research methods 2

LECTURE TWO

Michael Poku-Boansi, Ph.D.

August/September, 2012

PL 253 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

TODAY2

The Role of Science – The Scientific Approach

What is Science? – Meaning and Role of Science

Research must satisfy the basic requirement of Science

INTRODUCTION

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1.Science is variously explained in different contexts.

- Prestigious undertaking; understanding nature

- Body of true knowledge

- Objective investigation of empirical phenomena.

INTRODUCTION

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→ Scientific Approach – Claim of superiorly of Knowledge

- Derived from the Latin word “Scire” – “to know” and “Scientia” – knowledge

INTRODUCTION

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All Scientists explore the working of the world

Some search for clues to the to the origin of the universe

Some examine the structure of molecules in cells of living plants and animals

INTRODUCTION

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Others study why we act the way we do

Some try to solve mathematical problems

INTRODUCTION

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2. There are other ways of knowing – historically

a. Authoritarian Mode

- Referring to individuals who are socially and politically qualified as producers of knowledge;

- Oracles in tribal societies, archbishops in theocracy, kings in

monarchical societies, scientists in technocratic societies

etc.

INTRODUCTION

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b. Mystical Mode

- Knowledge is obtained from authorities on the supernatural

– prophets, diviners, mediums, etc;

- Very close to Authoritarian Mode but differs in terms of its dependencies on manifestations of supernatural events

and the psychological state of mind of the consumer of knowledge – very ritualistic

INTRODUCTION

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c. Rationalistic Mode – “Rationalism” - Philosophy - Totality of Knowledge can be obtained by strict

adherence to the forms and rules of logic’

- That is, all that is valid must be explained by logical

construction of facts?

INTRODUCTION

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF SCIENCE10

Science is rooted in a body of assumptions that are unproven and unprovable.

“ Epistemology” – Study of the foundations of knowledge” – examines the nature of these premises and how they work.

The study of these assumptions helps us to understand the “Scientific Approach” and its claim of superiority over other forms of knowledge.


The Key Assumptions:

1. Nature is orderly

- Recognizable regularity and order in the natural world – no reference to the existence of an omnipotent or supernatural force.


2. We can know nature:

- The human being is part of nature and the human

being is

capable of knowing nature as well as itself.


3. All natural phenomena have natural causes:

- Does not accept any causal forces except natural ones

- Rejects and opposes fundamental religion, spiritual, miracle, magic and supernatural explanations to events.


4. Nothing is self-evident

- Scientific knowledge is not self-evident – therefore all claims of knowledge must be subjected to objective demonstration – i.e. proof.


5. Knowledge is derived from the acquisition of experience.

- If science is to help us understand the world, then it must be “empirical”

- That is, it must rely on perceptions, experience and observations


6. Knowledge is superior to Ignorance

- Knowledge to be pursed for its own sake and also to improve ourselves.

- We cannot know everything – Knowledge is tentative and changing – openness to on-going evolution of knowledge. E.g. Urbanization, shape of the world.

THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH 17

People confuse the content of science with its methodology

1.The role of Science in Social Science and Planning research is becoming more and more prominent – it is being driven by a quest to be more and more scientific with efforts towards quantification.

- Social Science research is being stretched to a level of systematicness and empirical verification characterising research in the physical sciences.


2. ‘Science has no subject-matter of its own and not every study

of phenomenon can be regarded as science e.g. Astronomy.’

- ‘Science then does not refer to body of “general or particular

knowledge” but to a distinct methodology’ (process of

ordered assemblying of knowledge)


3. Science is an accumulation of systematic knowledge – i.e.; knowledge collected by means of (Scientific) methodology (ordered process).

- A method or approach to the empirical world- A mode of analysis which permits scientist to state proposition in the form of “if” and “then” - Scientific knowledge is a body of reliable knowledge that can be logically and rationally explained (Aristotle)

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The body of knowledge as accumulated in the social sciences is to enable us to: - explain why and how things happen the way they do. Predict – “if” and “then”. E.g. Understand –why the poor stay empirical phenomenon, how access to social facilities can be enhanced

THE AIM OF (SOCIAL) SCIENCES

THE ROLES OF METHODOLOGY 21

As indicated earlier, what is critical in Science is the ‘methodology or approach’. It is united not by subject-matter but by their methodology.

- What makes the scientific approach unique from other

modes of acquiring knowledge is its assumptions and

methodology.


- A Scientific methodology is a system of explicit rules and

procedures upon which research is based and against which

claims for knowledge are evaluated or verified.

→ Methodology of the social sciences has evolved gradually over the years through continuous interchange of ideas, information, criticisms etc.

→ The system of rules and procedures is the normative component of the scientific methodology.


Methodology Provides Three (3) Things/Rules

a)Provides rules for Communication: - To facilitate communication between researchers who have or want to have shared experience.

- Framework for replication , constructive and criticism : Safeguard against international error or deception.


b) Provides rules for Reasoning:

- System of logical reasoning → the system of valid reasoning that

permits drawing reliable inferences from factual observations

- Logical procedures take the form of closely interdependent series of propositions that support each other.


c) Provides rules for inter subjectivity:

- The process of establishing objectivity through validation. One scientist replicating the procedure of research in order to validate empirical facts and conclusion of another scientist.

THE LIMITS OF SCIENCE IN SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH

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1. Human behaviour changes too frequently to allow real scientific predictions with precision;

2. Human behaviour is too elusive, subtle and complex to yield to the rigid categorization and artificial instruments of science;

3. Studies of human behaviour by other human beings whose observations and judgments are coloured by their own values, perceptions and biases; and

THE LIMITS OF SCIENCE IN SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH

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4. Human beings who are subjects of such predictions have the

ability to obstruct the prediction.

→ Scientific tools in the physical sciences cannot therefore be

transferred or applied fully in social science research.

(Difficult to conduct controlled experiments)

→ The core issue is the Human being at the centre of development research.

ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN PROCESS28

Definition

The logical sequence that links the empirical data to the research problems and ultimately to its conclusions.

- The logical framework or process for realizing the research

objectives. (e.g. a road map)

- Why? To avoid a situation where the evidence gathered does not address the research problem or question.

ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN PROCESS29

- Some authors differentiate between design process and a work plan

- Research design – deals with the logical problem and the

step – by- step approach for realising the research objectives;

while

- Work plan – deals with logistical problem or needs and a road map.

KEY ELEMENTS 30

Research Problem

- Question

- Objectives

- Hypothesis

KEY ELEMENTS 31

- Choice or emphasis depends on the background of the researcher

- Planners use “Problem definition”

- Research problem “is an intellectual stimulus calling for a response in the form of scientific enquiry”

KEY ELEMENTS 32

- E.g. Why widespread use of fertilizers and agrochemicals has been impaired?

- why to the poor stay poor?

- How can poverty be reduced?

KEY ELEMENTS 33

- Why do people migrate and how? → Research question

- Caution - Not all intellectual stimuli can be studied empirically, and not all behaviour is guided by specific knowledge. Problems that cannot be empirically grounded or (that are) concerned with subjective preferences, beliefs, values or tastes are not amenable to empirical enquiry.

KEY ELEMENTS 34

- Differences between a problem statement and research question. - Problem - An expression of a need to be addressed

- Question - Not necessarily a need but a subject of interest E.g. Why do people migrate? What are changing trends of migration?

KEY ELEMENTS 35

- Content → Need to develop the logical evolution of the problem, what questions/issues are being addressed, why is it a problem, the type of results expected, effects?

- Objective – The researcher’s response to the problem defined. Defines what the study seeks to achieve.

KEY ELEMENTS 36

- Very important because all other issues must relate to this.

- Regarded as the HANDLE Focus or reference point of the research.

APPLICATION OF OBJECTIVES37

- Sub-division and amplification of the research objectives or questions

- In planning research – Goals and Objectives or General and Operational objectives are used.

- Objectives give a clearer sense of focus and ensures that the research stays within feasible limits and achieves its purpose.

HYPOTHESIS 38

- A tentative answer to a research problem, expressed in the form of a clearly stated relation between the independent and dependent variables. – Theory.

Ho : X > 50 years

H1 : X < 50 years

- They are tentative answers because they can be continued/verified only after they have been tested empirically.

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HYPOTHESIS 39

- Proposed explanation for a phenomenon but should

be testable.

- A hypothesis is constructed and subjected to test, if rejected, another one can be put forward; then depending on its outcome, it is incorporated into a body of scientific knowledge.

HYPOTHESIS 40

Examples.

- Poor people stay close to their place of work

- Excessive occupancy rates and high densities adversely

affect housing maintenance.

HYPOTHESIS 41

- Access to markets affect proportion of produce

sold at home

- Average rental value of properties decreases with distance from the town centre.

FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS 42

A hypothesis states what we are looking for - a formulation of a deduction if verified, becomes part of a future theoretical construction.

- A hypothesis looks forward - a proposition which can be tested to establish its validity

FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS 43

- May prove to be correct or incorrect

- In accordance with, or contrary to, common sense.

LINKAGE BETWEEN THEORY AND HYPOTHESIS

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→ Forward and backwards: Inductive and Deductive

a) Theories suggest hypothesis which can be tested by specific research projects:

- Hypothesis is the necessary link between theory and the investigation which leads to the discovery of addition to knowledge.

LINKAGE BETWEEN THEORY AND HYPOTHESIS

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b)Hypothesis could lead to the formulation of theory e.g. Accessibility to a settlement positively affects the proportion of produce sold in the local market.

c)A trial solution to a problem may be referred to as a hypothesis, often called an “educated guess”

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1.The absence of a clear theoretical framework

2.Lack of ability to utilize that theoretical framework logically.

3. Failure to be acquainted with available research techniques so as to be able to state the hypothesis clearly.

DIFFICULTIES IN THE FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS

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1. Must be conceptually clear -operationally defined.

2. Should be devoid of value judgements

3. Should be simple and the postulation of excessive numbers of entities should be discouraged (simplicity)

4. Must be specific - operations and predictions indicated should be spelled out.

5. Should be related to available techniques

CHARACTERISTICS OF USABLE HYPOTHESIS

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6. Should be related to a body of theory

7. Conservatism – the degree of “fit” with existing recognised knowledge systems

8. Fruitfulness – the prospect that a hypothesis may explain further phenomena in the future.

CHARACTERISTICS OF USABLE HYPOTHESIS

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a) Must be clear - define variables

b) Must be specific - specify conditions and direction

(negative

or positive.)

c) Must be testable within available methodsd) Must be value -free- researcher must be aware of

personal biases and avoid them as much as possiblee) Relate to a body of theory

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

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When a set of hypotheses are grouped together they become a type of conceptual framework.

When a conceptual framework is complex and incorporates causality or explanation it is generally referred to as a theory.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

VARIABLES51

In order to move form conceptual to empirical level, concepts are converted into variables.

It examines key elements of the research problem and objectives and propositions

- Definition: An empirical property that can take on two or more values. That is, if a property can change, either in quantity or quality it can be regarded as a variable.

- E.g. A social class - 3 main groups; Expectation - 2 - high or low - 2 Values - dichotomous variable - Housing conditions – poor, fair, good

VARIABLES52

- Practical Level – Urban spilt Economy → Occupation/ employment, Economic activities etc. - Transport: Modal split, pedestrian characteristics traffic volume, travel time or speed.

- Dependent and Independent Variables

- Dependent - variable the researcher wants to explain.

- Criterion variable

VARIABLES53

- Independent - that which is expected to explain the change in the dependent variable

- Also called explanatory or predictor variable.

- Y = (x) - changes in the values of x are associated with changes in the values of Y.

- Control variable - for explanatory studies.

UNIT OF ENQUIRY/ANALYSIS54

- The most elementary part of the phenomenon to be studied.

- The case or the basic unit of investigation

- The unit about which information is required.

UNIT OF ENQUIRY/ANALYSIS55

- The unit of Analysis affects research design, data collection and analysis.

- E.g. individuals, household, houses, towns, social groups, organisation etc.

- In principle, there is no limit to the selection of U of A, but must relate to research procedures, scope and generalisation.

COVERAGE56

- Scope or scale of the research; involves setting or defining the boundaries of the research. (i.e., geographical, demographic, time, gender, issues or content as well as the variables of interest.)

- Within the boundaries, it deals more with determination of appropriate data requirements that will ensure accuracy, and reliability of results,

COVERAGE57

- Deals further with sample size, type of sample, sample frame etc

- Also influenced by availability of funds and level of accuracy desired.

ANALYSIS58

a) - Linking data to propositions

- Relating pieces or categories of data to propositions, problems hypothesis etc.

- E.g. matching income with location of residence, household size. etc

ANALYSIS59

b) Criteria for interpreting data and results

- Defining guidelines for interpretation

- E.g. threshold for significant results that constitutes finding

ANALYSIS60

→ Impact Studies

40% - Low 40% - 59

60+

c) Analytical methods or modes

--

Moderate High -

WORK PLAN 61

Includes the following:

1.Literature Review;

2.Data collection;

3.Questionnaire design and production;

4.Errors minimisation;

WORK PLAN 62

5. Field Work;

6. Processing and Analysis of data;

7. Timing, Cost and Staff Recruitments; and

8. Documents and Documentation.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS63

The key elements of the process:

a)Linear Approach with feedback system

a)Cyclical Approach

- Problem Definition Objectives

- Objectives

- Scope and Justification

THE RESEARCH PROCESS64

- Methodology

- Data Collection

- Processing And Analysis

- Report Presentation

Data & Analytics

research methods 2