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Looking at tangible ways to raise motivation in struggling readers. The research has been divided into six categories: 1. Perception(s) of self and reading, 2. Resistance, 3. Barriers, 4. Home Environment, 5. Successful Interventions, 6. Best Practices
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Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 1
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers
Literature Review and References
Josiah Phillips April 28, 2010
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 2
Abstract
This literature review looks at tangible ways to raise motivation, specifically focusing on
struggling readers. In addition to raising motivation, this study seeks to identify and quantify
common attitudes these readers display.
Research reviewed is focused on six areas: 1. Perception(s) of self and reading,
2. Resistance, 3. Barriers, 4. Home Environment, 5. Successful Interventions, 6. Best Practices.
Through these areas commonalties are highlighted along with historical successful best
practices. This study focuses on these questions: What things have been tried and found
successful by educators/researchers to raise motivation in apprehensive readers? How do
successful readers approach text differently than struggling readers?
This study will help educators to identify attitudes and actions that struggling readers
display when attempting to engage in reading. Though these readers face formidable barriers
there are always ways to move past those barriers in the direction of enjoying, and
comprehending reading.
This study provides tools to educators and administrators for the sole purpose of raising
motivation in readers who have historically struggled with reading and comprehension.
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 3
Table of Contents
Title Page…………………………………………………………………..pg 1
Abstract…………………………………………………………………….pg 2
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………..pg 3
Introduction………………………………………………………………..pg 4
Literature Review………………………………………………………….pg 7
Analysis……………………………………………………………………pg 28
References…………………………………………………………………pg 34
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 4
Introduction
When the time came to narrow down a topic I thought it would be a good idea to choose
something that I am interested in currently, and would be something pertinent and relevant for
the rest of my career. Since I have been studying and teaching Language Arts/English I knew it
needed to be something along those lines. Throughout my life I have loved reading and since
this year I am teaching a reading intervention class I thought it would be good to focus my
efforts on the reading aspect of Language Arts.
This study originated from a genuine desire to see all students engaged and
comprehending what they are reading. In my own life some of my greatest memories come from
books and reading. It is safe to say that students who struggle with reading do not share these
feelings with me. The questions then were, “How do we take students from non-reading
backgrounds and instill in them a genuine want/need/desire to experience literature and reading?
How can we show them that literacy is one of their keys to success?” (National Governors
Association, 2005)
I knew this would be challenging subject. Keeping students engaged is a difficult task,
but when that task includes having them do something they don’t feel confident in it, is an even
more difficult task. Researcher Powell-Brown stated, “Teachers often note that students at risk
tend to avoid reading in their classrooms” (Powell-Brown 2006, p 84). These students who
struggle tend to avoid reading because they claim not to enjoy it.
A disconnect seems to exist in student’s and parent’s minds as to what exactly reading is.
A parent might say, “My child can read fine. It is comprehension that they struggle with.
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 5
What do these parents think reading is?” (Tovani, 2003 p. 26). This is something many people
don’t understand about reading: Reading is not simply decoding. Reading is so much more than
forming sounds, syllables and words (McCutchen, Logan, & Biangardi, 2009). This certainly is a
part of reading, but just the beginning. Reading is connecting the written word to ideas,
meanings, and making stories come alive. At its core, reading is connecting with another person.
At a point in history an author sits down and writes, or types, their creative ideas into
stories to be read, at another time, by another human being. Authors aren’t as concerned about
whether their recipients can pronounce or decode the words as they are about whether readers
get the message. Students who spend most of their time decoding words can’t focus on the story
and tend to give up.
One attitude that seemed to be persistently evident with secondary students was apathy.
“Teenage apathy serves as the new roadblock to learning” (Tovani, 2000). Why do these
students not care whether they can read? It may be that they are too embarrassed to say they
can’t read well. The answer is there are no easy answer(s) to these questions.
One possible reason for this attitude is because they lack a real world purpose for
reading. They don’t feel they are getting anything out of reading. Because they struggle with
reading it isn’t something they enjoy. In fact, most struggling readers I have read about and
worked with claim to hate reading. I don’t believe this to be true, but this is just one of the many
coping mechanisms struggling readers use on a daily basis.
Even if students don’t “love reading” they love stories (Powell-Brown, 2003). The goal
then is to get these students who are disengaged and uninterested to experience the joy that
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 6
comes from reading. This study is an attempt to highlight commonalities struggling readers
share and look for successful ways to change students who struggle with reading into students
who enjoy reading.
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 7
Literature Review
Reading. This is one word that provokes many powerful emotions and feelings both
positively and negatively. There are those who enjoy reading and comprehend at high levels,
and, there are those who do not. Students who read and comprehend at higher levels will be
more motivated to read (Whittingham, & Huffman, 2009). This is true with both adults and
adolescents. “In most schools, struggling readers fall further behind each year” (Allington,
2007).
The simple question then is: How do educators and administrators raise motivation levels
in those who do not enjoy reading and do not comprehend at high levels? This question is so
important because literature has historically been a powerful force, but its importance seems to
be fading in society today. Again, there are no simple answers to any of these questions.
“Fostering the motivation to read in children and adolescents is an elusive task for many good
researchers” (Powell-Brown, 2006).
“Do we have to read?” “This is stupid.” “I hate reading.” I’m not gonna read!” “What is
the point of reading, anyway?” “I hate books.” These are just a sample of things a teacher
(especially a reading teacher or reading specialist) will inevitably hear in his or her classroom.
Readers who are struggling and unmotivated sometimes specialize in vocalizing the fact that
they are not reading and/or in behaviors that would prevent them and others from reading
(Brozo, 1991) (as cited in Hall, 2007).
What makes struggling readers struggle? What is the definition of a struggling reader?
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 8
Do these readers share commonalities? What are tangible ways teachers and administrators can
raise motivation among students who share the traits of struggling readers? What
intervention/strategies have been used to successfully raise interest and comprehension among
these struggling readers? What things can teachers and administrators do to raise motivation in
students who struggle with reading? These are just a few of the questions this study will answer.
The research reviewed has been organized into six categories, all related to struggling
readers: 1. Perception(s) of self and reading, 2. Resistance, 3. Barriers, 4. Home Environment, 5.
Successful Interventions, 6. Best Practices. The categories (1-4) focus mainly on the reader, but
towards the end the focus shifts from the reader to the educator (5-6). There are many reasons
behind this decision.
It is crucial to understand the reader (in this case the student) and his or her environment
if they are to be helped. While researching this subject, it made sense to categorize it beginning
with the student and eventually shifting focus from the student to the teacher with the use of
successful interventions and best practices.
The rationale behind this was the importance of understanding where students are coming
from and some of the behaviors and attitudes they might share. Once the educator(s) or
administrator(s) understand the student and the background/commonalties they share, educators
can decide which method and best practices would be most effective for their students based on
their classroom and their particular demographic/school environment.
As struggling adolescent readers continue to be unmotivated, how can educators raise
motivation in students today? (Duffy-Hester, 1999) The ultimate goal of this study is to find
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 9
tangible ways to raise interest in readers who are struggling. When this is accomplished, students
will see how reading and literature can positively affect their lives. Then literature can be
enjoyed as the art form it was intended. It can inform, entertain, and at the same time bring
clarity to life.
Definition of a Struggling Reader.
Struggling readers have been long identified by numerous factors and broken into
hundreds of categories, but for the sake of uniformity and coherence in this study, they will be
defined by the commonality that they are one, or more years below their current grade level.
There could be much debate over this issue, but since the goal of this study is to look at
struggling readers and find ways to help them, this is how they will be defined for now. [More
information on this specific topic can be found in the book, Supporting Struggling Readers and
Writers] (Strickland, & Monroe, 2002).
This label (struggling reader) is one, no students want to have. Often struggling readers
get good grades and do well on assessments. However, they lack the comprehension strategies
needed to help them interpret the text (Hall, 2005).
Perception(s)
Perception has been defined as: the act or faculty of apprehending by means of the
senses, or of the mind; cognition; understanding. 2. immediate or intuitive recognition or
appreciation, as of moral, psychological, or aesthetic qualities; insight; intuition; discernment: an
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 10
artist of rare perception (www.dictionary.com).
When thinking about perception it should be noted that how students view themselves
and also how they view reading in school will directly relate to struggling reader’s performances
(Pflaum & Bishop, 2004; Hall, 2006; Weir, 1996; Donalson, & Harvey, 2007).
Research shows that students who have positive feelings towards reading are going to be
more successful than those who have negative feelings towards reading. Educators should try to
steer students away from intense negative feelings, if possible.
In a study into how children feel about themselves as readers, researchers Henk and
Melnick said this about how students view reading, “…We now know with greater certainty that
children who have made positive associations with reading tend to read more often, for longer
periods of time, and with greater intensity” (Henk & Melnick, 1995). Conversely, when students
feel negatively about reading, their achievement will suffer. Children who feel negatively about
reading will either avoid reading altogether or read with little real involvement.” These feelings
and these perceptions of self can also be traced to student’s perception(s) of school (Henk, &
Melnick, 1995; Powell-Brown, 2006; Bishop & Pflaum, 2004).
How students view school and identify with it can also be linked to their success as
readers. While looking into middle school student’s emotions Triplett says (as cited in Triplett,
2004) “McCarthey concluded that students who identify well with school and with teachers tend
to be more successful in school literacy practices and those who find their identities defined by
other aspects of their lives may not be as successful in school literacy practices” (Triplett, 2004).
According to Beers (1998) (as cited in Donaldson & Halsey, 2007) unmotivated readers
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 11
tend to have negative feelings about themselves as readers, and they won’t identify themselves
as readers. “Frequently, uncommitted and unmotivated students do not see themselves as
readers…often they receive poor grades in reading-related subjects and simply avoid reading as
much as possible” (Williams, 2001). To be successful it is important unsuccessful readers begin
to build their confidence.
Self-efficacy is something that struggling reader’s lack, which can be detrimental to their
success as readers. According to Donaldson and Harvey (2007) a student with high self-efficacy
will demonstrate higher motivation, work longer, and work harder than a student with low-
efficacy. Children who struggle often have little confidence in their ability to read, and they may
avoid reading because it produces more discomfort than pleasure (Powell-Brown, 2006).
In order to help struggling readers see themselves as readers it is important for educators
to get to know their students and their interests so they can build a relationships. When
educators get to know their students, and their interests they can find ways to connect struggling
readers to texts that would be interesting to them. This will raise motivation. “When Mitchell’s
interests (i.e. soccer, socioemotional relationships, humor) were incorporated into reading and
writing activities, Mitchell began to redefine himself as a reader and writer” (Triplett, 2004).
In conclusion, how students perceive themselves and their reading ability directly
translates to their progress and success as readers. Teachers of reading or reading intervention
classes should note the correlation between how readers view themselves and their successes.
Attempts from educators to build positive perceptions could be far reaching on students’ future
successes or failures (Triplett, 2004).
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 12
Resistance
Many students who are struggling readers will become successful at avoiding reading or
preventing others in class from accomplishing their work. It is important to find the motivation
behind these behaviors. Until educators have a sense of what precipitates off-task behavior, it is
impossible to ‘fix’ the problem (Powell, Mcintyre, & Rightmyer, 2006).
Students who feel that reading isn’t important and struggle tend to be very resistant when
it comes to participation or cooperation. This coping mechanism, of not participating, is one
used by hundreds of students in classrooms where they are expected to read. One probable
reason for this is that in addition to struggling with reading these students have had behavior
issues (Donaldson & Harvey 2007).
In addition to bringing these poor attitudes to the classroom, many don’t bring materials
to class and display learned helplessness, lack of motivation, and low self-efficacy. An important
thing to remember is that these students display these behaviors because they are struggling and
they are using this as a way to cope with this fact. There seems to be a common trend that
struggling readers bring an arsenal of excuses and many strategies to get out of reading. Poor
readers have two choices, they can improve, or they can continue to refine their coping strategies
(Brozo, 1990). The goal of the teacher is to do everything in their power to help these struggling
students improve thereby deflating the air balloon know as “coping strategies.”
One of the most common ways poor readers cope with their struggles is, according to
Brozo, (1990) to avoid eye contact. “…Poor readers coped with inability to read well by
avoiding eye contact with the teacher” (Brozo, 1990 p. 326).
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 13
The second most common coping mechanism (according to Brozo) is to engage in
disruptive behavior. The goal of both of these actions is to distract the teacher and force him/her
to spend so much time correcting the behavior they won’t call on the student for fear that the
student will disrupt the class by answering (Brozo, 1990).
The reason behind this severe disruptive behavior is not merely boredom or frustration,
but direct student resistance to the literacy instruction they were receiving according to a study
of 73 different settings in which 25% or more of the time was spent off task (Powell, Mcintyre,
& Rightmyer, 2006).
A teacher can do several things to engage these students. “Teachers need to demonstrate
that they genuinely care about poor readers and are interested in more than forcing these students
to expose their most vulnerable areas of weakness again and again in the classroom” (Brozo,
1990, p. 328).
Teachers of struggling readers need to realize that these students are resisting because
they are struggling. If teachers know that, going into the school year, and are ready for
resistance, then perhaps they can be more prepared for these semi-defiant actions when they
occur. Teachers should focus on trying to reach out to struggling readers, instead of distancing
themselves because of student misbehavior in their class. “We began to get a sense that there
were factors affecting student involvement that went beyond classroom management and
discipline policies that were related directly to the ways in which literacy was being taught”
(Powell, Mcintyre, & Rightmyer, 2006, p. 8).
Another way students will demonstrate resistance is they will choose texts that are too
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 14
easy because they know they can read it, and it isn’t as intimidating. On the other hand, they
will sometimes choose texts that are too hard for them, because they want to give the façade that
they are better readers than they really are (Gay, 1999).
The thing that is important to remember about resistance is that these students are
resisting because they are trying to find ways to cope with the fact that they struggle with
reading. What needs to happen is to build any kind of success and encourage and praise these
students every step of the way. Patience is the rule in these classrooms. Children with low self-
perceptions will function best in classrooms where patience and individual differences are not
only tolerated, but respected and valued. Additional encouragement and assistance can go a long
way (Henk & Melnick, 1995).
Barriers
Students face barriers both internally and externally, that impede with their learning.
These factors may involve home environment, their upbringing, or lack of resources and difficult
text(s) (McNamara, 2009). Teachers need to find ways to help students overcome these
barriers.
One barrier pointed out by researchers Fisher and Frey (2008) was students linking
strategies to their learning. The students they studied indicated a high interest in read alouds and
shared reading. Many times students thought that strategies were helpful, but they were unable
to link these strategies (and apply them) to their learning (Fisher & Frey 2008).
When readers who are struggling enter a class where reading is going to be the main
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 15
focus, or center of instruction, they often engage in activities that will hurt the learning
environment. These can be tactics such as severe off-task behavior(s), or letting the teacher
know that they are not reading. Some tactics will be defiant, and others will be subtle.
The unstated goal behind all their tactics would be not to read. Many readers who are
struggling use tactics such as silence, or deliberately not answering questions to try to protect
their image and the fact that they aren’t on grade level readers (Hall 2007).
One barrier that may be present is the curriculum a school chooses to use.
“Scripted literacy programs force both teachers and children to ‘obey the rules’,
to accept a lack of autonomy as necessary in exchange for higher test scores. Yet
we would argue that such programs are not neutral or innocent, but rather can
have potentially detrimental consequences for students’ engagement with literacy
and for their ability to see the importance of literacy in their lives” (Powell,
Mcintyre, & Rightmyer, 2006, p. 27).
Some students may be dealing with text(s) that are too difficult for them. A study by
Caldwell and Lauren in 2003 took successful 8th grade middle school students and gave them
three different high school texts. What they found was that even some proficient 8th grade
readers will struggle (with reading) when they get to high school by testing their interpretations
of these higher level texts (Caldwell & Lauren, 2003). This can translate to potential
comprehension problems for struggling readers especially in their transition to high school.
Another barrier that students put up is with their selection of a book to read. “Poor
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 16
readers tend to use less sophisticated strategies for book selection, such as cover art and length of
the book. Often these students frequently start reading books they do not like, or find too
difficult, avoid reading, and never seem to finish their entire book” (Williams, 2001, p. 592).
When these struggling readers are in other classrooms, they are faced with texts that are
too hard for them to read and understand. Content area teachers cannot spend the time they need
to teach them strategies to comprehend their text (Ness, 2008).
“Most struggling readers find themselves spending much of the school day in learning
environments where no theory or empirical evidence would predict any substantial learning”
(Allington, 2007, p.7). If students fit the criteria of “struggling readers” then they are going
through their day unable to read the text(s) they are expected to read. “Struggling readers need
books they can read accurately, fluently, and with strong comprehension-in their hands all day
long” (Allington, 2007, p.8). Students today aren’t reading often because the text may be too
difficult for them. Many students have trouble because textbooks are not reader friendly and
students have trouble making meaning from those texts (Mastropieri, Scruggs, & Graetz, 2003).
Text(s) also may be too difficult because students don’t spend as much time reading
today as they did before there were junior high schools and middle schools. Researcher
Humphrey (as cited in Blintz, 1997) says prior to junior high schools in the 1940s most students
had a reading period every day from first through eighth grades. Humphrey also states that
students spend less time reading today because reading is combined with English/language arts,
leaving less time for reading (Blintz, 1997).
This lack of time to read is most likely caused by the number of teachers a student has in
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 17
grades 6-12. Students may have anywhere from 10-12+ teachers at traditional middle schools
(per week). Students’ days become fragmented and learning becomes disconnected. “Perhaps
the most critical time allocation issue that schools face is the indisputable fact that some students
need more time to learn than others” (Canady, Rettig, 1995). Creative scheduling is one possible
answer to this issue of time and fragmentation due to the number of teachers students have. The
next section ‘Interventions’ discusses this idea.
The last and hopefully least common barrier is one that comes from teachers. Specifically
it is the teacher’s attitude who is teaching the class. Teachers must believe what they are
teaching is relevant and will impact student’s lives. If they don’t believe in what they are
teaching and the philosophy behind it this will be evident to the students. “We need to find out
what the purpose is behind what we do and how that relates to the goals we have for student
learning” (Roney, Brown, & Anfara, 2004).
Barriers are something all struggling readers face. Educators and administrators need to
remove as many barriers as they can while giving the students the tools they need to remove the
others.
Home Environment
What does a struggling reader’s home environment have to do with their successes or
failures as reader? Are there commonalities with home environment and student achievement?
Whether these factors are home environment, time spent reading at home, or lack of resources
some time will be devoted to looking into these factors they share and ways to help them
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 18
overcome these barriers. According to Beer’s interviews (1998), Many struggling readers do not
remember reading with a parent, and some who do remember being read to recall it as an
experience used to get them to go to sleep (as cited in Williams, 2001).
It has been found that in many cases a severe disconnect has occurred with the types of
literacy students have been exposed to and their home environment. Progress was shown in a
study by Cavoz-Kettle (2005) where types of reading were explored,. The two sides were what
young men read vs. what they wanted to read (as cited in Donaldson & Harvey, 2007). Cavoz-
Kettle learned from their study that adolescent boys tended to be more interested in non-fiction,
“real reading”, texts rather than fiction. That is why it is so important for educators to know
their students. How does their home environment correlate to their attitudes about reading?
Even though their upbringing can’t be changed, maybe there are some tangible ways to create an
attitude change?
Another huge issue struggling reader’s face is their first language, or L1. How long have
they been learning to read and speak in English? Researcher Jimenez states that if students
whose first language is Spanish and they are struggling, those difficulties will automatically
transfer to their literacy skills in English. Also many students with an L1 other than English
have missed years of school, or are behind because of intermittent schooling experiences
(Jimenez, 1997).
One limitation of this sub-section is the fact that there was not one scholarly journal that
has done meta-analysis on this subject. If this information could be accessed and compared it
would be beneficial and could help to bring clarity to the question: what commonalities do
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 19
struggling readers share? What two or three factors do most struggling readers have in
common? More research in this area is needed.
Interventions
In this section interventions will be discussed, specifically which ones have been the
most effective in raising motivation in struggling readers. Also, what are struggling reader’s
views of participating in interventions? What kinds of interventions are happening both in class
and within the regular school day? What are some effective ways to overcome the fragmentation
students might feel as they go through school? Should who don’t meet state standards be
held back?
Even though research shows that retention can increase scores, this is not something
secondary administrators do regularly (Lorence, & Dworkin, 2006). It is not something that
boosts student confidence or self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is something that struggling students
need to succeed. What interventions can educators implement to ensure student success without
retention?
There are several items to consider when implementing an intervention program. Zorfass
and Urbano, in their study, compared interventions for struggling readers in four different school
settings. There were two that were being used in all four schools: Read 180 and Wilson Web.
The authors stated that a lack of foundational skills is a major cause of poor performance among
struggling readers. Six areas to consider when implementing a program were noted: building
on existing programs, response to intervention, collaboration, qualified staff, time
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 20
considerations, program fidelity (Zorfass, & Urbano, 2008).
Another intervention that has been successful (in some ways) is using students to help
teach students. A longitudinal study in Title 1 schools involving reading comprehension, was
completed by Van-Tassel-Baska, Bracken, Feng, and Brown, to see if gifted learners could help
readers of all levels. Student learning gains were compared across a span of three years.
Results showed that learners of all levels made gains, but not specifically on the reading
comprehension.
One other tangible way that interventions have been used is through the use of creative
scheduling to improve students’ focus. Scheduling is a valuable but untapped resource for
school improvement…we have seen how a well-crafted schedule can, result in more effective
use of resources, improve instructional climate, assist in establishing desired programs and
instructional practices” (Canady & Rettig, 1995).
Through the use of creative scheduling students can be placed in classes for reteaching or
enrichment based on classroom assessments and teacher observations. Administrators can
decide if the need is great enough to create a separate class designated for the students who need
reteaching.
If not many students need re-teaching, in-class interventions can be implemented. All
students learn at different rates. The earlier the intervention is implemented the more successful
it will be (Ziolkowska, 2007). Teachers and administrators need to allow those who excel in a
concept the chance to move forward in their learning while those who need more time to
understand a concept sufficient time to learn it. Perhaps the most critical time issue schools face
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 21
is the fact that some students need more time learn than others. (Canady & Rettig, 1995).
“We need to reconceptualize intervention for struggling readers as something that must
occur all day long” (Allington, 2007 p. 13). For these interventions to be effective, struggling
readers must receive intervention(s) all day long.
Earlier in the article, Allington stated that effective schools have fewer numbers of
classrooms where whole-classroom instruction dominates (Allington, 2007). On the other end of
the spectrum, researchers Lane, Pullen, Hudson & Konold, found that with struggling readers the
most effective method is one-on-one tutoring.
In nearly all schools one-on-one tutoring is not an option. A feasible option for creating
an effective environment, if staffing is adequate, is the implementation of small groups. In small
groups (8 or less) students will share more and be more focused. (Lane, Pullen, Hudson &
Konold, 2009)
Recent research into interventions by McKeown, Beck, & Blake (2009) into
interventions focused on six classrooms some teaching (specific) strategies vs. content (only)
over a two-year period. What they found was that in the classrooms that taught content, students
had longer discussions and participated more (McKeown, Beck, & Blake, 2009).
In another recent study by Palumbo & Sanacore they talked of the possibility of
combining content-area with literacy instruction. The author’s state that struggling readers need
to feel successful in an environment that is enjoyable and enriching (Palumbo & Sancore, 2009).
It will be interesting to see if, in the future, more studies focus on content, or strategies?
More research is needed in the realm of teaching strictly “content” vs. teaching strictly
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 22
“strategies.” Once this subject has been researched for ten more years it will be interesting to see
what method is ruled more successful.
Best Practices
It is important to note that despite the many things that weigh struggling readers down,
there is hope. The goal for this section is to present some best practices and let educators choose
which ones they will feel benefit their students (Mckenna, 2002). These best practices will
include successful strategies as well as common effective classroom environments. These
practices will help build small successes in struggling readers. Erickson (2008) discussed the
idea that teachers in content area classrooms must see the value in reading comprehension before
they attempt to teach it. For students to be successful in their core classes, struggling readers
must learn strategies to support their comprehension (Erickson 2008).
When struggling readers begin to feel success, they are on the road to improvement.
Even though this success might be, at first, minimal the result would be that they would see that
they have the ability to be successful and carry that success into their next reading experience.
This success would ultimately carry into their other classes as they begin to struggle less with
reading and comprehending.
Struggling readers need to be encouraged to take risks and to self-reflect. One way that
this is done is through using literature logs (Griffith, & Laframboise, 1998). If educators can
understand exactly how students come to an understanding about the text they can help direct
them and fill in the gaps as necessary.
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 23
One successful strategy is the mini lesson. This would be taking a “normal” 45-minute
lesson and condensing it into 8-10 minutes. “Because of its short duration, the mini lesson
works well with middle school students who sometimes find it difficult to sit still” (Williams,
2001, p. 591).
Another successful strategy that is extremely simple yet highly effective is called 3-2-1.
Students write down three things they learned, two questions they have and they write one way
they can connect this knowledge to their life (Prevatte, 2007).
In the book, Four Powerful Strategies for Struggling Readers, Grades 3-8, Small Group
instruction that improves comprehension author Lanning focuses on small group strategies that
promote comprehension. Those strategies were: summarizing, creating meaningful connections,
self-regulation, and inferring. Key concepts included the teacher directly specifying what
reading strategy they are modeling and allowing the student adequate time to practice that
strategy. Time that teachers spend talking (teacher talk) is encouraged to be kept to a minimum
to allow students time to practice the strategy (Lanning, 2009).
“Research shows that there is a positive relationship between ‘engaged time’ –or time
where students are actively attending to the learning task—and student achievement ( Powell,
Mcintyre, & Rightmyer, 2006). In this study the researchers showed that in effective
instructional classrooms, there were six common traits every successful class shared. These
have been referred to by Turner & Paris, 1995 (as cited in Powell, Mcintyre, & Rightmyer, 2006)
as the six “C’s.”
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 24
These six traits are: choice, challenge, control, collaboration, constructing meaning, and
consequences.
“Choice allows students to select texts they are interested in or find personally
relevant. Challenge provides tasks that scaffold student learning showing
students their capabilities. Control enables students and teachers to share in the
decision-making process, giving students ownership of their own learning.
Collaboration encourages social interaction where students learn from each
other. Constructing Meaning helps students make sense of what they are learning
by using literacy to solve problems, to entertain, and to inform. Consequences
can influence students motivation for literacy learning by providing positive or
negative feelings about achievement” (Powell, Mcintyre, Rightmyer, 2006).
Because they way readers feel about themselves directly relates to their successes or
failures this 33 question (“Scale”) from Henk and Melnick is something educators can use to
classify and judge where their students are. Students choose from 5 options: SA (Strongly
Agree) A (Agree) U (Undecided) D (Disagree) SD (Strongly Disagree) that are displayed after
each question.
1. I think I am a good reader SA A U D SD 2. I can tell that my teacher likes to listen to me read. SA A U D SD 3. My teacher thinks that my reading is fine. SA A U D SD 4. I read faster than other kids. SA A U D SD 5. I like to read aloud. SA A U D SD 6. When I read, I can figure out words better than other kids. SA A U D SD
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 25
7. My classmates like to listen to me read. SA A U D SD 8. I feel good inside when I read. SA A U D SD 9. My classmates think that I read pretty well. SA A U D SD 10. When I read, I don’t have to try as hard as I used to. SA A U D SD 11. I seem to know more words than other kids when I read. SA A U D SD 12. People in my family think I am a good reader. SA A U D SD 13. I am getting better at reading. SA A U D SD 14. I understand what I read as well as other kids do. SA A U D SD 15. When I read, I need less help than I used to. SA A U D SD 16. Reading makes me feel happy inside. SA A U D SD 17. My teacher thinks I am a good reader. SA A U D SD 18. Reading is easier for me than it used to be. SA A U D SD 19. I read faster than I could before. SA A U D SD 20. I read better than other kids in my class. SA A U D SD 21. I feel calm when I read. SA A U D SD 22. I read more than other kids. SA A U D SD 23. I understand what I read better than I could before. SA A U D SD 24. I can figure out words better than I could before. SA A U D SD 25. I feel comfortable when I read. SA A U D SD 26. I think reading is relaxing. SA A U D SD 27. I read better now than I could before. SA A U D SD 28. When I read, I recognize more words than I used to. SA A U D SD 29. Reading makes me feel good. SA A U D SD 30. Other kids think I’m a good reader. SA A U D SD 31. People in my family think I read pretty well. SA A U D SD 32. I enjoy reading SA A U D SD 33. People in my family like to listen to me read. SA A U D SD
Conclusion
There have been and there will continue to be those at the elementary level and
secondary level who will struggle with reading. If educators can find out what it is that
motivates students, genuinely show an interest in their lives and teach them using methods that
have been tried and tested, motivation levels will begin to rise.
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 26
At the end of the article Johnny can’t read, Susie won’t either: Reading instruction and
Student Resistance, the researchers (Powell, Mcintyre, & Rightmyer, 2006) urge teachers and
administrators to view literature (and reading) as something more than just a tool for higher
achievement on standardized reading tests. Furthermore, literacy programs popular today are
scripted and commercial and tend to lead to student resistance. “As literary scholars, we believe
that we have an obligation to view literacy more broadly and to lead the way in seeking answers
to the truly important questions, so that reading and writing, speaking and listening can once
again be viewed as tools for empowerment and change” (Powell, Mcintyre, & Rightmyer, 2006).
Educators must delve deep into students’ lives and backgrounds to try to understand
where they are coming from. What do they enjoy doing? What do they need? Do teachers know
what they need? What life experiences have they had? What do they value? What motivates
them? What attitudes do they bring to class and to school? How can struggling student’s parents
be an educator’s ally rather than enemy? (Chamberlain, 2006; Lacina, & Watson, 2008;
McCormack, & Paratore, 2003). If educators can take a genuine interest in students and find out
what things are important to them they will see that they are more than just higher test scores.
“Over 40 years ago, in his ‘A Talk to Teachers,’ James Baldwin stated that, “The purpose
of education, finally, is to create in a person the ability to look at the world for himself, to make
his own decisions, to say to himself this is black or this is white, to decide for himself whether
there is a God in heaven or not” (Baldwin, 1988) (as stated in Powell, Mcintyre, & Rightmyer,
2006). It is our responsibility as educators to give students the ability to make that choice.
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 27
Adding to the above quote, it is important to remember that by teaching students to read
with clarity and comprehension can give them the opportunity think independently. If they
cannot read both sides of issues they will not be able to make their own decisions. This is
something that they must be given the opportunity to do.
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 28
Analysis
In the following pages critical questions of the research will be investigated and clarity
will be sought. Also, some time will be devoted to integrating a biblical worldview into the
thesis. Finally, this study will conclude by making some recommendations based on all the
research reviewed and presented here.
Synthesis
There is some debate and conflicting research on the topic teaching strategies vs.
teaching content in a study by McKeown, Beck, & Blake in 2009 they studied 6 classrooms over
a two-year period and found the classes teaching content had more learning, longer
conversations, and students participated more. It seems that recent research is more focused on
integrating strategies into content classrooms rather than devoting classes to teach and practice
only specific skills. Both methods seem effective, yet some researchers lean towards content,
while others lean toward strategies. It could be because much of the research done on strategies
was done in the 1990’s and early 2000’s.
There have been several studies that have indicated that the way the student perceives
their abilities as a reader will correlate directly with their performance as a reader. However,
Hall in 2006, stated that teachers need to find out why student choose the methods they choose to
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 29
attempt to interpret the text. Hall stated that even though students may hold negative views
about their abilities or reading in general they may be trying to find ways to comprehend the text.
Teachers need to find out why students choose the method they did and not assume the student is
lazy or unable to understand directions (Hall, 2006).
Hall agrees with, but challenges the popular idea that, ‘student(s) perceptions about
reading and self affects their performance.’ Students are trying to comprehend text(s) but they go
about it in different ways then the teacher would like. Teachers need to be explicit about finding
out why students decide to behave in class or interpret a text. Students may be attempting to
interpret the text using people sitting around them because they don’t want teachers to see their
weaknesses.
Another interesting to note in the research was the idea that struggling readers will pick
out texts that are much too difficult or much too easy for them (Gay, 1999). Educators shouldn’t
have any problems identifying students that do this. Much of the research has pointed to the fact
that struggling readers tend to do everything but read. This method is no different but it is good
to point out in this section because it helps us understand the lengths that students will go to
attempt to show they are on grade level when they really are not.
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 30
Thesis
While reading through professional journals and books a piece of important information
that kept coming up was the idea that students (especially struggling students) need to be
encouraged. They need to evaluate and reevaluate how they think about their individual
abilities.
The second thing that was relevant to my topic was that students will be more motivated
to read if they are able to self select what they read. (Gay & Broaddus, 2001; Pflaum, & Bishop,
2004) There were other common negative themes that were reoccurring, too. (Apathy, lack of
motivation, barriers, lack of resources, etc) The first two topics (how students view themselves
and students self-selecting texts are the ones that I want to look at and consider the implications
of. The others will be discussed, too. I would like to focus on the growth and positive aspects
rather than the negative ones.
After reviewing the research it is my recommendation that to raise motivation in
struggling readers they must be encouraged to strengthen their use of strategies, be able to self-
select texts, and get a new identity. (see themselves as readers)
Successful readers have many strategies to in their repertoire they can use to
decipher text. Unsuccessful readers do not. A strategy is defined by Tovani (2000) “an
intentional plan that readers use to help themselves make sense of their reading” (Tovani, 2000).
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 31
Strategies can help struggling readers by giving them multiple ways to approach
text that they may struggle with. When unsuccessful readers apply these strategies to their own
independent reading the result will be higher comprehension and understanding. Simple
strategies such as re reading, skipping words, and reading slowly are strategies that help.
Strategies can be highly effective because the entire class can work on the same strategy.
(with different texts) Advanced readers can use these strategies in their more advanced text(s).
Struggling readers can use these strategies in the simpler text(s) they are reading. Strategies can
also be used in all content areas (Tovani, 2000). This makes strategies a great tool for educators
to use to help readers make sense of what they are reading.
As an educator I need to be encouraging kids to look at where they were and then show
them how far they have come. It is always good to show people the progress they have made.
That is good to do in every class, but specifically as a reading teacher, I need to encourage kids
to examine how they view themselves. If they don’t view themselves as readers then they are
not going to excel or try to become a better reader. Researchers Donaldson and Halsey stated
that the perceptions children have about themselves as readers and reading will influence
whether they pursue or avoid literacy experiences (Powell-Brown, 2006; Donaldson, & Halsey,
2007; Pflaum, & Bishop, 2004). By helping students redefine who they are (as readers)
educators can help them be successful. This transformation is something that starts by making
students aware of this fact. Once students are aware of their need to redefine themselves as
readers their transformation into a reader can become a reality.
The second item up for discussion is the idea that students want to be able to choose the
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 32
books or materials to read. (Donaldson & Halsey, 2007; Pflaum & Bishop 2004) If this isn’t
possible, whatever the reason may be, then the text selected must be one that struggling readers
can read with accuracy, fluency, and consistency.
When students are allowed to self-select texts they are going to be much more likely to
be engaged and eager to learn. By giving them part of the responsibility of their own education
we are teaching them that (ultimately) it needs to be the student that is responsible for their own
education. Giving students small goals and celebrating successes can be the beginning of a cycle
in helping them be motivated to read. What we don’t want to do is to try to coerce them in to
reading. When we do that we let apathy take over. Giving them the opportunity to self-select
texts will ultimately begin releasing them to be responsible. Encourage them to be responsible
for their learning (Slater, & Horstman, 2002).
An important point to note from researchers Pflaum and Bishop, “It is necessary to be
deliberate and intentional when encouraging student perceptions” (Pflaum, & Bishop, 2004).
Through and through, research showed that an educators role needs to be an intentional
encourager. Educators need to encourage students to see themselves as readers. They need to
have a new image. I can be instrumental in helping students redefine who they are. A little
encouragement can go a long way. I can remember specific times in my life where I was
encouraged in schoolwork and sports that I was involved in. That encouragement stayed with
me. When I was feeling down or when I felt like I couldn't succeed it kept me going. This is
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 33
important to remember as educators attempt to teach students. When students succeed, we
should celebrate! Let them know they are where you want them to be.
Educators need to remember to celebrate their student’s successes no matter how small.
As students begin to feel success they will want to repeat the process (or feeling) again and
again. This success (and achievement) is something that educators should want to help students
create (Manning, 2000). Creating this success will begin to change the way students view
themselves and reading. This certainly is a process that takes time and careful study. I will
conclude my paper with a quote that describes the process one teacher went through to teach
students to become better readers.
“I didn’t intuit, or luck into this place, and I didn’t arrive overnight. I paved the
way…through observing my kids and myself in action and trying to make sense
of my observations, through dumb mistakes, uncertain experiments, and,
underneath it all, a desire to do my best by students and a willingness to
acknowledge that my definition of best will be—should be ever changing”
(Atwell, 1998, p. 4).
Raising Motivation in Struggling Readers 34
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