By Kylie Hogue

•stiffness

•not going forward

•grinding the teeth

•going against the bit

•sweating

•rearing

•bucking

•resignation

•going off food

•aggression against humans or other horses

•muscle twitching/moving the skin on or before contact

•unwillingness to be touched

•moodiness

The equine skeleton has about 210 bones, nearly the same as a human.

The horse has around 54 vertebrae that form the horses spine.

The 7 cervical vertebrae form the neck, which has great flexibility.

The 18 thoracic vertebrae, that form the wither and the part behind it have long processes. They can be up to 30 cm long

The 6 lumbar vertebrae have spinal and transverse processes (wings).

The 5 sacral vertebrae are fused to the sacrum. The sacroiliac joins the spine at the sacrum to the pelvis. There is only very little movement possible in the sacroiliac joint

The 15-21 caudal vertebrae form the tail of the horse.

There is no joint between the horses forelimb and the rump. It is only attached with muscles and ligaments which give the horse the flexibility e.g. to jump.

The horse carries about 60% of his weight on the forehand

The horses hind legs propel the horse forward. They are the "engine" of the horse.

Nerves stimulate the muscle to contract and move the bones they are attached to. If a muscle contracts, its antagonist has to stretch.

They allow for locomotion, balance and carry part of the bodyweight. They also support the function of organs like e.g. the lung.

A muscle is attached to bone through a tendon, which is part of the muscle. Tendons are less elastic and have less blood circulation.

Horse ligaments stabilize a joint and hold it together. They are not attached to a muscle.

In a horse there are no muscles below the knee or the hock, only tendons and ligaments.

•1. Bone

•2. Connective tissue

•3. Blood vessel

•4. Muscle fiber

•5. bundle of muscle fibers

•6. Connective tissue (sheath)

•7. Muscle body

•8. Tendon