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INFECTIOUS DISEASE EPIDEMIOLOGY
Infectious Organisms
Viruses
The smallest of the microbes that we will cover (excludes prions and agents of spongiform encephalopathies): 20 – 200nm
Viruses
Classification Viral genome Size and shape of
the capsid Enveloped or non-
enveloped capsid Method of replication Pathophysiology Physical/chemical
features
Classification
Viral Genome DNA or RNA Single stranded or
double stranded Linear or circular Segmented or non-
segmented Genome capping
Classification
Capsid Size and shape of the capsid Enveloped or non-enveloped
Classification
Method of replication
Classification
Pathophysiology of the virus such as host range, antigenic composition, vectors, and tissue tropism
Physical/chemical features, such as susceptibility to acid or lipid solvents
Viruses
Structure Complete
infectious virus is called a virion
Composed of its specific nucleic acid, DNA or RNA, surrounded by a protein coat known as the capsid
Viruses An example
Bacteria
Classification: Morphologic classification based on 1) staining characteristics, 2) shape and size of the organism
Bacteria: Classification
Gram stain reaction Cells that retain the
crystal violet-iodine complex appear blue/purple and are gram positive – cell walls are thicker
Cells that do not retain the crystal violet-iodine complex appear red/pink and are gram negative – cell walls are thinner
Bacteria: Classification
Shape and arrangement
Cocci – round or spherical cells
Bacilli – rod-shaped cells
Curved, spiral forms
Bacteria: Classification
Other classification metabolic and physiologic
differences, as measured by the presence or absence of specific enzymes these identify bacteria that are able to
use particular nutrients for growth, or metabolize particular substrates
Genetic methods
Bacteria
Structure
Bacteria: Structure
Flagella: Long, complex
structures that are important for motility
Non-essential An important antigen
for identification and classification among those bacteria that possess them
Bacteria: Structure Pili or fimbriae: Short, non-flexible structures that
surround the surface of the cell Responsible for adherence to host
cell membranes through a very specific interaction that frequently determines the organotropism of a particular pathogen
Non-essential Conjugation – the attachment and
transfer of DNA between similar species of bacteria by way of the sex or F pili – this is process is the most common method for acquisition of antibiotic resistance determinants by bacteria
Bacteria: Structure
Capsules: Secreted polysaccharides
and, in some cases, proteins that surround some bacterial cells
Non-essential In the environment, their
primary function is to prevent dehydration of the cell, but in pathogens they are a major virulence factor through interference of the host’s phagocytosis
Bacteria: Structure
Cell Wall: Essential component to all
bacteria, with the exception of the mycoplasma
Determines the size and shape of the cell
Serves as an exoskeleton, preventing lysis of the cell
Differences in structure provide the taxonomic designation of gram staining; peptidoglycan – this polymer forms the strong backbone for all other cell wall components
Bacteria: Structure
Cell wall: Gram + Gram + bacteria are
composed of a very thick layer of peptidoglycan
This does not make the cell wall a permeability barrier for the bacteria’s cytoplasmic membrane, primarily because of teichoic acid
Teichoic acid can activate host macrophages with the release of IL-1 and TNF-alpha
Bacteria: Structure Cell wall: Gram – Gram - bacteria have a much more
complex cell envelop: the outermost portion of the gram-neg cell wall is a lipid bilayer known as the outermembrane, under which is the periplasmic space, which contains a variety of metabolic and transport enzymes
The peptidoglycan layer of gram - bacteria is much thinner that that of gram + bacteria
The outer leaflet of the outer membrane contains lipopolysaccharide, or endotoxin, which is a major virulence factor of gram-negative bacteria
The cell wall of gram-negative bacteria is a permeability barrier, unlike gram-positive bacteria
Bacteria: Structure
Cytoplasmic membrane:
Essential Beneath the cell
wall of all bacteria Primary osmotic
barrier for the cell
Fungi
Characteristics Pathogenic fungi have two forms: Yeasts, which are unicellular and reproduce by
extension of buds from the mother cell Molds, which are multicellular, with a division of
function among individual cellular components, and grow as a filamentous, branching strand of connected cells, forming a hypha
Many of the truly pathogenic forms fungi have two growth forms and can exist as either molds or yeast, depending on environmental conditions, i.e. they are dimorphic.
Fungi: Mold Structure
Fungi: Mold Structure
Fungi: Yeast Structure
Fungi: Yeast Structure
Fungi
Fungi of medical importance can be grouped according to the type or location of infection they cause:
Superficial mycoses or infections that involve only the outermost layers of the skin and hair
Cutaneous mycoses that involve primarily the epidermis
Subcutaneous mycoses that cause infections of the dermis and subcutaneous tissue
Systemic mycoses, which are infections of internal organ systems
Fungi
Systemic Mycoses There are those systemic mycoses that are
caused by true, or primary, pathogens, which are capable of causing disease in healthy people
There are those systemic mycoses that are opportunistic pathogens, which are marginally pathogenic and cause disseminated or deep-tissue infection in immunocompromised or debilitated hosts
Parasites
Parasites: parasitic diseases are spread in conditions of poverty – substandard housing, poor water treatment, and crowding facilitate their transmission
Parasites: Disease Burden
TDR
Disease Burden (DALYs)
(thousands)
Deaths (thousands)
Total Male Female Total Male Female
African trypanosomiasis
1 1598 1029 568 50 32 18
Leishmaniasis 1 2357 1410 946 59 35 24
Malaria 2 42,280
20,024
22,256 1124 532 592
Schistosomiasis
2 1760 1081 678 15 11 5
Chagas disease
3 649 333 316 13 7 6
Lymphatic filariasis
3 5644 4317 1327 0 0 0
Onchocerciasis
3 987 571 416 0 0 0
Parasites: Protozoa Belong to a subkingdom (Protozoa) as they are neither plant nor
animal Oval, spherical, or elongated cells that range in size from 1-300µm
to 1-2 mm Cytoplasmic membrane that encloses cytoplasm containing
membrane-bound nuclei, mitochondria, 80S ribosomes, and a variety of specialized organelles associated with higher life forms
Majority of protozoa are aquatic, living in soil water, rivers, oceans, etc; there is a small subset that are obligate parasites of animals capable of producing both acute and chronic disease
Can reproduce both asexually and sexually (like fungi) Some protozoa have complex reproductive cycles, in which different
hosts are required for different stages of the life cycle Hosts in which sexual reproduction occurs is called the definitive host,
while asexual multiplication occurs in the intermediate host, among Protozoa requiring multiple hosts to complete their life cycles
Some protozoa can form cysts to survive in unfavorable environmental conditions (like spore-forming bacteria)
Protozoa
Protozoa: Classification
Sarcomastigophora Sarcodinia – Amoeba
generally confined to the intestine, but can occasionally be carried in the blood to other organs of the body, such as the liver, lungs, spleen, pericardium, and brain
Do not possess complex organelles Do not reproduce sexually; multiply by binary
fission Use of pseudo-podia (fingerlike projections) to
acquire food, and for motility Many species are capable of forming cysts under
adverse conditions
Protozoa: Amoeba
Protozoa: Classification
Amoeba Entamoeba is the most prevalent genus
associated with humans Most species of this genus exist as normal
flora of the human intestinal tract However, Entamoeba histolytica is a
potential pathogen in humans: infections with this species are referred to
amebiasis and can be the cause of amebic dysentery:
Protozoa
Amoebic dysentery Actively growing organisms (trophozoites) invade the intestinal
mucosa, resulting in lesions that can range in symptoms (few daily loose stools with small amounts of blood and mucous to numerous intestinal ulcers causing severe diarrhea and substantial amounts of blood and mucous; in some individuals these intestinal ulcers may erode into adjoining blood vessels, allowing the amoeba to spread to other organs, especially the liver and lungs, and eventually leading to abscess formation
More prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions than in temperate regions
Often associated with poor sanitary conditions In most cases, transmission is the result of ingestion of cysts from
chronic carriers who shed the cyst form of the organism in their feces Unlike acute cases, which tend to shed the trophozoite forms in feces,
cysts are relatively resistant to harsh environmental conditions and therefore survive long enough to establish new infections
Protozoa: Classification
Mastigophora: flagellated protozoa commonly divided into those that cause intestinal or genital tract disease (intestinal flagellates) and those transmitted by blood-sucking insects (hemoflagellates)
Flagellated Protozoa
Flagellate Life Cycle
Protozoa: Classification
Mastigophora: Intestinal (genital) flagellates
Giardia lamblia – causes giardiasis Trichomonas vaginalis – trichomoniasis
Hemoflagellates Trypanosoma Leishmania
Example: Trypanosomiasis
Hemoflagellates Trypanosoma Trypanosomes are the causative
agents for: West and East African
trypanosomiasis (Sleeping Sickness) American trypanosomiasis (Chagas’s
disease)
Example: Trypanosomiasis
African trypanosomiasis (Sleeping sickness) Tsetse fly (Glossinia) is the vector The trypanosomes migrate through the blood
to lymph nodes This triggers ongoing attacks of fever
The attacks can be intermittent and recur over a period of weeks to months
These sustained attacks can often result in heart damage
As the disease progresses trypanosomes invade the central nervous system, causing meningoencephalitis
African Trypanosomiasis
Epidemiology West African versus East African T. brucei gambiense: disease progression is slow T. brucei rh0desiense: disease progression is very
rapid Western sand fly: Riverine, very high density Eastern sand fly: Everywhere, by very sparse (1 fly
per square mile) Importance of conflict and displaced communities Disease burden: widely varying estimates; very
poor surveillance in remote areas; anywhere between 10, 000 and 500,000 new cases per year
American Trypanosomiasis
American trypanosomiasis (Chagas’ Disease) Reduviid bug is the vector The trypanosome is unable to multiply outside
the cell of its vertebrate host, and therefore undergoes a change to the amastigote form and can be found multiplying in virtually every cell in every organ of the body
Hollow organs The organ most often effected is the heart,
wherein inflammation causes an enlargement of the heart
American Trypanosomiasis
Epidemiology Housing is a critical characteristic for
reduviid bug control: thatched roofs; dogs and pigs close to or in the home
Disease Burden: prevalence ~ 8 million across all endemic countries; incidence ~ 40 – 50,000 per year
Chronic disease lasting decades is quite common, so humans are a critical reservoir as well
Example: Leishmaniasis
Leishmania spp. Causative agent of leishmaniasis Transmitted by the vector sand fly (Phlebotomus
genus in the Old World, Lutzomyia in the New World) The flagellated promastigote is the form that is in the
vector gut and the form that is transferred to the human host
The flagellated promastigotes then transform into nonmotile amastigotes that then proliferate in cells of the reticuloendothelial system, specifically, macrophages and endothelial cells
Leishmania cause disease by co-opting the immune response
Protozoa: Leishmania
Cutaneous Leishmaniasis
Leishmania: 3 major species are of importance to humans (there are many others)
Leishmania tropica – Causes cutaneous leishmaniasis: occurs
primarily in the Near East, Mediterranean, Africa, Southern Russia and South Asia;
Characterized by a papule that appears at the bite site and eventually develops an ulcer, usually healing within a year and leaving a scar
Cutaneous leishmaniasis
Mucocutaneous Leishmaniasis L. braziliensis – Causes mucocutaneous leishmaniasis: a
variant of cutaneous form that involves the mucous membranes of the nasopharyngeal area;
If untreated the nasal septum, lips, and soft palate may be destroyed, resulting asphyxiation due to airway collapse or secondary bacterial infection
Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis
Visceral Leishmaniasis
L. donovani – Causes visceral leishmaniasis: the
leishmania are able to invade the reticuloendothelial system throughout the body, especially the liver and spleen
As a result, these organs become enlarged causing abdominal swelling and often result in death an average of two years after onset of initial symptoms
Visceral leishmaniasis
Leishmaniasis Epidemiology Again, poor surveillance, especially
for VL Hundreds of millions are at genuine
risk for infection. ~10 million infected, with ~1-2
million incident cases per year (includes all forms)
Vector control has figured prominently: insecticide impregnated bed nets (similar to malaria)
Back to Protozoan Classification Apicomplexa – Only one class that is
relevant for humans: Sporoza:
These parasites cause malaria and toxoplasmosis, as well as intestinal infections
Protozoa: Classification
Sporoza: Plasmodium vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae,
and P. falciparum: Cause malaria Transmission by vector of the female
mosquito (Anopheles) Clinical symptoms are variable across the
different species, but in general include chills and fever at intermittent, regular intervals followed by profuse sweating
Protozoa: Classification
Sporoza Toxoplasma gondii Cryptosporidium
Toxoplasma gondii: Life Cycle
Parasites: Helminths
Platyhelminthes (flatworms): Typically no digestive tract, or only a
rudimentary one Typically flat Most are hermaphroditic Humans are often the definitive
hosts for adult worms, though there are also often intermediate hosts in other animals in different developmental stages of the worm
Parasites: Helminths
Platyhelminths Cestodes (tapeworms) Trematodes (flukes)
Cestodes
Cestodes
Trematodes (liver fluke)
Trematodes (blood fluke)
Parasites: Helminths
Aschelminths (roundworms) Nematodes (e.g. Toxocara, pinworms)
Nematode
Nematode
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