Chapters 3 4 5

CHAPTER 3: Ethical Research

Objectives

Discuss the three ethical principles outlined in the Belmont Report: beneficence, autonomy, and justice

List the information contained in an informed consent form

Discuss potential problems obtaining informed consent

Describe the purpose of debriefing research participants

Describe the function of an Institutional Review Board

Contrast the categories of risk involved in research activities: exempt, minimal risk, and greater than minimal risk

Summarize the ethical principles in the APA ethics code concerning research with human participants

Discuss how potential risks and benefits of research are evaluated

Discuss the ethical issue surrounding misrepresentation of research findings

MILGRAM’S OBEDIENCE EXPERIMENT

Study of the phenomenon of obedience to an authority figure

Examined the effects of punishment on learning (Shock treatment for mistakes)

Results challenged beliefs about our ability to resist authority

Important for understanding obedience in real life situations, e.g. the Holocaust

BELMONT REPORT

The Belmont Report (1979): Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research Beneficence Autonomy (respect for

persons) Justice

ASSESSMENTS OF RISKS AND BENEFITS

Risks in Psychological Research Physical harm Stress Loss of privacy and

confidentiality

INFORMED CONSENT

Informed Consent Form

Autonomy Issues

Information Issues: Withholding Information and Deception

Is Deception a Major Ethical Problem in Psychological Research?

THE IMPORTANCE OF DEBRIEFING

Opportunity for the researcher to deal with issues of withholding information, deception, and potential harmful effects of the participation

Explain why deception was necessary

Provide additional resources, if necessary

Make sure participant leaves the experiment without any unresolved feelings

Provides an opportunity to explain the purpose of the study and anticipated results

Most participants report positive experience

Research suggests that it is effective

ALTERNATIVES OF DECEPTION

Role-Playing Asks participants how they would

respond to a certain situation or to predict how others would respond

Simulation Studies Variation on role-playing that

involves simulation of a real world situation

Honest Experiments Participants are made completely

aware of the purposes of the research

JUSTICE AND THE SELECTION OF PARTICIPANTS

Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932-1972)

Justice principle requires researchers to address issues of equity

Any decisions to include or exclude certain people from a study must be justified on scientific grounds

RESEARCHER COMMITMENTS

“Contracts” with Participants

Punctuality

Summary of Details to Participant

Course Credit

Details that Maintain Trust Between Participants and Researchers

FEDERAL REGULATIONS AND THE INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD

Exempt Research Research in which there is

no risk of harm

Minimal Risk Research When the risk of harm is

no greater that risk encountered in daily life or routine physical or psychological tests

Greater Than Minimal Risk Research

IRB Impact on Research Increased time for

approval of study Submissions often need to

be revised or clarified Very cautious around

approval

APA ETHICS CODE

5 General Principles Beneficence Responsibility Integrity Justice Respect for the rights and

dignity of others

APA ETHICS CODE

Ten Ethical Standards Address Specific Issues Concerning: Conduct of psychologists in

teaching Research Therapy Counseling Testing Professional roles and

responsibilities

RESEARCH WITH HUMAN PARTICIPANTS

8.01 Institutional Approval

8.02 Informed Consent to Research

8.03 Informed Consent for Recording Voices and Images in Research

8.04 Client/Patient, Student, and Subordinate Research Participants

8.05 Dispensing with Informed Consent for Research

8.06 Offering Inducements for Research Participation

8.07 Deception in Research

8.08 Debriefing

MISREPRESENTATION

8.10 Reporting Research Results

8.11 Plagiarism

Chapter 4: Studying Behavior

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Define variable and describe the four categories of variables: situational, response, participant, and mediating variables

Define operational definition of a variable

Describe the different relationships between variables: positive, negative, curvilinear, and no relationship

Compare and contrast nonexperimental and experimental research methods

Distinguish between an independent variable and a dependent variable

Discuss the three elements for inferring causation: temporal order, covariation of cause and effect, and elimination of alternative explanations

Discuss the advantage of using multiple methods of research

VARIABLES

Four General Categories Situational variables Response variables Participant or subject

variables Mediating variables

MEDIATING VARIABLE

OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS OF VARIABLES

Variable is an abstract concept that must be translated into concrete forms of observation or manipulation

Studied empirically

Help communicate ideas to others

Relationships

Positive Linear Relationship Increases in one variable

relate to increases in another

Negative Linear Relationship Increases in one variable

relative to decreases in another

Curvilinear Relationship Increases in one variable

relative to both increases and decreases in another

No Relationship Correlation coefficient

Relationships and Reduction of Uncertainty

FOUR TYPES OF RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIABLES

NONEXPERIMENTAL VERSUS EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

Nonexperimental Method Direction of Cause and Effect The Third-Variable Problem

(confounding variable)

Experimental Method Experimental Control Randomization

NONEXPERIMENTAL VERSUS EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

The causal possibilities in a non-experimental study

COMPARISON OF NONEXPERIMENTAL AND EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES

Independent = CauseDependent = Effect

Dependent variable

y-axis

Independent variable x-axis

Choosing a Method: Advantages of Multiple Methods

Artificiality of Experiments

Ethical and Practical Considerations

Participant Variables

Description of Behavior

Successful Predictions of Future Behavior

Advantages of Multiple Methods

Critically Evaluating Research

Construct Validity External Validity

Evaluate the adequacy of the operational definition. Is the operational definition sufficiently measuring the construct it claims to measure?

Evaluate the extent that the results can generalize to other populations and settings. Can the results be replicated with other participants? Can the results be replicated in other settings?

Internal Validity

Evaluate the extent that it was the independent variable that caused the changes or differences in the dependent variable. Are there alternative explanations (confounds)?

Chapter 5: Methods in Behavioral

Research

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Define reliability of a measure of behavior and describe the difference between test-retest, internal consistency, and interrater reliability

Describe the problem of reactivity of a measure of behavior and discuss ways to minimize reactivity

Describe the properties of the four scales of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio

RELIABILITY OF MEASURES

Test-Retest Reliability Assessed by measuring the

same individuals two points in time

Vulnerable to artificiality Vulnerable to maturation

RELIABILITY OF MEASURES

Interrater Reliability Correlation between the

observations of raters

Reliability and Accuracy of Measures Reliability indexes do not

indicate whether a particular measure is an accurate measure of the variable of interest

A measure can be highly reliable, but not accurate

RESEARCH ON PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Systematic and detailed research on validity is most often carried out on measures of personality and individual differences

Should use measures of personality that have demonstrable validity and reliability Example: Mental

Measurement Yearbook

REACTIVITY OF MEASURES

Measure Is Reactive if Awareness of Being Measured Changes an Individual’s Behavior

Measures of Behavior Vary in Terms of Their Potential Reactivity

VARIABLES AND MEASUREMENT SCALES

Nominal Scales

Ordinal Scales

Interval and Ratio Scales

The Importance of the Measurement Scales

EXAMPLE OF A NOMINAL SCALE

_______Not Attractive _______Attractive

EXAMPLE OF A INTERVAL/RATIO SCALE

Very Unattractive-----------------Very Attractive