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Prospectives of Plant Products in Sustainable Development
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Prof. N K DubeyCentre of Advanced Study in Botany,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India -221005
Prospectives of Plant Products in Sustainable Development of Indian Agriculture and
Pharmaceutical Industries
Month 0-1Month 1-50Month2-2500Month3-125,000Month 4-6,250,000Month 5-312,500,000Month6-1,560,000,000
Insects can develop eggs to adults in a month Insect population multiply
at rate of 50 times a month
Aflatoxins Mycotoxin produced by Aspergillus sp. 6th among the 10 most important healthrisks WHO 25-40% of cereals worldwide are contaminated with mycotoxins FAO
Aflatoxin B1
Most toxic among mycotoxins & found widely in greater concentration in food throughout the world
Potent hepatocarcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic and immunosuppressive
Aflatoxicosis• Liver Damage• Decrease in feed intake• Weight loss• Impaired cell immunity
O
O
OCH3
OO
(Z)
(Z)
O
C17 H12O6
Mycotoxin Elaboration in Stored drug samples
Drugs Mycotoxin Concentration μg/gm
Asparagus racemosus 0.16
Atropa belladonna 0.27
Withania somnifera 0.68
Plumbago zeylanica 1.13
Emblica officinalis 1.51
Terminalia chebula 1.19
Mucuna puriens 1.16
Biodeterioration of stored food commodities
ECONOMIC LOSSIndia and Africa are regarded as “high aflatoxin –risk areas”
Qualitative loss
Quantitative loss
Development of resistant strain
Non biodegradable
Environmentalpollution
Ozone layer depletion by methyl bromide
Some safer chemical
????.........
SYNTHETIC PESTICIDE
Carcinogenicity,teratogenicityresidual toxicity
Effect on non target organisms, predators, fish, birds
DDT – The Fallen Angel
Introduced in India in 1944
NMCP launched indoor spraying in 1952
Hindustan Insecticides Ltd established DDT Production
Proved beneficial in eradication of Kalajar and Plague
Fading Effect in 1960—Anopheles culicifacies resistance emerged
Stockholm Convention ( 2001)-- recommended ban
Common Range of Persistence of Some Pesticides
1-8 weeksCarbamate Insecticide
1-12 weeksOrganophosphate insecticide (Malathion)
1-5 monthsPhenoxy herbicide (2, 4-D)
2-10 monthsUrea herbicides (Monouron, "Diuron)
2-12 monthsBenzoic acid herbicide (Amiber, Diuron)
1-2 yearsTriazine herbicides (Atrazine, Simazine)
insecticides (DDT, Chlordane)
2.5 yearsChlorinated hydrocarbon
InfiniteArsenic
PersistencePesticide
Some Fungicide Resistance Cases
Fungicides Pathogens
Benomyl Cercospora beticola, C.arachidicola C.personatum, Botrytis cineria,
Fusarium udum,
Kitazin-P Pyricularia oryzae
Carboxin Macrophomina phaseolina
Carbendazim Aspergillus flavus, M. phaseolina
Venturia inaequalis
Captan A.flavus, M. phaseolinaCopper oxychloride Colletotrichum capsici,
Helminthosporium maydis
Maneb Rhizoctonia bataticola,
C. capsici, H. maydis
Thiram R. bataticola
Pesticides vis a vis bird toxicity
Pesticide application to eradicate mosquito
Michigan Lake Water (0.22ppm)
Zooplankton and Phytoplankton (77ppm)
Fish (1700 ppm)
Adverse effect on Pelican birds
Thinner outer shell in egg
Breaking of Shell before hatching
Delay in hatching
Decrease in population of pelican birds
Frequently detected pesticides in Fruits and Vegetables
Pesticides Crops affected Potential Hazards
Captan Grapes, peaches, strawberries, apples
Cancer
Carbaryl Corn, banana, grapes, peaches, oranges
Kidney damage
Dimethoate Green beans, grapes, watermelon, cabbage, broccoli
Cancer, birth defects
Endosulphan Spinach, lettuce, celery, strawberries, cauliflower
Tomatoes, cauliflower, cabbage, melons, peppers
Liver, Kidney damage
Methamidophos Tomatoes, cauliflower, cabbage, melons, peppers
Nerve system effects
Everything can wait, but not agriculture
Biodegradable environmental safety
Botanical Pesticideas
Fourth Generation Pesticides
Systemic in nature
Indigenousrenewable
WHAT NEXT ????....
Diverse biological effects less chance of resistance
development
Pesticidal plants and its components for million of years in nature without any adverse effect
High level of safety for humans, animals, fish and other non target organisms
Rotenone
OO
(Z)
(Z)
O
CCH3
O
O
O
CH3
CH3
H2C
Nicotine
N
N CH3
AntifeedantNeem oil
Powdered seed kernel
Neem Products in storage management
OO
MeOOC
O
O
O
O
AcO
MeOOCO
OHH
OH
OH
Azadirachtin
H
Azadirachtin Analogs
Names Substituents X Mol. Formula
Mol. Wt.
M.P. °C
R1 R2 R3
1. Azadirachtin-A Tg Ac COOMe α-COOMeβ-OH
C35H44O16 720 165°C
2. 3-deacetyal-3- cinnamoyl azadirachtin
Tg Cin COOMe α-COOMeβ-OH
C42H48O16 808 78°C
3. Azadirachtin-B H Tg COOMe α-COOMeβ-OH
C33H42O14 662 204°C
4. Azadirachtin-D Tg Ac Me α-COOMeβ-OH
C33H44O14 676 -
5. Azadirachtin-E H Ac COOMe α-COOMeβ-OH
C30H38O15 636 -
6. Azadirachtin-H Tg Ac COOMe -H, -OH C33H42O14 662 248°C
7. Azadirachtin-I Tg Ac Me -H, -OH C33H42O12 618 200°C
8. Vepol OMe H - - C36H48O17 762 -
9. Isovepol H OMe - - C36H48O17 762 -
10. Azadirachtin-F H Tg H, OH - C33H44O14 664 -
11. Azadirachtin-G - - - - C33H42O14 662 -
12. Azadirachtin-K - - - - C34H40O15 688 260°C
13. Azadirachtin- L Tg Ac COOMe α-H,β-OAc
C35H44O15 704 -
14. 11-ethoxyaza- dirachtin
- - - - C36H46O16 734 Amorphous
Neem Tree in Pest Control
Disruption or inhibiting pupa Blocking the moulting of larvae
Disruption of mating and sexual communications Repelling larvae and adults
Deterring females from laying eggs Sterilizing adults
Deterring feeding Inhibiting metamorphosis of pests Loss of flying ability reduction in guttural motility
1-Cinnamoyl-3-feruoyl-11-hydroxymeliacarpin
Active constituent of a botanical insecticide from Melia species
(R) (S)
(R)(S)
(R)
(S)
(S)
(R)
(S)
O
OH
(R)
OOH
O
O(R)
(R)
O
(Z)
OHCinnO
FerOH
Volkensin
Active constituent of a botanical insecticide from Melia species
(R)(R)
(R)
(S)
(R)
(S)
(S)
OH
OAc OH
(R)
(Z)
O(S)
HO
O
TigO
Toosendanin
Active constituent of a botanical insecticide from Melia species
Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium
H3C
H3C(R)
H
(R)
CH3H3C
H
O
O (S)(Z)
O
CH3
(Z)
CH2
H
H3C
H3C(R)
H
(R)
CH3H3C
H
O
O (S)(Z)
O
CH3
(Z)
CH3
H
(E)
H3C(R)
H
(R)
CH3H3C
H
O
O (S)(Z)
O
CH3
(Z)
CH2
H
O
H3C
(E)
H3C(R)
H
(R)
CH3H3C
H
O
O (S)(Z)
O
CH3
(Z)
CH3
H
O
H3C
Pyrethrin I
Cinerin I
Cinerin II
Pyrethrin II
Chemical Formula: C19H30O5
Oral LD50 for rats is 6150 mg/kg and 3800 mg/kg for mice
Safrole
Sassafras albidum oil
Natural synergist used with pyrethrins and rotenone
Inhibits detoxification Inhances shelf life till application
Sassafras albidumFam: Lauraceae
Piperonyl butoxide
A semisynthetic derivative of safrole
OH O
CH
(E)
OO O
CH3
CH3H3C
HH
H
Strigol-Isolated from root exudates stimulating suicidal germination of Striga asiatica
Carvone
Kaempferol
Melting Point: 271-273 oC
Rf. Value-64 (CHCl3-MeOH 8:1)
Shindola test for flavonoides- Positive
O
(E)
HO
OH
OH
OOH
Antimicrobial Post- inhibitin in Onoin and garlic
C4H5NS Allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) Post-inhibition frommustard & horseradish
MW 99.15
Glucosinulates
Myrosinase
NS
Semiochemicals Interaction affecting
Behaviour modifier
(Law and Rognier,1971)
Attractants and
mass trapping
Pheromones
Repellent
Antifeedant
Oviposition
deterrent
Juvabinone
(E)
(S)
(E) Germacrene A
(E)
β- Farnesene
Isolated from Golden rod
O
(Z)
CH3
CH3
O
OH3C
H2CH3C
O
(Z)
CH3
CH3
OH3C
Precocene I
Precocene II
Isolated from Ageratum houstonianum
(S)
(R) (S)
(R)(E)
(S)
(S)
(R)
OH
(R)
OH
OH
HO
HO
HO
OOH
Phytoecdysones : Moulting Hormone
Pteridophytes 6 families
Gymnosperm;6 families, 26 species
Angiosperms: 22 families, 46 species
Muristerone A : from Ipomoea seed
Quassia amaraFam: Simaroubaceae
Quassin (C22H28O6)
Neoquassin (C22H30O6)
Triterpenoid Lactone, male reproductive toxic, larvicidal, antifeedant
Juvocimenes: isolated and identified from the oil of sweet basil, Ocimum basilicum L.,
Insect juvenile hormone
Minor component of oil
Ocimum basilicum
Fam: Lamiaceae
(E) (E)
O
Juvocimene I
LimoneneScented plant chemical of Citrus peels (90%)
Toxic to insects
Nontoxic to warm blooded animals
Some Essential oils As Botanical Pesticides
Insecticides, Ovicidal
Attractant/ Repellants
Antifeedant
Juvenile Hormone
Antigonadal agents
Semiochemicals – behaviour modifiers
BOTANICALS AND DERIVATIVES EFFECTIVE AS INSECT CHEMOSTERILANTS
Reserpine Mexican fruit fly, Olive fly, Housefly
Tobacco budworm Tribolium
Sterculia foetida Housefly Face fly
Colchicine Screwworm Fruit fly (Drosophila)
House fly
Heliotrine Fruit fly (Drosophila), Face fly
Cafeine Fruit fly (Drosophila)
Serotonine Housefly
Emetine Screwworm
Pyrethrum Cigarette beetle, house fly
Aristolochia indica House fly
Rotenone House fly
Nicotine House fly
Acorus calamus
Family: Araceae
Vern. Name: Bach
A semi-aquatic, rhizomatous perennial herb, rhizome as thick As middle finger, pinkish brown externally, white spongy within, leaves distichous, flowers densely packed in Sessile cylindric spadix. Propagated through rhizomes
Yields calamus oil containing asarone. Rhizome is carminative,diuretic, Insecticidal.
Used in intermittent fever, skin diseases epilepsy and general debility
Some examples of potent insect antifeedants isolated from terrestrial plants
Chemical Type Compounds Plant source
Monoterpene Thymol Thymus vulgaris (Lamiaceae)
Sesquiterpene lactone Glaucolide A Vernonia sp. (Asteraceae)
(germacranolide type)
Sesquiterpene (drimane type) Polygodial Polygonum hydropiper (Polygonaceae)
Diterpene (abietane type) Abietic acid Pinus sp. (Pinaceae)
Diterpene (clerodane type) Ajugarin I Ajuga remota (Lamiaceae)
Triterpene (limonoid type) Azadirachtin Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae)
Triterpene (cardenolide type) Digitoxin Digitalis purpurea (Scrophulariaceae)
Triterpene (ergostane type) Withanolide E Withania somnifera (Solanaceae)
Triterpene (spirostane type) Aginosid Allium porrum (Liliaceae)
Alkaloid (indole type) Strychnine Strychnos nuxvomica (Loganiaceae)
Alkaloid (steroidal glycoside)Tomatin Lycopersicon esculentum (Solanaceae)
Phenolic (furnanocoumarin) Xanthotoxin Pastinaca sativa (Apiaceae)
Phenolic (lignan) Podophyllotoxin Podophyllum peltatum (Berberidaceae)
Phenolic (benzoate ester) Methyl salicylate Gaultheria procumbens (Ericaceae)
(R) (R)(S)
(S)(S)
(R)
(S)
(S)
(R)
H
(S)OO
O
OH
(R)
O
(S)
O
O
OCOOH3C
AcOOH
OH
COOCH3
(E)
(Z)
Azadirachtin
(S)
(S)
(R)
(R)
O
O
OO
OAcO
O
OAc(Z)
Glaucolide-A
OH
Thymol(R)
(R)
(S)
(R)(S) O
OAcCH2O
O
OAc
(Z)
Ajugarin I
(S)
(S)(R) CHO
CHO
H
(E)
Polygodial
Structure of some potent and well documented insect antifeedants from plants
Efficacy of higher plant products against aflatoxin B1
Plant Products ReferencesThymus vulgaris (EO) Kumar et al. (2008)
Amomum subulatum (EO) Singh et al. (2008)
Cinnamomum camphora (EO) Srivastava et al. (2008)
Alpinia galanga (EO) Srivastava et al. (2008)
Pelargonium graveolens (EO) Singh et al. (2008)
Satureja hortensis (EO) Abyaneh et al. (2008)
Adenocalymma alliaceum (Aq. Ex.) Shukla et al. (2008)
Syzygium aromaticum (EO) Bluma et al. (2008)
Lippia turbinate (EtOH. Ex.) Bluma et al. (2008)
Hedeoma multiflora (EtOH. Ex.) Bluma et al. (2008)
Ocimum basilicum (EO) Atanda et al. (2007)
Chenopodium ambrosioides (EO) Kumar et al. (2007)
Garcinia pedunculata (Chloroform Ex.) Joseph et al. (2005)
Thymus eriocalyx (EO) Rasooli and Owlia (2005)
Synthetic pesticides (LD50) Botanical pesticides (LD50)
Arsenic (763 mg/kg) Azadirachtin (>5000 mg/kg)
DDT (150-300 mg/kg) Pyrethroids (2600 mg/kg)
Chlordane (145-430 mg/kg) Sabadilla (4000-5000 mg/kg)
Atrazine (1750 mg/kg) Carvone (1640 mg/kg)
Carbendazim (>2000 mg/kg) Nicotine (50 mg/kg)
Endosulphan (76-240 mg/kg) Thymol (980-5628 mg/kg)
2,4-D (370 mg/kg) Rotenone (132-1500 mg/kg)
Malathion (400 mg/kg) Citral (6000 mg/kg)
Carbofuran (8 mg/kg) Allyl isothiocyanate (339 mg/kg)
Methomyl (30-34 mg/kg) Geraniol (3600 mg/kg)
Thiodicarb (66 mg/kg) Muristerone (6400 mg/kg)
Veratrine
Schoenocaulon officinale
Fam: Liliaceae
LD50 : 4000-5000 mg/kg
Effective against Caterpillar, Leaf hopper, Stink bugs, Squash bugs, Beetles
Common Name: Sabadilla, Natural Guard
Parameters Control Mentha oil Ocimum oil Zingiber oil
1. TLC 12.25×103 12.28×103±10.96t=0.0846
9.87×103±3.56t=1.6675
11.93×103±1.28t=0.6036
2. DLC
(a) Eosinophil 4 3.66±3.50t=0.3496
2.66±4.71t=0.6891
2.00±4.47t=1.00
(b) Monocytes 0 0 0 0
(c) Lymphocyte 45.83 50.83±51.72t=0.5502
25.33±35.32t=1.4167
59.50±30.81t=1.0824
(d) Neutrophylls 50.50 45.50±52.79t=0.3211
72.00±36.96t=1.4200
39.00±30.48t=0.9207
3. SGOT (µ/ml) 116.66 106.00±30.28t=0.8595
101.66±30.49t=1.20
95.00±41.77t=0.9207
4. SGPT (µ/ml) 45.83 43.33±5.04t=0.2427
49.83±3.6t=2.71
50.00±3.41t=2.99
5. Haemoglobin (gm%)
9.40 10.20±1.27t=1.40237
9.76±1.58t=0.5654
9.86±1.82t=0.6231
6. Albumin (gm%) 3.925 3.51±0.79t=0.2044
4.21±0.24t=3.5
3.70±1.09t=0.49
7. Glucose (mg/dl) 51.28 42.63±42.30t=0.8335
64.70±35.50t=0.5240
63.55±38.86t=0.4066
8. Protein (gm%) 8.16 6.92±1.18t=2.58
8.18±0.94t=0.06578
7.63±1.17t=1.94
9. Cholesterol (mg%)
61.88 82.13±6.16t=5.7042
95.56±8.20t=7.0113
95.55±17.56t=3.31
10. Urea (mg/dl) 44.36 33.00±9.57t=3.63
38.00±12.36t=1.25
50.38±15.55t=0.9455
11. Alkaline phosphatase (IU/Litre)
25.20 23.15±23.79t=0.0967
25.91±16.33t=0.1045
32.94±17.46t=1.08
Safety limits – Animal toxic studies with oils
Cost Benefit Ratio
Synthetic Pesticide
Registration cost 20-30
million dollars
Development period 7-10 years
Needs long term toxicological
testing and animal tests
advantage
Botanical Pesticide
Registration cost 150-200
thousand dollars
Development period 0-1 years
Needs short term testing due
to safety
Carlton, 1988; Woodhead, 1990
Natural Antioxidants Interface formations of free radicals
Delay or prevent rancidity of foods
Prevent human diseases caused by oxidative damages- ageing, cataract, cancer, coronary heart diseases
Tocopherol (Vitamin E)
Source: Sesame seed oil, Cotton seeds, Coconut, Safflower, Soybean, Olive, Wheat germ
Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)
Source: Citrus, Papaya, Strawberry
Some sources of natural antioxidants
Clove: Gallic acid, Eugenol
Oregano: Carvacrol
Thyme: Thymol
Caraway: Carvone
Ginger: Gingerol
Garlic: Allicin
Nutmeg: Eugenol
Turmeric: Curcumin
Rosemary: Carnosol, Rosmanol, Carnosic acid
Sage: Thujone
Carrot: β-Carotene
Soybean: Rutin
Rosemary
SageLabexTM in food preservation
Expectations
Plant products for plant health
Practical applicability (not only in vitro testing )
Without toxicological problems
Constrains
Mostly in vitro trials
Negligence of practical approach of testing
Need of toxicological and pharmacological testings
Need of phytoequivalence
CarvacrolLinalool
Carvone
Oxygenated Monoterpenoides
1,8 Cineol
Nepthoquinone
Lawsone (C10H6O3 ) Juglone (C10H6O3 )
4-hydroxynaphthalene-1,2-dione 5-Hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone Mol. wt.- 174.155 Mol. wt.- 174.155
Lawsonia inermis Prunus persica
OH
CH3H3C
H3C OH
(E)
O
OH
O
(Z)
O
OOH
Comparison of major component of A. galanga essential oil
extracted from plants of different geographic area Major Compound(s) Locality Investigators
(E)-β-farnesene (18.2%) and β- bisabolene (16.2%)
Malaysia Scheffer et al, 1981; Pooter et al, 1985
Myrcene (94.5%) India Charles et al, 1999
1,8-cineole (39.4%) and β- pinene (11.9%) Lower Himalyan region of India
Raina et al, 2002
1,8-cineole (28.4%), α-fenchyl acetate (18.4%), camphor (7.7%)
Southern India Leopold et al, 2003
1,8-cineole (40.5%), β- bisabolene (8.4%), (Z,E)-farnesol (3.8%) and (E)-[beta]-farnesene (3.2%).
Malaysia Jantan et al, 2004
Carotol (26.7%) Kerala, India Menon et al, 2006
Zerumbone (44.8%) Sri Lanka Arambewala et al, 2007
1, 8-cineole (46.22%), β- pinene (5.21%) and α-pinene (4.34%)
Northern Thailand Tachakittirungrod and Chowwanapoonpohn, 2007
Bicyclo (4.2.0) oct-1-ene, 7-exo ethenyl (58.46 %), α-pinene (14.94 per cent) and trans-carryophyllene (7.05 per cent)
Foot hills of North India
Dubey et al, 2008
Why Herbal Medicine It is being used by about 80% of world population primarily in
developing Countries for primary health care They have stood the test of time for their safety Efficacy Cultural Acceptability Lesser side effects The chemical constituent present in them are a part of the
physiological function of living flora and hence better compatibility For age related disease – memory loss , diabetic wounds , liver
disorder for which no modern medicine Renewable and Ecofriendly Raw material Will bring economic prosperity of the masses knowing these raw
materials Herbal products are and will remain much more affordable than
synthetic drugs
Origin of Botany in the use of Herbs as MedicineIndian system Ayurveda 5000 years old
RigvedaAtharveda Nakul SamhitaCharak Samhita (900 BC) AswayurvedaSusrut Samhita (500 BC) Hasthiayurveda
Chinese System of Medicine-About 5000 years old
Greec-Arabic System –Tibetan System- 3000 Years
Method of healing practiced by the people of mediterranean region and orient found expression in Europe herbal,De Materia Medica written by Greek Dioscorides in the first Century A.D.
Establishment of Physic GardensChelsia Physic Garden in London
Herbal Medicine Scenario in India
5,000 endemic angiospermic sp
15,000-18,000 Angiosperms
Two of eight hot spots in India
180 Ayurvedic Colleges
400,000 Ayurvedic Practitioners in India
7500 plants used in traditional medicine
800 plant sp used by
industries
India : Centre of Megabiodiversity
7000 medininal Firms
>70% Indians have faith in Herbal Medicine
Top Ten Medicinal Plants of WorldDrug Botanical name Market Rank as per Sale
Echinacea Echinacea sp. 1
Garlic Allium sativum 2
Goldenseal Hydrastis canadensis 3
Ginseng Panax sp 4
Gingko Gingko biloba 5
Saw palmetto Serenoa repens 6
Aloe gel Aloe barbadensis 7
Ephedra Ephedra sp 8
Eleuthero Eleutherococcos sp 9
Cranberry Vaccinium macrocarpon 10
Three –Allium sativum , Aloe barbedensis and Panax sp widely
available in India
Top Ten Traded medicinal Plants In India
S. No. Common Name Botanical Name
1 Amla Emblica officinalis
2 Satawari Asparagus racemosus
3 Ashwagandha Withania somnifera
4 Harar Terminalis chebula
5 Ashoka Saraca asoca
6 Bael Aegel marmelos
7 Senna Cassia angustifolia
8 Vasu Adhatoda vasica
9 Pipallu Piper longum
10 Brahmi Bacopa monneri
Plant-derived drugs widely employed in western medicine (Adapted from Farnsworth, 1984)
Acetyldigoxin Ephedrine* Pseudoephedrine*Aescin Hyoscyamine QuinidineAjmalicine Khellin QuinineAllantoin* Lanatoside C RescinnamineAtropine Leurocristine ReserpineBromelain α-Lobeline Scillarens A&BCaffeine* Morphine ScopolamineCodeine Narcotine Sennosides A&BColchicine Ouabain SparteineDanthron* Papain StrychnineDeserpidine Papaverine* TetrahydrocannabinolDigitoxin Physostigmine Theobromine*Digoxin Picrotoxin Theophylline*L-Dopa* Pilocarpine TubocurarineEmetine Protoveratrines A&B Vincaleukoblastine
Xanthotoxin
*Produced industrially by synthesis
Medicinal plant diversity
Biogeographic Estimated medicinal Region species
Trans Himalaya 700
Himalayan 2500
Desert 500
Semi-Arid 1000
Western Ghat 2000
Deccan Peninsula 3000
Gangetic Plain 1000
North-East India 2000
Islands 1000
Coasts 500
Neutraceuticals
Garlic –Allicin rich capsule –antibacterial
Soya health drink, Soya capsule –anticarcinogenic
Ginger capsule-antioxidants
Lycopene capsule from Tomato-antioxidant
Green Tea –Flavanoids- antioxidants, prostrate cancer
Capsicum extract –Capacin- Antifungal
Trichopus zealanica ( Arogyapacha) – Intake relieves Fatique
Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers.
Family: Menispermaceae
Vern. Name: Giloy,Gurch, Amrita
Twiner, succulent stem, cordate, leaves, Fruits, reniform, red when ripe.
Bioinhancer plant.
Stem used in fever, jaundice,antipyretic and cardiotonic
Fam.: Scrophulariaceae
Vern. Name: Brahmi, Sarsvati
Prostrate succulent herb. Leaves simple , decussate, sessile, spathulate or obovate. Flowers whitish.
The plant is intellect promoting, cardiotonic, bronchodilater.
Bacopa monneiri
Adhatoda vasica
Family: Acanthaceae
Vern. Name: Vasak, Adusa
Small , evergreen shrub. Leaves entire, lanceolate, Flowers bracreate, in Terminal spike, Corolla white.
Leaves contain alkaloid vasine. Used in Asthama, bronchitis for many centuries, also used in peptic ulcer.
Family: Liliaceae
Vern. Name: Ghikumari
Stem short. Roots shallow.
Leaves fleshy, in rosettes, Sessile, horny prickles on margins, blunt point, surface pale green with irregular white blotches.
The juice is used in burns, skin diseases and sciatica.
Aloe vera
Family: Apocynaceae
Vern. Name: Sadabahar
Perennial herb. Stem pinkish –red. Leaves obovate
Flowers pink or white. Follicle cylindrical.
Leaves contain vinblastine, vincristine and catharanthine.
Leaves used in treating diabetics, mental disorders and
Hypertension. The plant is regarded as anticancerous plant.
Catharanthus roseus
Fam.: Apocynaceae
Vern. name: Satparna, Chitwan, Saittan ka jat
A large tree, milky latex,leaves in whorl, flowers greenish –white.
Bark useful in malarial fever, dysentery and in ulcer.
Alstonia scholaris
Fam.: Zingiberaceae
Vern. Name: Kulnjan
Perennial herbaceous plant.
Rhizome cylindrical, stout, covered with scales.
Leaves lanceolate. Inflorescence terminal dense raceme. Flowers White
Rhizome yields essential oil containing methyl cinnamate.
Used in treatment of malaria fever, diarrhoea and toothache.Given to ladies after child birthAlpinia galanga
Fam. : AcanthaceaeVern. name: Kalmegh
Erect herb. Stem much branched, leaves opposite, short – petioled, Inflorescence axillary and terminal raceme or panicle. Flowers white.
Main glucoside is andrographolide.
Leaves used in treating dysentry, diarrhoea, Enteritis fever and tonsillitis.
Andrographis paniculata
Family: Asteraceae
Vern. Name: Sweet Wormwood, qingaho
Annual herb. Fragrant floral leaves sessile. Inflorescence terminal panicle. Floral heads heterogamous.
Used in malarial fever.
Artemisia annua
Family: SolanaceaeVern. Name: Belladona
An erect plant , 1m height,. The aerial parts die every year in Autumn and the new ones appear in the following year.The plant has a large tap root with many lateral rootlets. Flowers yellow. Fruit a black berry.
It grows in forest shade between 2500-3000m.
The roots contain choline and many flavanoids.
Used for manufacture of plaster and Ticture.Also used in treatment of intestinal pain, asthama and whooping cough. Atropa belladonna
Family: Meliaceae
Vern. Name: Neem, Margosa tree
Medium sized tree, Leaves compound, imparipinnate, leaflets oblique .
Flowers cream or yellow coloured. Fruit one seeded drupes .
Main constituent azadirachtin having many analogues.
Insecticidal plant, anthelmintic.
Effective in skin diseases and leucoderma.Azadirachta indica
Family: Vitaceae
Vern. Name: Hadjod, bone–setter
A climber with stout fleshly jointed quadrangular Stem. Tendrils simple,leaf opposed. Some aerial roots arise from nodes and strike the soil. Leaves reniform. Flowers small, greenish.
The tetracyclic triterpenoidsare medicinally important.
The Plant is aphrodisiac and digestive.
Powdered roots and stem paste are union promoting and recommended In bone fractures.Cissus quadrangularis
Fam.: Combretaceae
Vern. Name: Arjun
A large tree, drooping branches, bark grey outside. Two glands at base of the petiole. Fruit ovoid.
Bark is recommended as cardiotonic. Useful in liver cirrhosis and hypertension.
Terminalia arjuna
Family: Solanaceae
Vern. Name: Asgandh
Erect branching undershrub. Clothed with minutely Stellate hairs, leaves ovate, flowers greenish or reddish-green. Berries orange Coloured enclosed in persistent calyx. Withasomnine is main alkaloid of roots.
Roots are stimulant, aphrodisiac and tonic.
Leaves are recommended in fever.
A paste of roots and leaves are
applied in relief in ulcer and painful
swelling. Recommended for Balya
RasayanaWithania somnifera
Fam.: Capparidaceae
Ver. Name : Varun
Moderate sized tree. Bark grey, leaves trifoliate.
Triterpenoids lupeol and Varunol isolated from roots.
Used in urinary track Infection And kidney stone, in rolithiasis and Cryatalluria. Bark more medicinally Important. Crataeva nurvala
Family: Fabaceae
Vern. Name: Kavanchh
A climbing annual with hairy
branches. Leaves trifoliate,
leaflets ovate or rhomboid–
ovate, densely Clothed with
silvery grey hairs. Flowers
purple. Pods curved.
The leaves are aphrodisiac,
useful in ulcer and are
diuretic. Useful for
Parkinsonia disease.
Mucuna pruriens
3-(3,4 dimethyl)-L-alanine from Mucuna pruriens
Phyllanthus niruri
Fam.: Euphorbiaceae
Ver. Name: Bhooamla
The annual herb. Leaves numerous, distichous, Flower yellowish, capsule globose.
Used in Viral Hepatitis. Also used as Diuretic.
Family: Apocynaceae
Vern. Name: Sarpgandha
Rootstock thick and woody. Leaves in whorl or opposite, elliptic or oblanceolate. Flowers in umbellate cymes.
Many alkaloids isolated—Reserpine ,Isoreserpine, serpentine, Rawwolfine.
Used in reducing blood pressure. Also in mental disorders. Root considered As antidote to snake bite.
Decoctions of root given during labour pain to increase Uterine contraction.Rauwolfia serpentina
Fam.: Convolvulaceae
Vern. Name: Nisodh, Tribrit
A stout twiner , milky juice, triangular stem leaf baseCordate, flowers white, campanulate. Fruit globose, enclosed
In large imbricate sepals.
Roots useful in colic, dropsy ascites, intermittent fever and Jaundice.
Operculina turpethum
Family: Lythraceae
Vern. Name: Dhatki
Branched shrub, height 3-7 m,bark reddish –brown,black glandulardots on under surface of leaves, FlowersRed, in panicles.
Flowers are stimulant, highly valued as stimulant in pregnancy.
Woodfordia fruticosa
Family: Verbenaceae
Vern. Name: Bhates
A large gregarious shrub, branches quadrangular,leaves large ovate, Flowers white, tinged with pink,in terminal panicles.
Leaves used as anti-inflammatory, antipyretic,leprosy andSkin diseases.
Clerodendrum viscosum
Acorus calamus
Family: Araceae
Vern. Name: Bach
A semi-aquatic, rhizomatous perennial herb, rhizome as thick As middle finger, pinkish brown externally, white spongy within, leaves distichous, flowers densely packed in Sessile cylindric spadix. Propagated through rhizomes
Yields calamus oil containing asarone. Rhizome is carminative,diuretic, Insecticidal.
Used in intermittent fever, skin diseases epilepsy and general debility
Family: Fabaceae
Vern. Name: Gunja, Lalmunga, Ratti
A deciduous climber, leaves pinnate, rachis ending in a Spine, leaflets rounded at both ends, flowers pink, arranged Along rachis of one –sided pedunculate raceme.
Fruit pod,seeds scarlet with a black spot.
Seed paste used in cure of skin diseases. Along with Plumbago zealanica used in leucoderma. Seeds are aphrodisiac and used in nervous disorders.
Abrus precatorius
Family: Apiaceae
Vern. Name: Mandukparni, Brahm manduki, Brahmi
Small trailing herb.Stem prostrate, rooting at nodes,leaves orbicular, kidney shaped, inflorescence umbel bearing 1-5 small flowers.
Used as antiinflamatory, diuretic,, measles. Also as brain tonic.
Centella asiatica
Family: Apocynaceae
Vern. Name: Kutaja
A tree reaching about 10m. Bark pale brown, young tips tomentose.Leaves oval , subsessile. Flowers white, in terminal cymes. Follicles long, incurved.
Bark possess amoebicidalandantidysentric properties, effective against amoebiosis.
A bath containing decoctions of leaves and bark cures scabies.
Holarrhena antidysenterica
Family: Fabaceae
Vern. Name: Briksh Karanj
Medium sized tree. Leaves glabrous, leaflets 5-7, ovate.
Acuminate Flowers pinkish white.
The oil is anthelmintic, recommended for scabies, leprosy, herps.
Leaves useful in chronic fever.
Pongamia pinnata
Basic Questions
Are Pharmaceutical Firms Responsible for
Low Market?
Are the Indian Herbal Drugs free From
Mycotoxins?
What are the responsibilities of Research Organizations
and Universities?
What are the Measures of Quality Control and
Safety Limit Assessment?
Association of fungi with Crude Herbal drug Samples
Sample Uses No. of Fungi
Abrus precatorius Expectorant 12StimulantIn jaundice
Holarrhena antidysentrica Antiamoebic 7Antidysentric
Hibiscus abelmoschus Carminative 7Stomachic
Piper nigrum Dyspesia 17ColdAsthama
Strychnos nux-vomica Antipyretic 15Astringent
Syzygium cumini Astringent 10Eye diseases
Mycotoxin Elaboration in Stored drug samples
Drugs Mycotoxin Concentration(μg/gm)
Asparagus racemosus 0.16
Atropa belladonna 0.27
Withania somnifera 0.68
Plumbago zeylanica 1.13
Emblica officinalis 1.51
Terminalia chebula 1.19
Mucuna puriens 1.16
Endangered Medicinal Plants
Aquilaria malaccensis
Aconitum spp.
Atropa acuminata
Coleus forskohlii
Dioscorea deltoidea
Picrorhiza kurroa
Podophyllum hexandrum
Pterocarpus santalinus
Rauvolfia serpentina
Saussurea lappa
Taxus wallichiana
Valeriana wallichii
Zanthoxylum alatum
Side Effects of Certain Medicinal Plants
Reproductive toxicity
cancer and diabetes
Vinca rosea (Vincristine, Vinblastine)
Hypertension, raised B.P.
Bronchitis, Peptic, ulcer
Glycyrrhiza glabra(Glycyrrhizin)
Vision problemHeart diseasesDigitalis purpurea(digitalin)
Symptoms of poisoning, irregular pulse
Used in cardiac failure
Aconitum nepellus(Aconite)
High doses causes liver histological changes
Treatment of chronic asthma
Allium sativum (Diallyl disulphide)
High doses of nasal discharge
Treatment of asthma
Tylophora asthamatica (Tylophorine)
PHARMACOGNOSY
Herbal raw material evaluation and standardization
Authentication of crude drugs by analytical techniques
Toxicological screening
Multidimensional approach of pharmacognosy towards quality control of herbal medicines
Development of phytochemical markers for identification
India should occupy a significant position in the world trade of herbal drugs
The time has come to compile and document traditional knowledge on herbal medicine
Efforts should be made to cultivate medicinal plants as field crops.
Conservation should be in appropriate ecological situations.
Standardization as per WHO guide lines
We can certainly be world leader in this field
Bioprospecting of Indian Flora
Biopiracy
Gene robbing
Indigenous plants: No ethical or quarantine
problem
India Mega biodiversity: 33 % dicot endemic
Total area about 3029 million hectares
18000 Angiospermic plant species
Two Hot Spots
World’s half of aquatic flowering plants belonging to 23 families
45 000 Plant species (11 percent of known plant species of world)
The Indian Flora is more varied than that of any other country of equal area in the
eastern hemisphere, if not on the globe” J. D. Hooker (1904).
A significant feature of Indian flora is the confluence of floras from the surrounding
countries like Malaya Tibet, china, Japan , Europe and even from widely separate
continents like America, Canada and Australia Rao (2006), Subramani et. Al. ( 2005).
40 per cent of flowering plants in India are foreign and naturalized in various parts
of the country. Maheshwari (1962)
30 percent of Indian flora ( 5000 species ) endemic.
75 per cent Indian dicots polyploidy , in China diploids.
Convention on Biodiversity: 1992
a. Sovereign Right of countries over biodiversity.
b. Bioprospecting of biodiversity ---documentation, identification of plants of
potential economic value
• Higher plants are untapped reservoir of various valuable chemicals awaiting their intensive exploitation for their biological properties for health of plants and animals.
• The perusal of literature shows that a large number of bioactive agents have been overlooked or rejected by the pharmaceutical and agrochemical firms which have commercialized only a few strongly active ones for a quick cure , rapid action , heavy financial return in spite of their considerable damage out side the intended targets.
• The situation may now be reversed and that natural products in natural combinations and methods such as used in the past in Ayurveda , Unani and other such systems may again be adopted than artificial ones in medicine and particularly in agriculture.