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A research proposal for a pilot study on the use of video games as texts in college-level English courses. Focuses on the video game BioShock.I'm open to comments and critiques. This isn't ready for submission yet.
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Video Games as Texts in College English Courses
Running Head: VIDEO GAMES AS TEXTS IN COLLEGE ENGLISH COURSES
Video Games as Texts in College English Courses
Max Lieberman
University of Arizona South
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Video Games as Texts in College English Courses
Abstract
The question of whether video games can be taught in college English courses has gotten
relatively little attention in academic literature. This paper proposes a quasi-experimental
pilot study comparing two first-year college English classes, one of which would teach
traditional texts (e.g. novels and films), while the other would also include a video game
text. A common grading rubric based on established methods of assessment would be
used for both classes. This research would provide educators with much-needed hard
evidence about the value of video games as texts in English curricula. Past research and
theory suggests that students in the experimental course would produce work of a quality
at least as high as that of students in the traditional course.
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Video Games as Texts in College English Courses
Video Games as Texts in College English Courses
The subject of video games as texts that can be taught alongside traditional media
in college-level English courses has gotten relatively little attention in academic
literature. What has been written is largely theoretical, and case studies are rare
(Alexander, 2009). The existing literature does suggest that games have the potential to
motivate students, and that games will support the same sorts of critical literary analysis
as other media. The quasi-experimental pilot study proposed in this paper would evaluate
these claims by comparing the work produced by freshman-year college students in two
similar English courses, one of which would examine a video game alongside traditional
texts.
English as a discipline has long been open to nontraditional texts including non-
fiction writing, films and television programs. Such texts are commonly used in college
composition and comparative literature classes, as well as in general English courses that
apply multiple analytical disciplines. Works in nontraditional mediums are used because
educators have come to accept that they repay analysis to the same degree as written
fiction. Institutions of higher education also recognize that it is important to maintain a
focus on the wider culture as it constantly evolves (Aiex, 1999). Because student work
can be evaluated by the same basic criteria regardless of the medium of the original text,
there is no need for a radical restructuring of the curriculum (Alexander, 2009).
Video games show great potential to immerse and motivate players. This strength
aligns closely with a clear need to engage college students in literacy activities. College
reading and writing skills have declined to problematic levels, and test scores continue to
drop (Jameson, 2007). Fewer than 40% of students arrive at college with adequate
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Video Games as Texts in College English Courses
reading skills to do their work, while the numbers for writing are even lower (Alexander,
2009). Writers on this topic suggest several causes for this decline, and two related
factors come up repeatedly: student motivation and the relevance of the literary material
to students' lives (Jameson, 2007; Jolley, 2008; Adams, 2009). Anectodal evidence
suggests that integrating video games into existing literature curricula increases student
engagement, particularly among otherwise reluctant readers (Jolley, 2008; Adams, 2009).
Colby and Colby, proposing a composition class based on World of Warcraft, write that
video games excel at creating the immersion necessary for deep engagement with a text
(2008).
Video games are relatively new as a technology, and even newer as an art form. It
is difficult to make a case for games as texts worthy of serious study upon their
commercial introduction in the 1970s, except insofar as their themes reflected the wider
culture. Modern games are quite different, and are capable of telling sophisticated stories
using words, images, sound, and interaction. In other words, they contain elements of
new literacies alongside traditional ones. In a recent case study, Alexander analyzed the
narratives constructed by two college undergraduate World of Warcraft players. He found
that these players demonstrated numerous "high-level literacy skills" which manifested in
"visual, technological and textual" modalities (Alexander, 2009). These results align
closely with those of other researchers and theorists (Gee, 2007; Selfe, Hawisher &
Ittersum, 2007). Alexander concluded that "we should seriously consider using complex
video games as primary 'texts' in composition courses," highlighting the need for further
research in this area (2009).
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Video Games as Texts in College English Courses
Evidence from other educators who have seen fit to use games as texts in English
courses similarly suggests that students respond enthusiastically, and that the quality of
student work produced is satisfactory (Clayton & Hall, 2008; Jolley, 2008; Adams,
2009). However, many of the studies conducted so far have focused on the creation of
games by students as a form of literary composition (Robertson & Good, 2005;
Carbonaro et al, 2007; Alexander, 2009; Owston, 2009). Arguments for games as texts
worthy of study is largely theoretical, or at best anecdotal (Clayton & Hall, 2008; Colby
& Colby, 2008; Jolley, 2008; Adams, 2009). There is a clear need for more research in
this area.
The quasi-experimental study proposed here is intended to evaluate performance
of college students in an English class that includes a video game alongside traditional
texts as a work to experience and analyze. This study is conceived as a pilot study can be
repeated with different populations and modified to fit different curriculums, using a
variety of texts. In this way, it will serve as a first step towards the creation of a
meaningful set of data with which to determine whether English courses that use video
games as literary texts can provide the same quality of instruction as courses that do not.
Past research and theory suggests that students in the experimental course would produce
work of a quality at least as high as that of students in the traditional course, and this is
what we would expect to find.
Methods
Each of the two English classes participating in this study would contain
approximately 80 college freshmen, with an average age between 18 and 19, and a gender
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Video Games as Texts in College English Courses
ratio of roughly 1:1. The sample selection would be quasi-experimental (cluster
sampling), since students cannot be screened to equalize the groups for significant factors
such as existing writing and reading skills.
This study would be a standard a nonequivalent control group design, including
both control and experimental groups, as well as a pretest, "treatment" and posttest.
Although it is impossible in a quasi-experimental study to ensure parity between groups
for all moderator variables, we can at least determine the degree of discrepancy on these
factors using a pre-treatment test. Possible moderator variables for this study include
existing reading and writing skills, dedication to schoolwork, amount of experience
playing video games and video game genre preferences.
Just as avid readers may prefer very different books, "gamer" is not a blanket
descriptor covering all video game players. The video game proposed for use as a text in
this study is BioShock, a first-person shooter with some mechanics reminiscent of role-
playing games. Determining whether such a game is accessible to non-gamers is
important, but no more important than determining whether it is accessible to regular or
occasional game players unfamiliar with those game genres.
A fairly simple pretest, consisting of a 2-3 page essay on a short story or
nonfiction article (the same one for each sample group) and a short in-class survey, could
provide useful data on these variables.
Pretest survey questions would include the following:
How many hours do you spend on homework each week, on average?
What was your grade point average (GPA) in high school?
Do you consider yourself a (circle one):
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Video Games as Texts in College English Courses
o below-average student
o average student
o above-average student
Do you play video games (circle one)?
o Yes o No
If you answered "Yes" above, how many hours per week do you play video
games, on average (circle one)?
o 1-2 hours o 3-5 hours o 5+ hours
Do you play video games with three-dimensional graphics?
o Yes o No
Please rank your favorite video game genres from those listed below. Place a "1"
next to your favorite genre, a "2" next to your second-favorite genre, and so on,
for as many genres as you enjoy playing.
o Action games
o Adventure games
o Simulation/management
games
o Strategy games
o Role-playing games
o Puzzle games
o Shooters
o Driving games
o Other ___________
All of the questions above could be easily quantified and coded, as could letter
grades on the pretest essay assignment. Although there is no clear way to correct for
differences between the two classes that would be identified by this pretest, the data
collected could suggest avenues for further research in the future. This is especially true
if differences identified by the pretest appear to correspond with significant differences in
the dependent variable, which will be measured as described below.
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Video Games as Texts in College English Courses
Aside from the moderator variable, this study design is fairly straightforward: the
independent variable is the use of the video game BioShock as a text in the experimental
class but not in the control class. The dependent variable is the quality of student work
produced, which would be evaluated using a rubric based on established English writing
course standards (College Board, 2002). This rubric would have no impact on teacher
grades, and would be intended to provide a quantitative evaluation of the quality of
student work. In order to ensure inter-rater reliability, both teachers as well as a
researcher would evaluate each piece of student work, and the results of these evaluations
would be averaged together.
The details of exactly how BioShock would be used in the experimental class
depend on the teaching style of the course instructor, but what follows are general
guidelines and suggestions. First, because BioShock is a complex game played from the
first-person perspective, time must be taken to introduce students to the basic mechanics
(movement, inventory, shooting, interacting with the environment). Students may be
expected to arrive at college with fundamental reading skills in place to build upon, but
the same is not true of what may be termed gaming literacy. Once this has been done,
students should be provided with a short introduction to the intellectual context of the
game, which includes numerous references to the work of author Ayn Rand and to her
philosophy of Objectivism. A discussion of BioShock's unusual narrative structure, in
which the story of the bizarre world entered by the player's in-game avatar is presented
through fragmented audio logs scattered across the game world, should also be
undertaken. Students should be instructed that their primary goal in playing game is to
reconstruct this story, and to consider both the plot and the way that it is being told.
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Video Games as Texts in College English Courses
Students should also be provided with a list of online resources including web-based
strategy guides to the game and The BioShock Wiki, a Wikia-based website that features
transcriptions of in-game story content like the aforementioned audio logs. Weekly
journal assignments could be used to track students' progress through BioShock and their
experience of the game as both game and text, providing invaluable information about
unforeseen challenges for future researchers. A traditional essay could be assigned as a
final project related to this video game text; a list of suggested topics could range from
questions about character motivation in the game's story to arguments about how game
narrative varies from written fiction due to the nature of each medium.
The 7-category evaluative rubric proposed for use in evaluating these essays
(Table 1) is taken from the College Entrance Examination Board's AP Vertical Teams
Guide for English handbook (2002). Scored using the point values provided below, an
essay that is rated as exemplary for all characteristics would receive 98 points (the
equivalent of an 'A'); a commendable essay would receive 84 points (a 'B'); an effective
essay would receive 70 points (a 'C') and an essay that merely approaches effective would
receive 56 points, a failing grade.
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Video Games as Texts in College English Courses
Table 1
Common Grading Rubric for Written Student Work
Writer’s Choice
Thinking Organization Content Sentence Structure
Language Mechanics
Writer’s choice of voice, audience, form, and purpose
Development of ideas
Clarity and logic details
Supporting sentences
Variety and quality
Effective variety, figurative language, dialogue
Spelling, punctuation, capitalization, paragraphing
EXEMPLARY — 14 points Skillfully uses variety of voices
Synthesizes complex ideas
Clearly and artfully ordered
Rich and substantive
Variety enhances style and effect
Rich, effective vocabulary
Very few or no errors
Sophisticated sense of audience
Sophisticated evaluation of ideas
Organization enhances meaning
Stimulates new responses
Sophisticated patterns
Sophisticated figurative language
Use of mechanics furthers meaning
Sees complexities and implications
Generates original insights
Sophisticated integration of sources
No errors in structure or usage
Artful use of dialogue/ quotations
Breaks rules artfully
Sophisticated choice of form
Keen insight Sophisticated use of title
Elegant sentences
COMMENDABLE — 12 points Powerful and consistent voice
Synthesizes ideas Clearly focused Interesting and meaningful
Appropriate variety
Effective, furthers meaning
Few errors
Clear sense of audience
Careful evaluation of data
Skillful transitions Effective/ ”telling” details
Some use of sophisticated structures
Generally uses rich language
Capitalization and punctuation correct
Ambitious purpose achieved
Evidence of original thinking
Skillful development of ideas
Effective integration of sources
Few errors in structure or usage
Effective figurative language
Effective paragraphs
Effective choice of form
Displays insight Effective introduction and conclusion
Effective title Effective use of syntax
Effective use of dialogue/ quotations
EFFECTIVE — 10 points Effective voice Attempts
synthesis Generally focused Many details Some sentence
variety Acceptable vocabulary
Errors don’t interfere with meaning
Sense of audience
Evidence of evaluation
Consistent point of view
Details support focus
Attempts sophisticated patterns
Attempts sophisticated language
Spelling generally correct
Purpose stated and achieved
Evidence of analysis
Adequate introduction and conclusion
Information is correct
Errors do not interfere with meaning
Generally correct usage
Simple punctuation
Appropriate use of form
Some insight Adequate integration of sources
Some figurative language
Adequate title
APPROACHES EFFECTIVE — 8 points Inappropriate or stilted voice
Lacks original ideas
Focus limited/ too broad
Insufficient detail
Little sentence variety
Simple vocabulary
Frequent errors distract
Some sense of audience
Recognizes important data
Awkwardly organized Some details don’t support focus
Relies on a few simple patterns
Some errors in usage
Errors in spelling, punctuation, or capitalization
Some awareness of purpose
Attempts analysis
Needs additional transitions
Information is correct
Errors interfere with meaning
Too wordy
Awkward use of form
Little insight Awkward introduction or conclusion
Attempts integration of sources
Repetitive structure awkward syntax
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Video Games as Texts in College English Courses
Because of the design of this study, data collected would be subjected to the t-test
for dependent samples in order to determine the statistical significance of any differences
between the two groups. The fact that we can then set the desired level of risk does not
mean that the results of this study will be relevant to all questions about the usefulness of
video games in classrooms. The results are generalizeable only to other situations in
which games with strong narratives are used as texts in college-level English courses.
Results
The fictitious data set in Table 2 represents the results we might see were we
unable to reject the null hypothesis (no significant difference between the groups).
Table 2
Hypothetical Grade Distribution, 3 Written Assigments for each Class of 80 Students
A-level work B-level work C-level work D-level work F-level work0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
45 48
75
48
24
4248
80
46
24
Control ClassExperimental Class
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Video Games as Texts in College English Courses
Were the research hypothesis supported to a statistically significant degree, the
data in Table 2 would show greater variation between the control and experimental
groups, with the grades trending generally higher for one class or the other.
Discussion
Were the results of this research to support the acceptance of the research
hypothesis, the conclusions that must be drawn would depend on the direction of the
statistically significant difference between the experimental and control groups. In the
event that the experimental group which studied BioShock in addition to more traditional
texts produced work of an inferior quality (and thus learned less) than the control group,
this would suggest that video games are not interchangeable with traditional texts in a
college-level English course format. A logical next step for researchers would be to begin
asking questions about the ways that players engage with video games as texts, and how
this engagement differs from the experience of reading a novel or watching a film. The
debate between ludological (play-based) and narratological (story-based) understandings
of games might be illustrative in this case.
However, the data might instead support the acceptance of the research hypothesis
by showing that students in the experimental group outperformed students in the control
group. In this case, the previous suggestion for research into the ways that players
experience games as distinct from the ways that they experience other texts would remain
valid, perhaps with an added emphasis on the relationship between immersion and
motivation. Research into the kinds of games appropriate for use as texts, as described
more fully below, could also prove fruitful.
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Video Games as Texts in College English Courses
In the event that the null hypothesis could not be rejected, this would serve as
evidence that the use of games as texts in college-level literature curricula can be
pedagogically sound. Further research into the advantages of and obstacles to such uses
would be strongly recommended. Focusing on specific characteristics that make certain
games or game genres strong candidates for use as texts would be a logical next step. For
example: does a strongly linear narrative tend to correlate with good results, as opposed
to a branching narrative? Does student success in courses that integrate games correlate
strongly with any identified moderator variables?
Truthfully, even if this study produces interesting and statistically significant
findings, it is not widely generalizeable. The sample size is simply too small. As a pilot
study, though, it can point the way for further research on the subject of games as texts in
college-level English courses—a great deal of hard and soft data will be generated about
the immediate subject of the study, as well as about the effectiveness of the research
design and the relationship between gaming literacy and comfort with game texts among
students. For that reason, we consider it a valuable proposal and submit it for
consideration.
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Video Games as Texts in College English Courses
References
Adams, M. G. (2009). Engaging 21st-century adolescents: Video games in the reading classroom. English Journal. 98 (6), 56-59.
Aiex, N. K. (1999). Mass media use in the classroom. ERIC Digest. D147.
Alexander, J. (2009). Gaming, student literacies, and the composition classroom: Some possibilities for transformation. College Composition and Communication. 61 (1), 35-63.
The Bioshock Wiki. (2009, December 9). Wiki communities for everyone! -- Wikia.com. Retrieved December 9, 2009, from http://bioshock.wikia.com.
Carbonaro, M., Cutumisu, M., Duff, H., Gillis, S., Onuczko, C., Siegel, J … Waugh, K. (2008). Interactive story authoring: A viable form of creative expression for the classroom. Computers & Education. 51 (2), 687-707.
Clayton, J., & Hall, M. J. (2008). Worlds of Wordcraft — class audio and video (Podcast). Retrieved May 8, 2009, from http://deimos.apple.com/WebObjects/Core.woa/Browse/vanderbilt.edu.1365623720.
Colby, R. S., & Colby, R. (2008). A Pedagogy of Play: Integrating computer games into the writing classroom. Computers and Composition. 25 (3), 300-312.
College Entrance Examination Board, & Educational Testing Service. (2002). The AP vertical teams guide for English. New York: College Entrance Examination Board.
Gee, J. P. (2007). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Jameson, D. A. (2007). Literacy in decline: Untangling the evidence. Business Communications Quarterly. 70 (1), 16-33.
Jolley, K. (2008). Video games to reading: Reaching out to reluctant readers. English Journal. 97 (4), 81-86.
Owston, R., Wideman, H., Ronda, N. S., Brown, C. (2009). Computer game development as a literacy activity. Computers & Education. 53 (3), 977-989.
Robertson, J., & Good, J. (2005). Children's narrative development through computer game authoring. TechTrends: Linking Research & Practice to Improve Learning. 49 (5), 43-59.
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Video Games as Texts in College English Courses
Selfe, C. L., Hawisher, G. E., & Ittersum, D. V. (2007). Gaming lives in the twenty-first century: Literate connections. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
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