Research Aptitude

1. What is research - An attitude of inquiry.

- An attempt to elicit facts

- A systematic and scholarly application of the scientific method

- A state of mind

2. Characteristics of Research

- It’s a scientific investigation

- It helps in developing and evaluating concepts and theories

- Expands the limits of knowledge

- Findings through research cannot be implemented immediately

- Its an essential tool for good decision making

3. Aims and Objectives of Research

Main aim : To find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet

- Gain familiarity with a phenomenon and to achieve new insights

- Portray accurately the characteristics (description)

- Determine the frequency with which something occurs (diagnosic)

- Test hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables

4. Types of Research i. Classification - I

a. Fundamental research

- Used when developing theories, generalizations and principles

- Methods: Sampling, Hypothesizing and laboratories

b. Applied Research

- Utilizes principles made by fundamental research to know the problems with best possible manner

- Undertaken to solve an immediate problem

c. Action Research

- Immediate application but not any development of theory

ii. Classification - II

Descriptive Analytical

Description of the state of affairs as it exists Has to use facts that are readily available

Also known as Ex post facto research Facts analyzed to make a critical evaluation

Researcher has no control over the variables

Used to discover causes when variables cannot be

controlled

Fact finding enquires and field surveys

Method of research: Survey

Applied Fundamental

Find solution for immediate problem Generalizations and formulation of a theory

Research is aimed at a solution Concerns natural phenomenon or math

Solution to some pressing practical problem Finding information that has a broad base of

application

Adds to the existing body of scientific knowledge

Quantitative Qualititative

Phenomena that can be quantified Used in behavioural sciences

Used when studying human behaviour

Projective techniques used

Phenomena involves quality or kind

Conceptual Empirical

Based on some ideas on theory Relies on experience or observation

Used by philosophers and thinkers Data based research

Experimental research

One time research: Confined to a single time period

Longititudinal research: Research carried over several time periods

Field Setting Research or Laboratory research: Depending on the environment

Clinical or Diagnostic Research: Goes deep into the causes of events or things

Exploratory or Formalized: Development of hypothesis/ Testing hypothesis

Historical : Uses historical resources to study events or ideas of the past

Problem oriented research: To look for solutions to the problem

Decision oriented: Done for the need of the decision maker.

Operational: Example of decision making research. Provides a quantitative basis for taking up a decision

5. Research requirements

i. Planning

- Definition and Classification or purpose and scope of operations

- Analysis to determine the meaning of facts

- Planning helps in bringing a good result in the conclusion

ii. Guidance - Helps researcher concentrate on problems

- Concerned with the selection of problems

iii. Experts

- Knowledge in the area being studied

- Must be able to guide properly and formulate a well planned project for research

iv. Training

- They know how to plan, organize and maximize educational output

v. Finance - Problems taken for study require financial help from the state

vi. References - Well planned project

- Preliminary work done helps while investigating the problem

vii. Library - Provides materials through books which enhances the quality and quantity of the research

viii. Research Journals - Provides studies and research done nationally and internationally

6. Steps of Research

1. Formulating the research problem

- Maybe related to states of nature or relationships between variables

- A researcher must single out problem to be study and must decide the aura of interest

- Feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before working on the problem

- Two steps in formulating a research problem: Understanding the problem thoroughly and Rephrasing the

same into meaningful terms

- Discuss the problem with experts

- Examine available literature both conceptual and empirical

- Reevaluate the problem and focus on its specifics

- Make sure the problem can be defined unambiguously

- State the objective

- Pertinent terms in relation to the problem must be defined

2. Extensive Literature Survey

- Brief summary of the problem after the problem is formulated

- Write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the committee or research board

- Literature survey by abstracting journals and reading up bibliography

3. Development of working Hypothesis

- It’s made so as to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences

- Discuss with work colleagues and experts about the problem

- Examine past data and records

- Review similar studies in that area

- Personally investigate the problem with interested parties

4. Preparing the research design

- Means of obtaining the information

- Ability and skill of the researcher and staff

- Explaining the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organized and the reasoning

leading to selection

- Time available for research

- Cost factor relating to research

5. Determining Sample Design

- the items selected constitute what is called a sample

- Sample design is a plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given

population

- Samples can either be:

Probability Sample - Each have an element of being included in the sample and are based on Random,

Systematic,Stratified, Cluster/Area Sampling.

Non Probabilty Sample - Based on Consciences Sampling, Judgement Sampling and Quota Sampling

- Some of the important sample designs are:

(i) Deliberate Sampling

Purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the universe for constituting a sample that

represents the universe.

When population elements are selected based on access it's known as convenience sampling

Judgement sampling is when a researchers judgement is used to select items he considers to be

representative of the population

(ii) Simple Random Sampling

Each and every item in the population has equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one has

the probability of being selected.

(iii) Systematic Sampling

An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling by using random numbers

to pick up the unit with which to start.

Useful when sample frame is in form of a list

Selection process starts by picking some random point on the list and then every nth element is

selected until the desired number is secured

(iv) Stratified Sampling

If the population from which a sample is to be drawn doesn't constitute a homogeneous group, then

stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a representative sample

The population is stratified into a number of non-overlapping subpopulations or strata and sample

items are selected from each stratum.

If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling, the entire procedure, first

stratification and then simple random sampling is known as stratified random sampling.

(v) Quota Sampling

When interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different strata, tge actual selection of the

items for sample being left to the individual's judgement

Size of quota is proportionate to size of stratum in the population

Form of non probability sampling.

(vi) Cluster sampling

Grouping of population and then selecting the groups or the groups or the clusters rather than

individual elements for inclusion in the sample

Sample size must often be larger than the simple random sample to ensure same level of accuracy as

in cluster sampling there is a chance of various biases and error

However this procedure is relatively easier than others and can be used in the case of personal

interviews

(vii) Area Sampling

Area is divided into smaller non overlapping areas = geograpical clusters and a number of these

smaller areas are randomly selected

Field interviewing is made more efficient through this technique and when there's no list of the

population

(viii) Multi stage Sampling

Meant for large geographical areas like an entire country

(ix) Sequential Sampling

Ultimate size of the sample is determined as the survey progresses

6. Collecting the data

Various ways - experiment or survey

Survey methods include - observation, personal interviews, telephone interviews, mailing of

questionnaires, schedules

7. Execution of the project

Its necessary to collect adequate and dependable data in a systematic manner and in time

Careful watch on uncontrollable factors

Survey must be under statistical control

Must deal with non respondents

8. Analysis of Data

Categorize raw data

Coding to transform categorized data to symbols - editing can also be done at this stage

Tabulation is done to put classified data in form of tables

Statistical inferences are drawn through the assistance of computers

9. Hypothesis testing

Chi-square, t-test, f-test

Either accepts the hypothesis or rejects it

10. Generalization and Interpretation

If hypothesis is tested and upheld its easy to build a theory

Triggers new questions in the hypothesis

11. Preparation of the report/ thesis

Introduction

Summary

Main Report

Conclusion

Bibliography

7. Methods of Research

Provide new and useful information in an orderly and precise manner.

A. Experimental Method

Matter of logic not location

Special laboratories to control conditions

Labs are generally located in universities or a research institute

1. Laboratory

Control conditions and take measurements of variables in an orderly manner

2. Variables

Independent Variable - Independent of what subject does

Dependent Variables - Variable affected by changes (measure of subject behaviour)

3. Degree of Control

Use of precision instruments to control unseen variables

4. Value of an experiment

B. Observational Method

Observation in natural environment

C. Survey Method - Field Studies

Either through the use of questionnaires or interviews

D. Case Studies

Scientific Biographies

Reconstruction of a person's life events

Used in Longitudinal studies

E. Test Method

Measures all kinds of abilities, interests, attitudes and accomplishments

Subjects are presented with a uniform situation to a group of people who vary in aspects relevant to

the situation

8. Research Ethics

Researcher must ensure that data is accurate

Researcher must not try to intentionally prove a point

Researcher must ensure that data is sufficiently investigated and findings are totally accurate

Researcher must not misrepresent the statistical accuracy of data nor must they over represent the

results by altering the findings

Researcher must ensure privacy, anonymity and set out a code of ethics

9. Thesis Writing & 10. Typing of Report

Final stage of research

Provides overall view and solution to the problem

Provides all the elements of the project taken for study

Bears the total summary of the work

Satisfies all researchers by providing partial or detailed knowledge over their problems

A) Format of Thesis Writing

1. Preliminary Section

* Title Page

* Acknowledgement

* Table of Contents

* List of Tables

* List of Figures

2. Main Body

* Introduction to the topic

* Analysis of Literature

* Design of the study

* Presentation and Analysis of Data

* Summary and Conclusions

3. Reference Section

* Bibliography

* Appendix

* Footnotes