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Biocatalysts that increase rate of biochemical reactions. Chemical natureChemical nature :
1. Proteins 2. RNA(RIBOZYMES) 3. Abzymes (Ab + enzymes)
CofactorsCofactors- Additional chemical component {inorganic ions & organic molecules (coenzymes)}
HoloenzymeHoloenzyme- Complete catalytically active enzyme + coenzyme (Prosthetic gp) Apoprotein or apoenzyme- protein part of holoenzyme
Prosthetic group – Coenzyme/metal ion that is very Prosthetic group – Coenzyme/metal ion that is very tightly/covalently tightly/covalently
ATP + D-glucose → ADP + D-glucose-6-phosphate
ATP:glucose phosphotransferase
E.C. no: 2.7.1.1.2 – Transferases7 – Phosphotransferases1 – Phosphotransferase with a hydroxyl group as an acceptor1 – D-glucose as the phosphoryl group acceptor
Active site- catalytic site of an enzyme
Substrate- molecule bound in the active site & acted upon by the enzyme
Function of enzyme: To increase the rate of reaction by reducing activation energy Does not disturb the reaction equilibrium
Ground state- starting point for forward or reverse reaction
Reaction intermediate: any species on the reaction pathway that has a transient existence [ES and EP complexes]
Rate-limiting step- step (or steps) with the highest activation energy
The equilibrium between S and Pequilibrium between S and P reflects the difference in thedifference in the free energies of their ground free energies of their ground statesstates.
When the free energy of the ground state of P is lower than that of S, then ∆∆G’G’oo for the for the reaction is negativereaction is negative and the equilibrium favors P. Note:- The position and direction
of equilibrium are not affected by any catalyst.
Transition stateTransition state: point at which decay to the S or P
state is equally probable Activation energy, Activation energy, GG‡‡.. : :
The difference between the energy levels of the ground state and the transition state.
energy barriers to chemical reactions
Comparison between Comparison between enzyme catalyzed enzyme catalyzed
&& uncatalyzed reactionuncatalyzed reaction
Relationship between rate constant & activation energy
ENZYME KINETICS
Substrate Concentration Affects the Rate of Enzyme-
Catalyzed ReactionsInitially The conc of Substrate = [S]Initial Conc of Enzyme = [E] in
nanomolesInitial Rate or velocity = VoIn the initial phase of enzyme
catalysed reaction, there is no significant change in [S]
Hence it can be considered as constant
When the enzyme conc is held constant then, The effect of Vo on varying [S] is represented graphically as follows
Direct plot
Michaelis-Menten equation- the rate equation for a one-substrate enzyme-catalyzed reaction.
Relationship Between[S] & Vmax
Km
• Km is equivalent to the substrate concentration at which V0 is one-half Vmax.
Interpreting Vmax and Km:
Double reciprocal plot or Lineweaver-Burk equation
Kinetic parameters to compare enzyme activities
-Interpretation of KKmm
- Interpretation of V- Interpretation of Vmaxmax in terms of K in terms of Kcatcat
-Comparison of Catalytic mechanisms & efficiencies of enzymes using KKcatcat & KKmm
Interpreting Km
• vary greatly from enzyme to enzyme• used (often inappropriately) as an indicator of
the affinity of an enzyme for its substrate
Interpreting VInterpreting Vmaxmax in in terms of Kterms of Kcatcat
Kcat = rate constant of rate limiting step
In the first reaction K2 = KcatIn IInd reaction K3 = KcatHence,
Vmax = kcat[Et]Hence the Michelis Menten eq
becomes
• The constant kcat is a first-order rate constant and hence has units of reciprocal time. It is also called the turnover number. – equivalent to the number of substrate
molecules converted to product in a given unit of time on a single enzyme molecule when the enzyme is saturated with substrate.
Comparing Catalytic mechanisms Comparing Catalytic mechanisms & efficiencies using Kcat & km& efficiencies using Kcat & km• Each enzyme has different values of kcat and Km
which depends upon– the cellular environment, – the concentration of substrate normally
encountered in vivo by the enzyme– the chemistry of the reaction being catalyzed
• Values of Kcat & Km are needed to evaluate the kinetic efficiency of enzymes (Both the parameter alone is insufficient for estimation)
– Lower Km : Enz acts even on low substrate Lower Km : Enz acts even on low substrate conc.conc.
– Higher Km : Enz acts on high substrate conc.Higher Km : Enz acts on high substrate conc.
• The ratio kcat/Km can be used to compare catalytic efficiency of different enzymes or turnover no. of diff. substrates by the same Enz.– This parameter, is called the specificity
constant• rate constant for the conversion of E + S
to E + P.
When [S] << Km
Becomes
• second-order rate equation and the constant kcat/Km is a second-order rate constant with units of M-1s-1.
Reactions with Two or More Substrates
• Enzymatic reactions with two substrates usually involve transfer of an atom or a functional group from one substrate to the other
• MM equation can be used for Bi substrate reaction– Rates of reaction steps are measured
independently
Enzyme Inhibition
ENZYME INHIBITIONENZYME INHIBITION:
Any ligand that reduces the velocity of an enzyme catalyzed reaction
Commonly used in every day life as drugs, antibiotics, toxins, poisons etc.
Major regulatory mechanism of living cells
Tells us about the specificity of the enzyme and architecture of the active site
2 Types: Reversible Inhibition
Irreversible Inhibition
INHIBITOR :INHIBITOR :
Reversible Inhibition- Competitive, Uncompetitive and mixed
Competitive Inhibition:• Competitive inhibitor competes with the
substrate for the active site of an enzyme
– inhibitors resemble the substrate– reduce the efficiency of the enzyme– inhibitor binds reversibly to the enzyme
• Can be overcome by increasing substrate conc.
Uncompetitive Inhibition
• Uncompetitive inhibitor binds at a site distinct from the substrate active site– Inhibitor binds only to the ES
complex
Mixed inhibit ion• mixed inhibitor binds
at a site distinct from the substrate active site, but it binds to either E or ES.
• usually affects both Km and Vmax
Inhibit ion Formula Effect on Vmax
Effect on Km
Competit ive same increases
Uncompetit ive decreases decreases
Mixed decreases Increases/decreases
Noncompetit ive When α = α’ decreases same
Irreversible Inhibition• Irreversible inhibitors
– bind covalently with enzyme– destroy a functional group on an enzyme
that is essential for the enzyme’s activity, or those that form a particularly stable non-covalent association.
• Suicide inactivators– special class of irreversible inhibitors– relatively unreactive until they bind to the
active site of a specific enzyme– converted to a very reactive compound
when combined irreversibly with the enzyme.
– also called mechanism-based inactivators,
• hijack the normal enzyme reaction mechanism to inactivate the enzyme
• play a significant role in rational drug design
REGULATION OF ENZYME ACTIVITY
• Feedback regulationFeedback regulation
• Allosteric regulationAllosteric regulation
• Regulation by Reversible covalent Regulation by Reversible covalent modificationmodification
• Regulation by Proteolytic activationRegulation by Proteolytic activation
• Regulation by enzyme synthesis and Regulation by enzyme synthesis and breakdownbreakdown
• Regulatory enzymesRegulatory enzymes
– exhibit increased or decreased catalytic activity in response to certain signals
• Allosteric enzymes Allosteric enzymes
– Functions through reversible, noncovalent binding of regulatory compounds called allosteric modulators or allosteric effectors, (small metabolites or Cofactors)
Feedback regulation
• enzyme is inhibited by an end-product of the metabolic pathway in which it is involved
• often takes place at the committed stepcommitted step in the pathway
– first step to produce an intermediate which is unique to the pathway in question,
Allosteric regulation
• Regulation of allosteric enzymes
• Binding of substrates is cooperative
• Allosteric enzymes – multi-subunit proteins, with one
or more active sites on each subunit
– binding of substrate at one active site induces a conformational change in the protein that is conveyed to the other active sites, altering their affinity for substrate molecules
– controlled by effector or modulator molecules
• Activators and Inhibitors– bind to the enzyme at a site
other than the active site (either on the same subunit or on a different subunit),
– causes a change in the conformation of the active site
– alters the rate of enzyme activity
• An allosteric activator increases the rate of enzyme activity, while
• An allosteric inhibitor decreases the activity of the enzyme.
• Methylation – Methyl accepting chemotaxis protein of bacteria Transmembrane sensor protein in bacteria
• ADP-ribosylation – Diptheria toxin – ADP-ribosylation of eEF2
(inhibition of protein synthesis) Cholera toxin - ADP-ribosylation of G
protein (inhibition of signaling pathway)
• Phosphorylation -
Covalent modifications
Regulation by Proteolytic activation
• Needed to activate large inactive enzymes or zymogens
• involves irreversible hydrolysis of one or more peptide bonds
• E.g. trypsin, chymotrypsin and elastase
• A plot of V versus V/S is generated for an enzyme A plot of V versus V/S is generated for an enzyme catalyzed reaction, and a straight line is obtained. catalyzed reaction, and a straight line is obtained. Indicate the information that can be obtained from the Indicate the information that can be obtained from the plotplot
a. Vmax and turnover no. Km can be obtained only from a plot of 1/V v/s 1/S
b. Km/Vmax from the slopec. Vmax, Km and turnover numberd. Only Km and turnover number
Eadie Hofstee Plot
Multiply with Vmax on both sides
Vmax / Vo = Km/S +1
-[Km/S] = 1 – Vmax/Vo
-[Km/S] Vo = Vo – Vmax
Vo = -[Km/S] Vo + Vmax
Slope: -Km ; x intercept: Vmax/Km; y intercept : VmaxAns: c
• Phosphoglucomutase is added to 0.1 M Glucose -6-Phosphoglucomutase is added to 0.1 M Glucose -6-Phosphate (G-6-P). The standard change of the Phosphate (G-6-P). The standard change of the reaction, G-6-P G-1-P is 1.8 kcal/mole at 25reaction, G-6-P G-1-P is 1.8 kcal/mole at 25ººC. The C. The equilibrium concentrations of G-6-P and G-1-P, equilibrium concentrations of G-6-P and G-1-P, respectively, are: respectively, are:
a. 96 mM, 45mMb. 100 mM, 0 mMc. 45 mM, 96 mMd. 0 mM, 100 mM
Ans: a
• Michaelis and Menten derived their equation using Michaelis and Menten derived their equation using which of the following assumption?which of the following assumption?
a. Rate limiting step in the reaction is the breakdown of ES complex to product and free enzyme
b. Rate limiting step in the reaction is the formation of ES complex
c. Concentration of the substrate can be ignoredd. Non-enzymatic degradation of the substrate is the
major step
Ans: a
Ans: 2
Ans: 3
74. The hydrolysis of pyrophosphate to orthophosphate is important for several biosynthetic reactions. In E. coli, the molecular mass of the enzyme phosphatase is 120 kD, and it consists of 6 identical subunits. The enzyme activity is defined as the amount of enzyme that hydrolyses 10 μmol of pyrophosphate in 15 mins at 37ºC under standard assay condition. The purified enzyme has a Vmax of 2800 units per mg of the enzyme. How many moles of the substrate are hydrolyzed per second per milligram of the enzyme when the substrate concentration is much greater than Km?
a. 0.05 μmolb. 62 μmolc. 31.1 μmold. 1 μmol
Ans: c
1 unit of Enz. activity = Amt. of Enz. required to convert 10 μmoles of substrate/15 mins
2800 units of Enz. Activity = Amt. of Enz. required to convert 2800*10 μmoles of substrate converted/15 minsOr 28000 μmoles /900 seconds
At Vmax, Enz. Activity = 2800 units / mg of Enz
i.e. 1 mg of Enz. can hydrolyze 28000 μmoles Sub./900 seconds
i.e. 28000/900 = 31.1 μmoles
Enzymes have an optimum temperature at which they work best. Temperatures above and below this optimum will decrease enzyme activity. Which graph best illustrates the effect of temperature on enzyme activity?
a. Ab. Bc. Cd. D
Ans: B
You are trying to reproduce experimental data from the previous student in the lab. He/she had reported that the enzyme under investigation has a kcat of 1500 s-1 and a catalytic efficiency of 7.5 107 M-1 s-1. What is the KM of this enzyme?
a.2 * 10 -5 Mb.2 * 10 -6 Mc.20 * 10 -5 M/sd.20 * 10 -6 M/s
Ans: a
An enzyme has a Km for substrate (S) of 10 mM and Vmax of 5 μmol.L-1.sec-1 at a total enzyme concentration of 1 nM. At [S] = 10 mM, kcat is:
A. 2500 per M per sec.B. 5000 per M per sec.C. 2500 per sec.D. 5000 per sec.E. 1250 per M per sec.
Ans: D
In an enzyme mediated reaction, the inhibitor I reduces the rate of product formation from substrate. If velocity/substrate data are plotted in Lineweaver-Burk form, the inhibitor is competitive when:
A. Both the y- and x-intercepts are decreased.B. The slope of the plot is decreased.C. The x-intercept is decreased, the y-intercept is unchanged and the slope of the plot increases.D. The slope of the plot is increased and the y-intercept decreasesE. The x-intercept increased and the y-intercept is unchanged.
Ans: E
Competitive inhibition
Uncompetitive inhibition
Noncompetitive inhibition
Irreversible inhibition
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