Renewing the Sectional Struggle,...

Chapter18Renewingthe

SectionalStruggle,1848–1854

I.ThePopularSovereigntyPanacea

• Democratsin1848:– Polkpledgedhimselftoasingleterm– NationalConventionturnedtoagingleaderGeneralLewisCass

– Platformsilentonburningissueofslavery– Cass'sviewswerewellknownbecausehewasreputedfatherofpopularsovereignty

I.ThePopularSovereigntyPanacea(cont.)

• Popularsovereignty—• doctrinestatedthesovereignpeopleofaterritory,undergeneralprincipleoftheConstitution,shouldthemselvesdeterminestatusofslavery

– Hadpersuasiveappeal:• Publiclikeditbecauseitaccordedwithdemocratictraditionofself-determination

I.PopularSovereigntyPanacea(cont.)

• Politicianslikeditbecauseitseemedacomfortablecompromisebetween:– Free-soilers'bidtobanslaveryinterritories– SoutherndemandsthatCongressprotectslaveryinterritories

• Popularsovereigntytossedslaveryproblemtopeopleinvariousterritories• Advocateshopedtodissolveslaveryfromanationalissuetoaseriesoflocalissues• Yet,popularsovereigntyhadonefataldefect:

– Mightspreadblightofslavery

II.PoliticalTriumphsforGeneralTaylor

• Whigs– NominatedZacharyTaylor,“HeroofBuenaVista”– Platform:• Dodgedalltroublesomeissues• Extolledvirtuesoftheircandidate• Hewouldnotcommithimselfonissueofslavery'sextension

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II.PoliticalTriumphsforGeneral Taylor(cont.)

• FreeSoilparty:– OrganizedbyardentantislaveryNortherners• CameoutforWilmotProvisoandagainstslaveryinterritories• Broadenedappealbyadvocating:

– Federalaidforinternalimprovement– Freegovernmenthomesteadsforsettlers

• AttractedindustrialistsopposedtoPolk'sreductionofprotectivetariffs

II.PoliticalTriumphsforGeneral Taylor(cont.)

• AppealedtoDemocratsresentfulofPolk'ssettlingforpartofOregon,whileinsistingonallofTexas• HarboredmanynorthernerswhosehatredwasnotdirectedatslaveryasmuchasatAfricanAmericans:– Gaggedatprospectofsharingnewterritorieswithblacks

• Containedsome“ConscienceWhigs”whocondemnedslaveryonmoralgrounds• FreesoilerschoseVanBuren

II.PoliticalTriumphsforGeneral Taylor(cont.)

• Free-Soilers'partyplatform:• Condemnedslaverynotsomuchforenslavingblacksbutfordestroyingchancesoffreewhitestoriseupfromwage-earningdependencetoself-employment• ArguedthatonlywithfreesoilinWestcouldAmericancommitmenttoupwardmobilitycontinuetoflourish• Firstpartyorganizedaroundissueofslaveryandconfinedtosinglesection• ForeshadowedemergenceofRepublicans

II.PoliticalTriumphsforGeneral Taylor(cont.)

• Taylor'swartimepopularity:– 1,360,967popularand163electoralvotes

• Cass:– 1,222,342popularand127electoralvotes

• VanBuren– 291,263ballotsanddivertedDemocraticstrengthfromCassincriticalstateofNewYork

III.“CalifornyGold”

• DiscoveryofgoldnearSutter'sMill,California,earlyin1848,(seeMap18.1):–Mostreliableprofitsmadebythosewhominedtheminers:• Chargedoutrageousratesforlaundry&otherservices

– “Forty-niners”chaseddreamofgold,mostnotablytoAustraliain1851

Map 18-1 p383

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III.“CalifornyGold” (cont.)

• Californiagoldrush:– Attractedtensofthousandsofpeople– Highproportionofnewcomerswerelawlessmen,accompaniedorfollowedbyvirtuelesswomen

– Crimeinevitablyresulted– Robbery,claimjumping,&murdermostcommonplace

III.“CalifornyGold” (cont.)

• MajorityofCaliforniansweredecent,law-abidingcitizens;neededprotection:– Struggledtoerectadequatestategovernment• EncouragedbyPresidentTaylor,theydraftedaconstitutionin1849thatexcludedslavery• ThenappealedtoCongressforadmission,bypassingusualterritorialstage• WouldCaliforniabestrawthatbrokebackoftheUnion?

IV.SectionalBalanceandtheUndergroundRailroad

• Southin1850wasrelativelywell-off:– Nationalleadership:TaylorinWhiteHouse– HadamajorityincabinetandonSupremeCourt– Cottonfieldsexpanding– Cottonpricesprofitablyhigh– Fewbelievedslaveryseriouslythreatenedinfifteenstates

• Southdeeplyworriedbyever-tippingpoliticalbalance:15slavestates&15freestates

IV.SectionalBalanceandtheUndergroundRailroad(cont.)

• AdmissionofCaliforniawoulddestroydelicateequilibriuminSenate

• PotentialslaveterritoryunderAmericanflagrunningshort

• AlreadyagitationinterritoriesofNewMexico&Utahforadmissionasnonslavestates

• Californiamightestablishaprecedent

IV.SectionalBalanceandtheUndergroundRailroad(cont.)

• Texashadadditionalgrievances:– HugeareaeastofRioGrandeandnorthofforty-secondparallel

– Embracedhalfofpresent-dayNewMexico(seeMap18.2)

– FederalgovernmentproposedtodetachareafromTexas,butTexansthreatenedviolence

Map 18-2 p385

IV.SectionalBalanceandtheUndergroundRailroad(cont.)

• Southerners:– AngeredbyagitationinNorthforabolitionofslaveryinDistrictofColumbia

– Alarmedbyprospectof10-mileoasisoffreesoilbetweenslaveholdingMaryland&slaveholdingVirginia

–MoredisagreeabletoSouthwaslossofrunawayslaves:• AssistedbyUndergroundRailroad• Amazingconductor:HarrietTubman

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IV.SectionalBalanceandtheUndergroundRailroad(cont.)

• 1850:southernersdemandedmorestringentfugitive-slavelaw:– 1793lawinadequatetocopewithrunaways– AbolitionistswhoranUndergroundRailroaddidnotprofitfromtheirlawlessness

– Slaveownerswerelosers– 1,000runawaysayearoutofsomefourmillionslaves

–MastersarguedConstitutionprotectedslavery

V.TwilightoftheSenatorialGiants

• Congressionalcatastrophein1850:– Free-soilCaliforniawantedadmission– “Fire-eaters”inSouththreatenedsecession• PlannedtomeetinNashville,Tenn.towithdrawfromUnion

– “Immortaltrio”—Clay,Calhoun,&Webster—metinCongressforlasttime

V.TwilightoftheSenatorialGiants(cont.)

• HenryClay(73yearsold)playedcriticalrole:– “GreatCompromiser”—reprisedroleheplayedinMissouriandinnullification

– UrgedbothNorth&Southtomakeconcessions– Northpartiallyyieldbyenactingmorefeasiblefugitive-slavelaw

V.TwilightoftheSenatorialGiants(cont.)

• SenatorJohnC.Calhoun(68yearsoldanddyingoftuberculosis):“GreatNullifier”:– ApprovedClay'sproposedconcessions– Rejectedthemasnotprovidingadequatesafe-guardsforsouthernrights• Impassionedpleatoleaveslaveryalone,returnrunawayslaves,giveSouthitsrightsasminority,andrestorepoliticalbalance• Wantedtoelecttwopresidents;onefromNorthandonefromSouth,eachwieldingaveto

V.TwilightoftheSenatorialGiants(cont.)

• DanielWebster(68yearsold):– UpheldClay'scompromisemeasures– UrgedallreasonableconcessionstoSouth,includingnewfugitive-slavelawwithteeth

– Asforslaveryinnewterritories,heasked,whylegislatewhenareanotconducivetoplantations

– Hisconclusion:onlysolutionswerecompromise,concession,andreasonableness

V.TwilightoftheSenatorialGiants(cont.)

• Webster'sfamedSeventhofMarchspeech(1850)washisfinest:– VisiblystrengthenedUnionsentiment– PleasedbankingandcommercialcentersofNorth—stoodtolosemillionsbysecession

– Free-Soilersandabolitionistscalledhimatraitor,worthyofbracketingwithBenedictArnold

– Reproachesmostunfair;Websterregardedslaveryasevil,butdisunionasworse

VI.DeadlockandDangeronCapitolHill

• Stormycongressionaldebate(1850)notover:– North'snewYoungGuard

• WilliamH.Seward:– Strongantislaveryite– Unequivocallyagainstconcession– ArguedChristianlegislatorsmustobeyGod'smorallawaswellasman'smundanelaw

VI.DeadlockandDangeronCapitolHill(cont.)

– Appealedtoexcludeslaveryinterritorieswithreferencetoeven“higherlaw”thanConstitution

– Appealmayhavecosthimpresidentialnominationandpresidencyin1860

– PresidentTaylorbentonvetoinganycompromise.– IrearousedbythreatsofTexastoseizeSantaFe

VII.BreakingtheCongressionalLogjam

• Taylorunknowinglyhelpedcauseofconcessionbydyingsuddenly.

• Vice-PresidentMillardFillmoretookreins:– AspresidingofficerofSenate,hewasimpressedwithargumentsforconciliation

– Gladlysignedseriesofcompromisemeasures– BalancingofinterestsinCompromiseof1850wasextremelydelicate(seeTable18.1).

Table 18-1 p387

VII.BreakingtheCongressional Logjam(cont.)

• HeatinCongress:– “Unionsavers”—Clay,Webster,Douglas—oratedacrossNorthonbehalfofcompromise

– Southern“fire-eaters”opposedconcession– June1850,southernextremistsmetinNashville:• Tookstrongpositioninfavorofslavery• Condemnedcompromisemeasure

VII.BreakingtheCongressional Logjam(cont.)

– SecondEraofGoodFeelingsdawned:• Talkofsecessionsubsided

– Peace-lovingpeople,bothNorthandSouth,determinedthat:• Compromisesshouldbe“finality”• Explosiveissueofslaveryshouldbeburied

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VIII.BalancingtheCompromiseScales

• Whogotbetterdealfrom1850Compromise?• North(seeMap18.3):– California(freestate)tippedbalancepermanentlyagainstSouth

– TerritoriesofNewMexico&Utahopentoslavery—basisofpopularsovereignty

– Nature—“highestlaw”—notfavorslaverythere

Map 18-3 p389

VIII.BalancingtheCompromiseScales(cont.)

• South:– Urgentlyneededmoreslaveterritorytorestore“sacredbalance”

– IfnotfromrecentconquestsfromMexico,thenCaribbeanwasoneanswer

– HalteddrivetowardabolitioninDistrictofColumbiatemporarily

– HadtoacceptoutlawingslavetradeinD.C.

VIII.BalancingtheCompromiseScales(cont.)

• FugitiveSlaveLaw(1850):– StirredupstormofoppositioninNorth– Fleeingslaves:• Couldnottestifyontheirown• Deniedjurytrial

– Federalcommissionerwhohandledcaseofafugitive:• Ifrunawaywasfreed,earned$5• Ifnot,earned$10

VIII.BalancingtheCompromiseScales(cont.)

– Northernerswhohelpedaslaveescapewereliabletoheavyfinesandjailtime

– “Man-Stealing”Lawwasabhorrent:• TouchedoffexplosivechainreactioninNorth• UndergroundRailroadsteppedupitstimetable• Mass.madeitapenaloffenseforanystateofficialtoenforcenewfederalstatute• Otherstatespassed“personallibertylaws”• Abolitionistsprotestedvehementlyagainstlaw

VIII.BalancingtheCompromiseScales(cont.)

• Beyondquestion,FugitiveSlaveLawablunderbySouth• Slavecatchersredoubledefforts• Withdelayoffightingduring1850s:

– Northforgedaheadinpopulationandwealth—incrops,factories,foundries,ships,&railroads

– DelayaddedimmenselytomoralstrengthofNorth– 1850sdidmuchtobolsterYankeewilltoresistsecession,whateverthecost

• ThusCompromiseof1850wonCivilWarforUnion(seeMap18.4)

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IX.DefeatandDoomfortheWhigs

• 1852DemocraticnominatingconventioninBaltimore:– Nominated“darkhorse”—FranklinPierce,fromNewHampshire• Weakandindecisivefigure• Warinjuriescausedhimtobeknownas“FaintingGeneral”• Enemylessbecausehewasinconspicuous• Aprosouthernnortherner,hewasacceptabletoslaverywingofDemocraticParty

Map 18-4 p391

IX.DefeatandDoomfortheWhigs(cont.)

• PlatformrevivedcommitmenttoterritorialexpansionaspursuedbyPresidentPolk• EmphaticallyendorsedCompromiseof1850,incl.FugitiveSlaveLaw

–WhigsconvenedinBaltimore:• Havingwoninpastwithwarheroes,theyturnedto“OldFussandFeathers”WinfieldScott– AblestAmericangeneralofhisgeneration

IX.DefeatandDoomfortheWhigs(cont.)

–WhigplatformpraisedCompromiseof1850– Campaigndegeneratedintopersonalattacks–Whigpartyhopelesslysplit:• AntislaveryWhigsinNorthacceptedScottasnomineebutdeploredhisplatform—whichendorsedFugitiveSlaveLaw• SouthernWhigsdoubtedScott'sloyaltytoCompromiseof1850andFugitiveSlaveLaw—acceptedhisplatformbutrejectedcandidate

IX.DefeatandDoomfortheWhigs(cont.)

– GeneralScott,victoriousonbattlefield,metdefeatatballotbox.

– Free-soilJohnHaletooknorthernWhigvotesfromScott– Haletook5%ofpopularvote

• Piercewonwith254electoralvoteto42;– Popularcountwascloser:1,601,117to1,385,453

• Electionof1852'sfrighteningsignificance:–MarkedeffectiveendofWhigparty

IX.DefeatandDoomforthe Whigs(cont.)

• Whigs'completedeath:– Auguredeclipseofnationalpartiesandriseofpurelysectionalpoliticalalignments

–Wontwopresidentialelections(1840,1848)withwarheroes

• GreatestcontributionwastohelpupholdidealofUnionthrough:– ElectoralstrengthinSouth– EloquenceofleadersClay&Webster

X.ExpansionistStirringsSouthoftheBorder

• SpiritofManifestDestinyrevived:• AcontinuousAtlantic-to-PacifictransportationroutewouldeffectivelysevertwoAmericas(seeMap18.5)• BritishencroachmentinareadrovegovernmentsofUnitedStates&NewGranadatoconcludetreatyin1848• GuaranteedAmericanrightoftransitacrossisthmusinreturnforWashington'spledgetomaintain“perfectneutrality”onroute—“freetransitoftrafficmightnotbeinterrupted”

Map 18-5 p392

X.ExpansionistStirringsSouthoftheBorder(cont.)

• Agreementledto:• TheodoreRoosevelt'sassertionofAmericancontrolofPanamaCanalin1903• Constructionoffirst“transcontinental”railroad

– Clayton-BulwerTreaty(1850)stipulatedneitherU.S.A.norBritainwouldfortifyorseekexecutivecontroloveranyfutureisthmianwaterway• (laterrescindedbyHay-PauncefoteTreatyof1910;seeChap27).

X.ExpansionistStirringsSouthoftheBorder(cont.)

• Southern“slavocrats”lookedtoCentralAmerica:– Adventurer,WilliamWalker,triedrepeatedlytograbcontrolofNicaragua• InstalledhimselfpresidentinJuly1856andpromptlylegalizedslavery• CoalitionofCentralAmericannationsformedalliancetooverthrowhim• PresidentPiercewithdrewdiplomaticrecognition• WalkerdiedbeforeHonduranfiringsquadin1860

X.ExpansionistStirringsSouthoftheBorder(cont.)

• Sugar-richCuba:• Enticingprospectforannexation• Alreadyhadlargepopulationofenslavedblacks• Mightbecarvedintoseveralstates,restoringpoliticalbalanceinSenate• PresidentPolkoffered$100milliontoSpainforCuba,butSpainrefused• SpanishofficialsinCubalaterseizedAmericansteamerBlackWarrior• OpportunityforPresidenttoprovokewarwithSpainandseizeCuba

X.ExpansionistStirringsSouthoftheBorder(cont.)

• SecretaryofstateinstructedAmericanministersinSpain,England,&FrancetopreparerecommendationsforacquisitionofCuba• Thethree,meetinginOstend,Belgium,drewuptop-secretdispatch:• OstendManifesto—urgedadministrationtooffer$120millionforCuba• Ifrebuffed,thenwarjustified• Secretmanifestoleakedout• Northernfree-soilersroseupinwrathagainst“manifestoofbrigands”

X.ExpansionistStirringsSouthoftheBorder(cont.)

• Red-facedPierceadministrationdroppedrecklessschemeforCuba

– Slaveryissuecheckedterritorialexpansionin1850s

XI.TheAllureofAsia

• CouldAmericanstapmoredeeplythesupposedlyrichmarketsofAsia?– OpiumWar—foughtbyBritainforrighttopeddleopiuminChina:• Britaingainedfreeaccesstofiveso-calledtreatyports• ControlofislandofHongKong• PresidentTylerdispatchedCalebCushingtosecurecomparableconcessionforUnitedStates• CushingarrivedatMacaoinearly1844

XI.TheAllureofAsia(cont.)

• TreatyofWanghia:firstformaldiplomaticagreementbetweenU.S.andChinaonJuly3,1844:– CushingsecuredvitalcommercialrightsandprivilegesfromChinese

– “Mostfavorablerights”grantedtoU.S.A.– “Extraterritoriality”—providedAmericans,accusedofcrimesinChina,atrialbeforeAmericanofficials,notinChinesecourts

XI.TheAllureofAsia(cont.)

– AmericantradewithChinaincreased– TreatyalsoencouragedarrivalofAmericanmissionaries;thousandscame

– SuccessinChinapromptedU.S.goalsforJapan:• Japanhadearlierwithdrawnintococoonofisolationismforover200years• TokugawaShogunateprotectedJapan'sinsularity• By1853,Japanreadytoemergefromself-imposedquarantine

XI.TheAllureofAsia(cont.)

• PresidentFillmoredispatchedCommodoreMatthewPerryin1852forJapan• Hisfoursmoke-belching“blackships”steamedintoEdo(laterTokyoBay)onJuly8,1853• Onceonshore,Perryrequestedfreetrade&friendlyrelations,thenleftpromisingtoreturnnextyeartoreceiveJapan'sreply• PerryreturnedinFebruary1854;persuadedJapantosignTreatyofKanagawaonMarch31,1854

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XI.TheAllureofAsia(cont.)

– PerrycrackedopenJapan'stwo-centuryshellofisolation

– Lessthanadecadelater,“MeijiRestoration”would:• EndShogunate• PropelJapanheadlongintomodernworld• EventuallyintomilitarycrashwithUnitedStates

XII.PacificRailroadPromotersandtheGadsdenPurchase

• AcutetransportationproblemsanotherlegacyofMexicanWar– California&Oregon:8,000mileswestofnation'scapital

– Searoutestoolong– Travelbywagonslowanddangerous– Feasiblelandtransportationimperative– Transcontinentalrailroadonlyrealsolution

XII.PacificRailroadPromotersandtheGadsdenPurchase(cont.)

• Wheretobuildrailroad:northorsouth?• JamesGadsden,ministertoMexico:– SantaAnnastillinpowerandneededmoney– GadsdennegotiatedGadsdenPurchasein1853– CededmoreterritorytoU.S.A.for$10million– Bestrouteforasouthernrailroad(seeMap18.6)

• Inresponse,NorthernerswantedNebraskaorganized

Map 18-6 p395

XIII.Douglas'sKansas-NebraskaScheme

– SenatorStephenDouglasin1854soughttooffsetGadsden'sexpansiontosouthwest• LongedtobreakNorth-Southdeadlockoverwestwardexpansion• InvestedheavilyinChicagorealestate&railwaystock• WantedChicagotobeeasternterminusforproposedrailroad• WantedtogetSouthtosupporthisscheme

XIII.Douglas'sKansas-NebraskaScheme(cont.)

• ProposedterritoryofNebraskabedividedintotwoterritories,KansasandNebraska(seeMap18.7)• Slaverythendecidedbypopularsovereignty• Kansas,westofslaveholdingMissouri,presumablywouldchoosetobecomeaslavestate• Nebraska,westoffree-soilIowa,presumablywouldbecomeafreestate• Douglas'sschemecontradictedMissouriCompromiseof1820(forbadeslaveryinNebraskaTerritorynorthof36°30'line)

Map 18-7 p396

XIII.Douglas'sKansas-Nebraska Scheme(cont.)

–OnlywaytoopenregiontopopularsovereigntywastorepealMissouriCompromise– Tosouthernersherewaschanceforanotherslavestate– PresidentPiercethrewsupporttoKansas-NebraskaBill– DouglasrammedbillthroughCongress,withstrongsupportfrommanysoutherners– Douglasactedimpulsivelyandrecklessly– PredictedoppositioninNorth,butgrosslyunderestimatedit

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XIV.CongressLegislatesaCivilWar

• Kansas-NebraskaAct:– OneofmostmomentousmeasurestopassCongress

– GreasedslipperyslopetoCivilWar:• Infuriatedantislaverynortherners• Futurecompromisewouldbemuchmoredifficult• FugitiveSlaveLawof1850becamedeadletter• Actwreckedtwocompromises—of1820andof1850

XIV.CongressLegislatesaCivilWar(cont.)

• Northernabolitionistsandsouthern“fire-eaters”sawlessandlesstheycouldlivewith• Ranksofantislaveryitesgainednumerousrecruits• DemocraticPartyshatteredbyKansas-NebraskaAct• MostdurableoffspringofKansas-NebraskablunderwasnewRepublicanParty

XIV.CongressLegislatesaCivilWar(cont.)

– RepublicanParty:• SprangupinMiddleWest—Wisconsin&Michigan• Gathereddissatisfiedelements,includingWhigs,Democrats,Free-Soilers,Know-Nothings,andotherfoesofKansas-NebraskaAct• AlsoincludedAbrahamLincoln• Grewrapidly,butasectionalparty• NotacceptedSouthofMason-Dixonline

– Unionindireperil

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