The West on the Eve of The West on the Eve of A New World OrderA New World Order

1717

Toward a New Heaven and a New Earth: Toward a New Heaven and a New Earth: An Intellectual Revolution in the West An Intellectual Revolution in the West

Scientific Revolution – new way of viewing the universe and their place in it

Toward a New Heaven: A Revolution in Astronomy Geocentric theory Universe a series of concentric spheres with a fixed or motionless

earth at its center Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543)

• Heliocentric (sun centered) theory Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

• Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, Principia• World-machine

Europe, China, and Scientific Revolutions

Background to the EnlightenmentBackground to the Enlightenment The Enlightenment

Political and social change in 18th C A movement of intellectuals who were impressed with

accomplishments of Scientific Revolution Reason Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

• World and everything in it worked like a giant machine

John Locke (1632-1704)• Essay Concerning Human Understanding

• Every person born with a blank mind

Enlightenment, cont’dEnlightenment, cont’d

The Philosophers and Their Ideas Who made up the philosophers? Paris the capital Role of philosophy not just to discuss the world

but to change it

Montesquieu, Voltaire, and DiederotMontesquieu, Voltaire, and Diederot Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) Spirit of the Laws (1748)

Natural laws Three kinds of government Checks and Balances/Separation of powers

François-Marie Arouet, Voltaire (1694-1778) Criticism of traditional religion Favored religious toleration Deism

Denis Diederot (1713-1784) Encyclopedia, 28 volumes Spread the ideas of the Enlightenment

Toward a New “Science of Man”Toward a New “Science of Man” Belief in natural laws for all areas of human life Called “Science of Man”, or social sciences Physiocrats

Natural economic laws Adam Smith (1723-1790)

• State should not interfere with economic matters• Idea became known as laissez-faire• Three functions of government: protect society against

invasion; defend citizens against injustice; and keep up certain public works The “Woman Question” in the Enlightenment

The Later EnlightenmentThe Later Enlightenment Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind

The Social Contract• Entire society agrees to be governed by its

general will• General will is not only political but also

ethical, representing what the entire community ought to do

Émile• Education should foster, rather than restrict,

children’s natural instincts

The Later Enlightenment, cont’dThe Later Enlightenment, cont’d

The “Woman Question” in the Enlightenment Nature of women made them inferior to men, thus male

domination of women necessary and right Notable contributions:

• Maria Winkelmann, Germany astronomer• Mary Wollstonecraft, British writer

• Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)• Subjection of women by men wrong• Ideal of reason innate in all human beings

Culture in an Enlightened AgeCulture in an Enlightened Age Rococo Art

Emphasized grace, charm, and gentle action Highly secular

Antoine Watteau (1684-1721) World of upper-class joy and pleasure; underneath the

fragility and transitory nature of pleasure, love, and life High Culture

Literary and artistic culture Expansion in the 18th century of reading public and

publishing Popular Culture

Group activity Feast days and festivals, e.g. carnival

Economic Changes and the Economic Changes and the Social OrderSocial Order

New Economic Patterns Population Growth

• Lower death rates, plague disappeared, better agricultural practices and methods yielded more food, more land farmed

Textile production shifted to countryside “putting-out” and ‘domestic” system – cottage industry

Global economy: Trade that interlocked Europe, Africa, the East and the

Americas Plantations of the Western Hemisphere Commercial capitalism created enormous prosperity

European Society in the European Society in the Eighteenth CenturyEighteenth Century

Society still divided into traditional orders or estates determined by heredity

Governments helped maintain the divisions Free peasant and serf

85 percent of Europe’s population Eastern Germany, eastern Europe, and Russia peasants remained

tied to the land as serfs Peasants in Britain, northern Italy, the Low Countries, Spain, most

of France, and some areas of western Germany were largely free Nobles Urban population

Patrician oligarchies, upper middle class, lower middle class, laborers

Europe in 1763 Europe in 1763

Antoine Watteau, Antoine Watteau, The Pilgrimage to CytheraThe Pilgrimage to Cythera

Colonial Empires and Revolution Colonial Empires and Revolution in the Western Hemispherein the Western Hemisphere

Society in Latin America Multiracial

• Mestizos• Mulattoes

The Economic Foundations• Precious metals• Agriculture• Trade

Colonial Latin America, cont’dColonial Latin America, cont’d

The State and the Church in Colonial Latin America

• Portuguese Brazil and Spanish America were colonial empire for over 300 years

• Colonial officials had a lot of autonomy over governing due to difficulty of communication and travel between Europe and Latin America

• Portuguese monarchy created governor general post• King of Spain appointed viceroys

Colonial Latin America, cont’dColonial Latin America, cont’d

Catholic church played an important role in Americas Indians brought into villages, converted, taught trades

and grew crops Missionaries controlled lives and kept them docile Built hospitals, orphanages, schools, nunneries which

women ran, so they had an alternative to marriage.• Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, literary figure

Latin America in the Latin America in the Eighteenth CenturyEighteenth Century

British North AmericaBritish North America

Shared political power between monarch and Parliament Parliament gradually gained the upper hand Crown chose ministers responsible to the crown Parliament made laws, levied taxes, passed budgets and

influenced the king’s ministers Growing middle class

William Pitt, the elder, prime minister in 1757 Gained Canada and India in The Seven Year’s War

The American RevolutionThe American Revolution Consequences of the Seven Years’ War Second Continental Congress

Declaration of Independence The War

Foreign support Continental Army Yorktown, 1781 Treaty of Paris, 1783

Birth of a New NationBirth of a New Nation

Articles of Confederation, 1781 Constitution, 1789

Three branches of government “Checks and balances” Bill of Rights

Toward A New Political Order and Toward A New Political Order and Global ConflictGlobal Conflict

Enlightenment impacts political development Philosopher’s natural rights What made a ruler enlightened? Enlightened absolutism Prussia: The Army and the Bureaucracy

Frederick William II, the Great, of Prussia (1740-1786)• Well educated• Believed the king was the “first servant of the state”• Reforms

The Austrian Empire of the Habsburgs Joseph II of Austria (1780-1790)

• Reforms, Problems

Russia Under Catherine the GreatRussia Under Catherine the Great Catherine II, the Great, of Russia (1762-1796)

Initial reforms Charter of the Nobility, 1785 Expansion Emelyan Pugachev Rebellion, 1773-1774

Joseph II - true radical change Catherine II and Frederick II attempted some reforms Enlightened rulers were limited in what they could do

Enlightened Absolutism Enlightened Absolutism ReconsideredReconsidered

Necessities of state and maintenance of the existing system took precedence over reform

Joseph, Frederick, and Catherine guided by a concern for power and well-being of their states

Heightened state power used to create armies and wage wars to gain more power

Hereditary aristocracy was not ready to trumpet equal rights for all

Changing Patterns of War: Changing Patterns of War: Global ConfrontationGlobal Confrontation

International rivalry War of Austrian Succession, 1740-1748

Maria Theresa of Austria (1740-1748) Silesia was seized by Prussia from Austria France occupied the Austrian Netherlands France took Madras in India from the British Britain took Louisbourg in North America All exhausted by 1748; return of all territories

but Silesia

The French RevolutionThe French Revolution Background to the French Revolution Social Structure of the Old Regime

First Estate (Clergy)• 130,000 who own about 10 percent of the land• Exempt from the taille• Were divided from within as well• 350,000 owning about 25 to 30 percent of the land

Second Estate (Nobility)• About 350,000 people• Owned about 25 – 30 percent of the land• Looking to expand their power• Were exempt from the taille

The French Revolution, cont’dThe French Revolution, cont’d

Third Estate (Commoners, skilled workers, bourgeoisie)

• Peasants were 75 to 80 percent of the population owning 35 to 40 percent of the land

• No serfdom but obligations• Skilled craftsmen, shopkeepers, and wage earners• Bourgeoisie (middle class) about 8 percent (about

2.3 million) who own about 20 to 25 percent of the land

Other Problems Facing the Other Problems Facing the French MonarchyFrench Monarchy

Bad harvests in 1787 and 1788 Collapse of government finances Louis XIV (1774-1792)

Estates General, last called in 1614 First Estate and Second Estate 300 delegates Third Estates 600 delegates

From Estates-General to From Estates-General to National AssemblyNational Assembly

Estates General opens May 5, 1789, at the Palace of Versailles Organization Demands of the Third Estate

Third Estate constitutes itself as the National Assembly, June 17,1789

Bastille, July 14, 1789 The Great Fear, July-August, 1789

Destruction of the Old RegimeDestruction of the Old Regime Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, August 26, 1789 Olympe de Gouges

Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen Parisian women march to Versailles and force Louis XVI and

his family to return to Paris Civil Constitution of the Clergy, July 12, 1790 National Assembly creates a constitution, 1791

Set up a limited constitutional monarchy Legislative Assembly to make the laws Uses an indirect voting method to elect representatives

Opposition to the new government King attempts to flee France in June 1791 Legislative Assembly declares war on Austria, April 20, 1792

The Radical RevolutionThe Radical Revolution National Convention, September 1792

Abolition of the monarchy, September 21, 1792, creation of a republic

Execution of Louis XIV, January 21, 1793 Paris Commune Informal European coalition against France -- Austria,

Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Britain, the Dutch Republic, and Russia

A Nation in Arms Committee of Public Safety, 1793-1794

• Universal mobilization of the nation, August 23, 1793• Army grew from 650,000 to 1,169,000 in September 1794

Reign of TerrorReign of Terror

Protect the Republic from internal enemies

ExecutionsLyons

De-Christianization New calendar Temple of Reason

Reaction and the DirectoryReaction and the Directory

Robespierre guillotined on July 28, 1794, thus ending the Reign of Terror

Directory, August 1795-1799 Stagnation and corruption Coup d’état in 1799

The Age of NapoleonThe Age of Napoleon Born on the island of Corsica in 1769 Brigadier general, 1794 Disastrous expedition to Egypt, 1797 Consulate created following the coup d’état of 1799

Napoleon the First Consul Consul for life, 1802

Crowned Emperor Napoleon I, 1804 Domestic Policies

• Concordat of 1801 with the Catholic Church• Napoleonic Civil Code• Bureaucratic reform• Effects of Napoleon’s domestic policies

Napoleon’s EmpireNapoleon’s Empire Peace 1802; war renewed in 1803 Britain, Austria, Russia, Russia, and Prussia in the Third

Coalition Victories of 1805 to 1807 The Grand Empire

Napoleon master of Europe, 1807-1812• The French Empire• Dependent states• Allied states

Napoleon sought acceptance for revolutionary ideas Napoleon sought to destroy the old order Why does Napoleon fail?

The Coronation of Napoleon The Coronation of Napoleon

Napoleon’s Grand Empire Napoleon’s Grand Empire

Fall of NapoleonFall of Napoleon Invasion of Russia, 1812

Russia refused to remain in the Continental System Russian tactics Only 40,000 of 600,000 invaders returned to Poland in

January, 1813 Defeat , April, 1814

Paris captured in March, 1814 Exile to Elba, 1814 Louis XVIII took the throne Napoleon returns to France

Battle of Waterloo, June 18, 1815 Napoleon defeated by the Duke of Wellington Exile to St. Helena, 1815-1821

Discussion QuestionsDiscussion Questions Who were the leading figures of the Scientific Revolution

and the Enlightenment, and what were their main contributions?

What were the causes, the main events, and the results of the French Revolution?

In what ways were the American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the 17th century English revolutions alike? In what ways were they different?