed grants or micro business loans to youth for starting their own businesses
Instructing youth in personal financial planning
Entrepreneurial training
Apprenticeships/job shadowing opportunities
Classes on financial management, principles of economics
Training in research, product development, and marketing
Youth are brought into the program through outreach efforts
Youth are instructed in how to develop and operate a small business
Youth participate in mentoring sessions with local business leaders
Small business are started by youth individually or as a group
Seed grants and loans are provided to youth to start their own businesses
Youth are instructed in personal financial planning
Number of sessions conducted on entrepreneurship program activities
Number of participants served in entrepreneurship program activities; and percentage of activities attended
Number of sessions conducted on the planning and operation of a small business
Number of participants served in sessions on the planning and operation of a
In-school youth in the program:
Youth increase the hours that they are in a safe environment during out-of-school time
Out-of-school youth in the program:
Youth increase the hours that they are participating in an educational or career developmental activity
All youth in the program:
Youth participate in the planning and operation of a small business
Youth increase their knowledge of starting and operating their own business
Youth increase their knowledge of personal finance
Youth are knowledgeable about how to develop a businesses
Youth are knowledgeable about how to write a business plan
Youth are knowledgeable about financial management
In-school youth in the program:
Youth are getting better grades in school
Youth school attendance is improved
Out-of-school youth in the program:
Youth increase enrollment in GED or other education programs
All youth in the program:
Youth plan and start their own businesses
Youth career competencies are enhanced and SCANS85 skills are improved
Youth are participating more in civic life
Youth exhibit an increase in customer service skills, interpersonal communications skills
Youth exhibit an increase in employment and self-employment
Youth experience an increase in earnings
Youth experience a decrease in unemployment levels (increased employment and job retention)
Increased enrollment in GED or other educational programs
Decreased youth crime, as evidenced by contact with juvenile justice system
Increased school attendance (for in-school youth)
Improved school grades and standardized test scores (for in-school youth)
Increased school advancement from grade to grade (for in-school youth)
Decreased teen pregnancy
Youth are self-employed, develop their own strategic business, marketing plans, and start their own businesses
Youth exhibit a healthy work self-concept
Youth are economically self-sufficient
Youth are psychologically well-adjusted
Youth have improved health status
Youth possess practical skills and job readiness characteristics—--SCANS skills ( possess the knowledge, skills and experience necessary to increase their employability)
85 U.S. Department of Commerce. (2000). What Work Requires of Schools: A SCANS Report for America 2000. The Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, U.S. Department of Labor.
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
28
Inputs Activities Outputs OutcomesInitial Intermediate Longer-term
small business; and percentage of activities attended
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
29
Inputs Activities Outputs OutcomesInitial Intermediate Longer-term
Training in business planning and writing
Training and hands-on experience in specific trade or business field (health, woodworking, technology, arts)
Community service and involvement activities
On-the-job training (providing hands-on experience)
Classes on computers (word processing, etc.)
Parental involvement and training
Career/ employment services (job search, job placement, interview skills)
Classes on work concepts, employment skills (promptness, professionalism, etc.)
Academic assistance for youth in school to ensure competency in basic skills
Provision of stipends for school/ training
Number of participants attending sessions on employment activities; and percentage of activities attended
Number of sessions conducted on employment activities
Number of sessions conducted on youth employment/ entrepreneurship training activities
Number of participants served in youth employment/ entrepreneurship training activities; and percentage of activities attended
Number of youth served in sessions on business planning and writing and the development of strategic business and marketing plans; and percentage of activities attended
Number of sessions conducted on business planning and writing and the development of strategic business and marketing plans
Number of sessions conducted on computer basics, maintenance and job search and interview skills
Number of youth
Youth have knowledge of work-related concepts (professionalism, etc.)
Youth have knowledge of social networks and community resources (business networks, contacts)
Parents of participants are knowledgeable about and involved in youth activities
Youth are knowledgeable about employment opportunities in the health field, fresh produce market and other fields to which they are gaining exposure
Youth are knowledgeable about classes in computer basics, maintenance and training and job search and interview skills
Youth are knowledgeable about training opportunities in youth employment/ and entrepreneurship training activities
Youth are knowledgeable about training opportunities in technology, fine arts, business start up, follow-up career planning and placement, global work behavior, and work readiness
Youth are knowledgeable about training and employment opportunities in the fresh produce market, food, and
Youth experience an increase in basic academic skills
Youth exhibit an increase in computer skills
Youth exhibit an increase in interview skills
Youth exhibit an increase in employability/ work readiness (SCANS skills)
Youth exhibit an increase in positive risk-taking skills
Youth are increasing their associations with positive peers involved in productive activities
Youth exhibit an increase in motivation
Youth exhibit an increase in leadership skills
Youth have increased earnings (for programs offering paid training and hands-on experience)
Youth experience increased levels of employment
Youth are becoming involved in their communities
Youth are taking advantage of employment opportunities in the fresh produce market
Youth increase their use of computers, training, job search and interview skills
Youth are increasing their use of relevant support networks
Youth are developing healthy social relationships
Youth are performing academically and have improved educational outcomes
Youth exhibit reduced risky behaviors
Youth exhibit self-esteem, a sense of mastery and self-reliance
Youth complete high school
Youth are employed; employable and economically independent
Youth use the necessary channels to be used in seeking employment; and becoming self-employed
Youth use relevant job search and interview skills to obtain employment
Youth are involved in community service
Youth are preparing for college
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
30
Program activities were based on information from the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation web site (www.cyitc.org).
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
31
Table 3.3: Outcome Measures for Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
OUTCOME MEASURE DESCRIPTION
INITIAL OUTCOMESYouth gain knowledge and competency in the following domains:Entrepreneurship Enumeration of youth knowledge of entrepreneurial
principles and processes.Measures youth perception of small business; knowledge about competitive markets and government; comparisons between small and large businesses; interest in starting a business; and comparisons between small and large businesses; know how to write a business plan, conduct a market search, etc.; self report
Career service resources Enumeration of knowledge of career services resources
Measures knowledge of career services resources; self report
Finance Enumeration of youth knowledge of various facets of economics and finance
Measures personal finance knowledge, knowledge of business financial management, and knowledge of economic principles; self report
Safety Measure of perceived safet.Source: Add Health Survey
Measures feelings of safety during out-of-school hours; self report
Productive use of time Enumeration of time spent in productive activities; Source: National Household Education Survey (NHES), Maryland Study of Adolescents (MADIC)
Measures the number of hours spent in productive activities (educational, work preparation, community service, work); self report
Employment readiness (knowledge of workplace concepts)
Measure of knowledge of workplace concepts Measures how prepared they are for entering the workforce given their knowledge of workplace concepts and job expectations. Measures knowledge about steps needed to take to reach goals (work experience, ed. requirements, training); self report
Community network resources Measure of knowledge of community resources; Source: Maryland Study of Adolescents (MADIC)
Measures knowledge about community resources and knowledge of business networks; self report
Job search skills Measure of knowledge of how to conduct a job search Measures how to research jobs, prepare for interviews, fill out applications, interview techniques; self report
Community needs for goods and services
Measure of knowledge of community needs for goods and services.Source: Maryland Study of Adolescents (MADIC)
Measures knowledge of community needs for goods and services; self report
Training and employment opportunities
Measure of knowledge of training and employment opportunities
Measures knowledge of training and employment opportunities that are available; self report
Opportunities for academic support or academic enhancement
Measure of knowledge of academic support and enhancement activities opportunitiesSource: Maryland Study of Adolescents (MADIC)
Measures knowledge of academic support or enhancement activities available in a certain region; self report
Computer basics Measurs of knowledge of basic computer functioning.Source: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) Functional Information Technology Test and Computer Attitude Test (FITT)86
Measure given to 14 year olds to measure practical computer knowledge; self-administered
Social services Measure of knowledge of the availability of social services
Measures knowledge about family and social services available in a certain region (about financial aid, parenting and other courses offered, child care services, crisis services); self report
Leadership training opportunities Measure of knowledge of leadership training opportunities
Measures knowledge of leadership training opportunities; self report
Knowledge about specific field of training
Measure of knowledge about the specific field in which they are being trained
Measures knowledge about the specific field in which they are being trained (technology, health, woodworking, food produce/ markets); self report
86 Redd, Z. (2001). Computer technology skills. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.
32
OUTCOME MEASURE DESCRIPTION
INTERMEDIATE/LONGER-TERM OUTCOMESENTREPRENEURSHIP/JOB- READINESS SKILLS: Youth are developing their own strategic businesses, marketing plans, and starting their own businessesEntrepreneurship participation Measure of youth participation in entrepreneurial
activities Measures youth participation in a small business or youth business ownership; self report
Initiative Measure on Initiative.Source: Response Decision Instrument (RDI)
Measure of youth perception of initiative; self report
Motivation Measure on motivation.Source: Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI)
Measure of intrinsic motivation; self report
Self-reliance Measure of self-reliance.Source: Perceived competence scale (PCS).
Measure of perceived competence; self report
Goal setting skills Measures of goal setting.Source: Perceived competence scale (PCS).
Measure of perceived competence and goal-setting; self report
Analytical thinking skills Measures of youth perception of their analytical skills; opportunities for use of analytical skills
Self-report
Self-efficacy Measures of self-efficacy.Source: Self-Description Questionnaire (SDQ)
Measure of self-efficacy; self report
Self-concept of ability Measures of self-concept.Source: Self Perception Profile of Ability (SPPAI)
Measure of self-concept; self report
Autonomy Enumeration of youth perception of their autonomy; opportunities to be autonomous
Self report
Time management skills Enumeration of youth perception of their management skills; opportunities to manage
Self report
Leadership skills Enumeration of youth perception of their leadership skills; opportunities for use of leadership skills
Self report
Financial management skills Enumeration of youth perception of their financial management skills; opportunities for use of financial management skills
Self report
Problem-solving skills Enumeration of youth perception of their problem solving skills; opportunities for use of problems solving skills
Self report
Positive risk-taking Enumeration of youth perception of their risk-taking skills; opportunities for risk taking
Self report
Critical Thinking skills Enumeration of youth perception of their critical thinking skills; opportunities for critical thinking
Self report
Computer skills Measures of computer skills.Sources: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) Functional Information Technology Test and Computer Attitude Test (FITT)87
Measure given to 14 year olds to measure practical computer knowledge; self report
Computer use Enumeration of youth access and use of computers88: location-school, home, otherfrequency-number of days used in past week, month; purpose-homework completion, research, games, etc. type-internet, word processing, etcSource: Census October Current Population Survey (CPS)
Measure given to youth to provide information on access to and use of computers; self report
Work habits (professionalism) Enumeration of promptness, proper dress, hygiene, behavior in workplace setting
Self-report and ratings by program staff or person supervising the young person’s work in apprenticeship, internship, etc.
Mastery and Coping Measure of coping skills.Sources: Mastery and Coping Sub-scale (MCS), from the Self Image Questionnaire for Young Adolescents
Attitudinal measure of self-worth and self confidence; self report
Work experience Enumeration of youth of years or months of prior work experience
Self report of young adults
Employment Enumeration of youth of their employment status (employment status, number of months, years working or unemployed)
Self report of young adultsThe employment measures are appropriate for all adults’ aged 16 and older, regardless of school or work status.
87 Redd, Z. (2001). Computer technology skills. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.88 Redd, Z. (2001). Computer technology skills. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.
33
OUTCOME MEASURE DESCRIPTION
Job search skills (resume/cover letter writing, interviewing skills, research skills)
Enumeration of youth use of resumes, cover letters, interviews and job search skills to obtain employment
Self report of young adults
Self-employed/ business owner Enumeration of youth who are self-employed Self-report of young adultsEarnings Enumeration of youth earnings Self report of young adults (Earnings: Wages,
salary, fringe benefits gained through employment)
Productive activity Enumeration of youth currently working, in school, and/or in jobs and routine activities
Self report of young adults
PRACTICAL SKILLS- Youth Exhibit SCANS skills89
Basic Skills: Reading, writing, performing arithmetic and mathematical operations, listening and speaking; Thinking Skills: Thinking creativity, making decisions, solving problems, visualizing, knowing how to learn and reasons; Personal Qualities: Displaying responsibility, self-esteem, sociability, self-management, integrity and honesty.Basic SkillsReading Enumeration of youth beliefs about reading ability Measure of perceived ability, natural talent,
value/interest, performance, expectations; self report
Writing Enumeration of youth beliefs about writing ability Measure of perceived ability, natural talent, value/interest, performance, expectations; self report
Performing mathematical operations Enumeration of youth beliefs about mathematics Measure of perceived ability, natural talent, value/interest, performance, expectations; self report
Thinking SkillsCreativity Measure of youth beliefs about creativity; Participation
in creative activities (music, theater, and other activities)
Measure of perceived ability, natural talent, value/interest; self report
Decision making Measure of youth beliefs about decision making; Attitudes about being involved in decision-making
Measure of perceived ability to make correct decisions; self concept of ability; self report
Solving problems Measure of youth beliefs about the ability to solve problems
Measure of perceived ability to solve problems; self concept of ability; self report
Personal QualitiesResponsibility Enumeration of youth beliefs about their levels of
responsibility; management of tasks/choresMeasure of responsibility; Time log; self report
Self-esteem Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventory;Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
Measure of youth self-esteem; self report
Sociability Enumeration of youth who have difficulty working with other children; Knowledge of and respect for other groups
Self report of youth behavior
Self-management Measure of youth beliefs about their perceived self-management
Measure of perceptions of self management; self report
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT/PERFORMANCE:Youth exhibit improved academic performance and educational outcomes; complete high school and prepare for collegeEducational Attainment Educational Attainment Measure;
Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 199790 Measure assesses school enrollment status, number of years of school completed, attainment of certificates and higher degrees; school records; self report
Arts participation, skills, and knowledge
Measure of arts assessment covers participation, skills and knowledge.Source: National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP).91
From the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), measure developed to track arts skills, knowledge and exposure to arts education among school-aged youth; self report
Academic achievement Academic achievement.Source: Metropolitan Achievement Test92
An assessment of school achievement. Tests in reading, comprehensive, mathematics, and language. For grades K-12. Examiner administered; grades
Academic skills Academic skills and achievement.Source: Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills93
For K-12th graders, covers basic academic subjects and is used to measure skills of students within states.
Academic achievement Academic achievement. Covers basic subjects and used to measure
89 U.S. Department of Labor. (2000). What Work Requires of Schools: A SCANS Report for America 2000. The Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills. Washington, DC: Author.90 Redd, Z. (2001). Educational attainment. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.91 Redd, Z. (2001). Arts participation, skills, and knowledge. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.92
34
OUTCOME MEASURE DESCRIPTION
Source: Stanford Achievement Tests 9th Series edition (SAT-9 or Stanford 9)94
skills of students within states
Grade Repetition Measure of grade repetition.Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health
A survey designed to measure a wide variety of health related and other factors among adolescents in grades 7-12. Data are collected from parents, students, and schools administrators.
Grade Repetition Measure of grade repetition.Sources: National Household Education Survey (NHES);Panel Study of Income Dynamics-Child Supplement (PSID-CS).95
Data are collected from parents, students, and school administrators. Includes questions on whether a student repeated a grade in school.
Suspended/Expelled Enumeration of suspensions and expulsions. Parent/teacher/child report.School records.
School functioning School functioning.Source: Child classroom adaptation Index (CCAI)
An 11-item rating scale measuring children’s functioning and performance in the classroom. Teacher self-administered.
School Engagement School Engagement Scale.Source: National Survey of American Families (NSAF)96; Survey of Program Dynamics (SPD)
Revised scale of the Rochester Assessment Package for the National Survey of America’s Families (parent report) and the Survey of Program Dynamics (child report); for children 6 to 17 years of age; four items assess degree to which student cares about and puts effort into his or her schoolwork
Homework Completion Questions on whether the child always does his or her homework; questions on number daily and weekly hours spent on homework in each week, youth completion of homeworkSource: Rochester assessment package for school students (RAPS-S)97
RAPS-S includes a parent report variable on whether the child always does his or her homework; school engagement scales measure quality of homework and other schoolwork.
Academic Self Concept Questions on specific subject and general academic self-concept.98
Source: Harter’s Self-perception profile for Adolescents
This four-item questionnaire assesses individuals’ perceptions about the competence within a given academic domain. The scale can be used to assess academic self-concept in any academic subject (e.g., math, English, science). The responses are provided on a six-point Likert scale ranging from True to False. It has been used with children in grades 7-12, but may be adaptable. Self report
Harter’s Self-perception profile for Adolescents assesses students’ general academic self-concept. It is recommended for use with 9th to 12th graders
Suspended/Expelled Enumeration of suspensions and expulsions. Parent/teacher/child report of suspensions/ expulsions.School records.
College Preparation Measure of participation in college preparation activities and readiness
Measures participation in college preparation activities; measures steps taken to prepare for college; self report
Parental involvement in adolescent learning
Enumeration of parents who have contacted their children’s teachers of schools for any reason having to do with their children
Parent/ teacher/child interview
PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING:Youth exhibit increases in self-esteem, a sense of mastery, self-reliance and positive identity formationSocial identity Social Identity subscale.
Source: Multigroup Ethnic Identity MeasureMeasure to assess the positivity of one’s social identity
Self-esteem Measures of self-esteem.Source: Rosenberg Self- Esteem Scale
Self report
Ego identity Measure on ego identity.Source: Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status (EOM-EIS)
Measures 8 domains: Occupation, religion, politics, philosophical life-styles, friendship, dating, sex roles, and education. Has been used with adolescents, young adults, and adults.
35
OUTCOME MEASURE DESCRIPTION
Optimism Optimism scale .Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (NLSY97)
Scale measures optimism, an indicator of mental well-being. Has been used with adolescents and young adults.
Social behavior Adaptive Social Behavior Inventory.Source: Child Behavioral Checklist (CBCL)
Checklist provides profile of behavioral problems (eight or nine scales) and social competence (three scales). Provides standard scores. 100-item version of ages 2 to 3. 113-item version for ages 4 to 16 with separate norms for ages 4 to 5, 6 to 11, and 12 to 16 by gender. Parent interview.
RISKY BEHAVIORS:Youth exhibit reduced risky behaviors: drugs, alcohol use, violent behaviors, crime and delinquency
Substance Use Alcohol, tobacco, and drug use.Sources: Substance Use in the Past 30 Days Index; Monitoring the Future (MTF)
Measures six categories of self-reported health risk behaviors among adolescents: behaviors contributing to intentional and unintentional injuries: tobacco use, alcohol use, drug use, and frequency of use
Problem Behaviors Measures of problem behavior.Source: Problem Behaviors Index
Measures problem behaviors such as running away from home, damaging property, theft, and physical fights; self report
Parental Limits Measures of youth obedience (parents).Source: Breaking Parental Limits Index
Measures youth assessments of limits set in home and frequency of breaking such limits/rules; self report
Adolescent Violence Measures on adolescent violence.Source: Youth Risk Behavioral Survey
Measures general violence (fighting, hitting, etc.), school violence, weapon carrying
Delinquency Measures of delinquency.Source: The Self-Reported Delinquency Measure
Measures truancy, and participation in delinquent behavior; self report
Health status Enumeration of youth perceptions of health status; Access to health services
Measures perceived health status; self report
SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS:Youth develop healthy social relationshipsSocial relationships Measures of social relationships.
Source: Inventory of Parent and Peer RelationshipsMeasure of connectedness that assesses the quality of the social support network; self report
Peer support Peer support measures.Source: Friendship Quality Scale
Measures companionship, help/support, security, closeness; self report
Negative peer social context Peer social context measures.Sources: The Peer Orientation Scale and The Peer Delinquency Scale
Measures whether peers negatively influence them and measures peer attitudes, values, beliefs, and behavior; self report
Peer relationships Enumeration of youth who have friends and are a part of a positive social network.
Self report of youth peer behavior
Parent-child relationship Measures of parent-child relationship.Sources: Child’s Report of Parental Behavior Inventory
Lax Control subscale (56 item) of the amount of discipline and permissiveness or laxness occurring in the home. Also measures parent-adolescent conflict and connectedness. Self report.
Parent adolescent communication Measures of parent-adolescent communication.Source: The Parent-Adolescent Communication Form
Measures the emotional support that adolescents seek and receive from parents; self report
93 Redd, Z. (2001). Basic academic/cognitive skills. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.94 Redd, Z. (2001). Basic academic/cognitive skills. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.95 Redd, Z. (2001). Grade repetition. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.96 Brooks, J. (2001). School engagement. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.97 Brooks, J. (2001). School engagement. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.98 Brooks, J. (2001). Academic self-concept. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.
36
OUTCOME MEASURE DESCRIPTION
Social Skills Measures of social skills.Source: Social Skills Rating System
Measure of perceived social skills; teacher report
Adult-Youth Relationships Youth behave and relate to other youth and adults (better, slightly less well, or much less well) than other children their own agePerceived Social Support from Friends and from Family
Self report of youth behaviorSelf-reported perceived amount of support received from friends, family, teachers, and others
Conflict negotiation skills Measures knowledge of and use of conflict negotiation skills
Measures ability to use communication tools for avoiding and negotiating conflicts; self report
Resiliency Measures resiliency Measures ability to overcome difficult circumstances; self report
Social dilemmas Youth use problem-solving skills to address social dilemmas with peers
Measures children’s behavior with adults; self report
SERVICE ACTIVITIES/COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT:Youth are increasingly involved in community serviceCivic Engagement Enumeration of youth who participate in school and
community activities, community service, social and political action activities
Self report
Volunteering Enumeration of youth involved in productive activities during non-school hours
Enumeration of youth activities.Time use log. Self report
Productive Use of Non-school time An enumeration of youth involvement in productive use of non-school time
Self report
Community Involvement An enumeration of youth involvement in volunteering; community service; youth groups
Self report
Other Sources: DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation web site (www.cyitc.org). (Program Objectives).Eccles, J. Templeton, J. & Brown, B. (forthcoming). A developmental framework for selecting indicators of well-being during adolescent and young adult years. Draft Report.Networks for Youth Development. (1998). The handbook of positive youth outcomes. Second Edition. New York: Youth Development Institute, Fund for the City of New York.Ripke, M., Huston, A.C., Eccles, J., & Templeton, J. (2001). The assessment o psychological, emotional and social development indicators in middle childhood. Prepared for Conference on Key Indicators of Children’s Well-Being: Completing the Picture conference, June 14-21.Roth, J.L., Borbely, C.J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2001). Developing indicators of confidence, character, and caring in adolescents. Prepared for Conference on Child and Youth Indicators: Accomplishments and Future Directions. New York: Center for Children and Families, Teachers College, Columbia University.Stagner, M.W. & Zweig, J.M. Indicators of youth well-being: Taking the long view. Paper Prepared for Conference on Key Indicators of Children’s Well-Being: Completing the Picture, June 14-15. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute.U.S. Department of Labor. (1991). What Work Requires of Schools: A SCANS Report for America 2000. The Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills. Washington, D.C.: Author.Note: Many descriptions of outcomes scales and measures, including those from the footnoted compendium prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation, were abstracted directly from their respective websites.
37
References
Ashmore, M.C. (1989). The power of entrepreneurial vision. Vocational Education Journal, 8(64), 28-29.
Ashmore, M.C. (1990). Entrepreneurship in vocational education. In Entrepreneurship education: Current development, future promises. Westport, CT: Quorum Books.
Bachman, J. G., Bare, D.E., & Frankiew, E.L. (1986). Correlates of employment among high school seniors. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.
Brown, B. (2001). Teens, jobs and welfare: Implications for social policy. Washington, DC: Child Trends.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2000). The relationship of youth employment to future educational attainment and labor market experience. In Report of the Youth Labor Force. US Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. http://www.bls.gov/opub/rylfhome.htm
Burghardt, J., Schochet, P.Z., McConnell, S., Johnson, T., Gritz, R.M., Glazerman, S., Homrighausen, J. & Jackson, R. (2001). Does Job Corps work? Summary of the National Job Corps Study. Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.
Crain, R. Heebner, A., & Si, Y.P. (1992, April). The effectiveness of New York City’s career magnet schools: An evaluation of ninth grade performance using an experimental design. Berkeley, CA: National Center for Research in Vocational Education.
D’Amico, R. (1984). Does employment during high school impair academic progress? Sociology of Education, 57, 152-164.
Development Associates, Inc. (1993). Awareness and attitudes of minority youth and young adults towards business ownership. Report of the Minority Business Development Agency, U.S. Department of Commerce.
Dyer, W.G., Jr. (1994). Toward a theory of entrepreneurial careers. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 19(2), 7-21.
Eric Clearinghouse on Adult Career and Vocational Education. (1991). Vocational education and small business development. Digest No.118. (On-line) Available: www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed338899.html
Greenberg, E. & Steinberg, L. (1986). When teenagers work: The psychological and social costs of adolescent employment. New York: Basic Books.
Harter, Susan (1985). Manual for the Self-Perception Profile for Children. Denver: University of Denver.
Hamilton, S. (1990). Apprenticeship for adulthood. New York: Free Press.
Jobs for the Future (1995). Promising practices. A study of ten school-to career programs. Cambridge, MA: Author.
Kourilsky, M.L. (1995). Entrepreneurship education: Opportunity in search of curriculum. Business Education Forum, 50(10), 11-15.
Kourilsky, M.L., & Esfandiari, M. (1997). Entrepreneurship education and lower socioeconomic black youth: An empirical investigation. The Urban Review, 29(3), 205-215.
Krueger, N.F. & Brazeal, D.V. (1994). Entrepreneurial potential and potential entrepreneurs.
38
Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 18(2), 91-104
Leffert, N., Sairo, R.N., Blyth, D.A., & Kroenke, C. H. (1996). Making the case: Measuring the impact of youth development programs. Minneapolis, MN: The Search Institute.
Lerman, R. (1996). Building hope, skills, and careers: Making a US youth apprenticeship system. In I. Garfinkel, J. Hochschilld, & S. McLanahan (Eds.), Social Policies for Children (pp.136-172). Washington DC: The Brookings Institution.
Lerman,R. I. (1999). Improving links between high schools and careers. In D. J. Besharov (Ed.), America’s disconnected youth: Towards a preventative strategy. Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, CWLA Press.
Manning, W.D. (1990). Parenting employed teenagers. Youth and Society, 22, 184-200.
Marsh, H.W. (1991). Employment during high school: Character building or a subversion of academic goals? Sociology of Education, 64, 172-189.
Mihalic, S.W. & Elliott, D. (1997). Short and long term consequences of adolescent work. Youth and Society, 28(4), 464-498.
Mortimer, J. T., & Finch, M.D. (1995). Work, family and adolescent development. Annals of Child Development , 11, 131-166.
Mortimer, J.T., Finch, M.D., Ryu, S., Shanahan, M.J., & Call, K.T. (1996). The effects of work intensity on adolescent mental health, achievement and behavioral adjustment: New evidence from a prospective study. Child Development, 67(3), 1243-1261.
National Research Council (1998). Protecting Youth at Work. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Pergamit, M.R. (1995). Assessing school to work transitions in the United States. Discussion Paper (Report: NLS 96-32). Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Rasheed, H.S. (2000). The effects of entrepreneurial training and venture creation on youth entrepreneurial attitudes and academic performance. University of South Florida, FL: College of Business Administration.
Schinke, S.P., Cole, K., & Poulin, S.R. (2000). Enhancing the educational achievement of at-risk youth. Prevention Science, 1(1), 51-60.
Shapero, A. & Sokol, L. (1982). Social dimensions of entrepreneurship. In C. Kent, D.Sexton, & K. Vesper (Eds). The encyclopedia of entrepreneurship (pp. 72-90). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Steinberg, L. & Cauffman, E. (1995). The impact of employment on adolescent development. Annals of Child Development, 11, 131-166.
Steinberg, L., Fegley, S. & Dornbusch, S. (1993). Negative impacts of part-time work in adolescence: Replication and elaboration. Developmental Psychology, 17, 304-313.
Stevens, C.J., Ruchtell, L.A., Ryu, S., & Mortimer, J.T. (1992). Adolescent work and boys’ and girls’ orientation to the future. The Sociological Quarterly, 33(2), 153-169.
Valiquette, E. (1998). State Strengthening Community Project Overview. Available (On-line) http: www.Reeusda.gov/4h/cyfar/stst/ctcom5ov.htm.
39
Walstad, W.B. & Kourilsky, M.L. (1996). The findings from a national survey of entrepreneurship and small business. Journal of Private Enterprise, 11(2), 21-32.
Yamoor, C. & Mortimer, J. (1990). Age and gender differences in the effect of employment on adolescent achievement and well-being. Youth and Society, 22, 225-240.
40
Recommended