1. Agriculture and Rural Development Conference EditionGender in Agriculture Sourcebook

2. 2008 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank1818 H Street, NWWashington, DC 20433Telephone: 202-473-1000Internet: www.worldbank.orgE-mail: feedback@worldbank.orgAll rights reserved1 2 3 4 11 10 09 08The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed here are those of the author(s) and do notnecessarily reflect the views of the Board of Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governmentsthey represent. The World Bank cannot guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries,colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply on the part ofthe World Bank any judgment of the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of suchboundaries.Rights and PermissionsThe material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting portions or all of this workwithout permission may be a violation of applicable law. 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Gender in Agriculture SourcebookContentsForewordAcknowledgmentsAbbreviationsSourcebook OverviewModule 1: Gender and Food SecurityModule 2: Gender and Agricultural Livelihoods: Strengthening GovernanceOverviewThematic Note 1 Gender in Policy-Making ProcessesThematic Note 2 Institutionalizing Gender in the Agriculture SectorThematic Note 3 Decentralization and Community-Driven DevelopmentThematic Note 4 Gender, Self-Help Groups, and Farmer Organization in the AgriculturalSector of Developing CountriesInnovative Activity Profile 1 Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan: Gender and Governance Issues in LocalGovernmentInnovative Activity Profile 2 Cte dIvoire: Gender in the Agricultural Services ReformsInnovative Activity Profile 3 Sri Lanka: Gemidiriya Community Development and Livelihood ImprovementProjectModule 3: Gender and Rural FinanceOverviewThematic Note 1 Organizational Gender Mainstreaming: Models and StrategiesThematic Note 2 Rural Finance Products: From Access to EmpowermentInnovative Activity Profile 1 Andhra Pradesh, India: A Women-Managed Community Financial SystemInnovative Activity Profile 2 Kabarole Research and Resource Centre, Uganda: A Participatory,Self-Managed Microfinance ModelModule 4: Gender Issues in Land Policy and AdministrationOverviewThematic Note 1 Gendered Access to Land and PropertyThematic Note 2 Legal Reforms and Womens Property RightsThematic Note 3 Land Dispute ResolutionThematic Note 4 Gender-Responsive TitlingInnovative Activity Profile 1 The Hills Leasehold Project in Nepal: Women Gain a Voice and Greater Accessto ResourcesInnovative Activity Profile 2 Honduras: A Pilot Project Protects Womens Rights to Productive ResourcesModule 5: Gender and Agricultural MarketsOverviewThematic Note 1 Strengthening the Business EnvironmentThematic Note 2 Capacity Development for Small-Scale Women EntrepreneursThematic Note 3 Collective Action and Market LinkagesThematic Note 4 Supporting Agricultural Value-Adding StrategiesInnovative Activity Profile 1 Bangladesh: The Six-Step Marketing Extension ToolInnovative Activity Profile 2 Andhra Pradesh, India: Making the Market Work for the PoorCommunity-Managed Procurement Centers for Small and Marginal FarmersInnovative Activity Profile 3 Bangladesh: Linking Poor Women to the International Prawn MarketThe Greater Noakhali Aquaculture Extension ProjectModule 6: Gender Mainstreaming in Agricultural Water ManagementOverviewThematic Note 1 Gender and Multiple-Use Water ServicesThematic Note 2 Gender and Institutional Approaches to Groundwater Development andManagement 4. Innovative Activity Profile 1 Ghana: Upper East Region Land Conservation and Smallholder RehabilitationProject (LACOSREP)Innovative Activity Profile 2 The Gambia: Lowlands Agricultural Development Programme (LADEP)Module 7: Gender in Agricultural Innovation and EducationOverviewThematic Note 1 Gender in Extension OrganizationsThematic Note 2 Gender and Participatory ResearchThematic Note 3 Gender Approaches to Agricultural Extension and TrainingThematic Note 4 Labor-Saving Technologies and PracticesInnovative Activity Profile 1 Peru: Natural Resource Management in the Southern HighlandsInnovative Activity Profile 2 Tanzania: Conservation Agriculture for Sustainable DevelopmentInnovative Activity Profile 3 Junior Farmer Field and Life Schools: Empowering Orphans andVulnerable Youths Living in a World with HIV and AIDSModule 8: Gender Issues in Agricultural LaborOverviewThematic Note 1 Gender and Informal LaborThematic Note 2 Labor Rights and Decent Work for Women Agricultural LaborersThematic Note 3 Gender and Employment in Labor-Intensive Export AgricultureInnovative Activity Profile 1 Thailand: Cargills Labor Improvement Program for Sun Valley FoodsModule 9: Gender in Rural Infrastructure for Agricultural LivelihoodsOverviewThematic Note 1 Rural TransportThematic Note 2 EnergyThematic Note 3 Information and Communication TechnologiesThematic Note 4 Sanitation, Hygiene, and Potable WaterInnovative Activity Profile 1 Peru Rural Roads Project, Second PhaseInnovative Activity Profile 2 Malaysia: Community E-CentersModule 10: Gender and Natural Resources ManagementOverviewThematic Note 1 Gender and BiodiversityThematic Note 2 Gender Dimensions of Climate ChangeThematic Note 3 Gender and BioenergyThematic Note 4 Gender and Natural DisastersThematic Note 5 Gender Dimensions of Land and Water Degradation and DesertificationInnovative Activity Profile 1 Gender, Biodiversity, and Local Knowledge Systems for Food Security (LinKS)Innovative Activity Profile 2 India: Karnataka Watershed Development ProjectModule 11: Gender and Crises: Implications for AgricultureOverviewThematic Note 1 Risk Management and Preventive ActionThematic Note 2 From Relief to Recovery and Self-Reliance: The Relationship between Food Aidand Agriculture in Complex EmergenciesThematic Note 3 Managing Land and Promoting Recovery in Postcrisis SituationsInnovative Activity Profile 1 Food Aid versus Agricultural Support and Sustenance of Social CapitalInnovative Activity Profile 2 Niger: Taking Preventive Action with Food BanksModule 12: Gender in Crop AgricultureOverviewThematic Note 1 Gender and Soil Productivity ManagementThematic Note 2 Gender in Seed Production and DistributionThematic Note 3 Gender and Crop ProtectionModule 13: Gender in Fisheries and AquacultureOverviewThematic Note 1Gender-Responsive Institutions for Accessing and Managing ResourcesThematic Note 2Family-Based Systems for Aquaculture Development in AsiaThematic Note 3Associations for Protecting the Livelihoods of Fishers, Processors, and TradersThematic Note 4Gender and Alternative Livelihoods for Fishing Communities 5. Innovative Activity Profile 1 Indonesia: Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management ProgramInnovative Activity Profile 2 CARE-Bangladesh: Family Approaches in Integrated AquacultureModule 14: Gender and LivestockOverviewThematic Note 1 Livestock Disease Control and BiosecurityThematic Note 2 Livestock Marketing, Market Integration, and Value ChainsThematic Note 3 The Development and Use of Livestock Technologies to Improve AgriculturalLivelihoodsInnovative Activity Profile 1 Chiapas, Mexico: Indigenous Women in Sheep Improvement ResearchInnovative Activity Profile 2 Maasai Mens and Womens Knowledge in Cattle BreedingModule 15: Gender and ForestryOverviewThematic Note 1 Forests as Safety Nets: Gender, Strengthening Rights and ReducingVulnerabilityThematic Note 2 Agroforestry Landscapes: Gendered Space, Knowledge, and PracticeInnovative Activity Profile 1 Bwindi Impenetrable National Park Enterprise Development Project:Protected Areas and EcotourismModule 16: Gender Issues in Monitoring and EvaluationOverviewThematic Note 1 Design of Sound Gendered Monitoring and Evaluation SystemsThematic Note 2 Gender in High-Level Programs, Policies, and Newer Aid Modalities:How Should We Monitor It?Thematic Note 3 Setting Gender-Sensitive Indicators and Collecting Gender-Disaggregated DataInnovative Activity Profile 1 Training Community Members to Carry Out Project Planning, Monitoring, andEvaluation 6. FOREWORDThree out of every four poor people in developing countries live in rural areas, and most of themdepend directly or indirectly on agriculture for their livelihoods. In many parts of the world,women are the main farmers or producers, but their roles remain largely unrecognized. The 2008World Development Report Agriculture for Development highlights the vital role of agriculture insustainable development and its importance in achieving the Millennium Development Goal ofhalving by 2015 the share of people suffering from extreme poverty and hunger. Climate changeand rising food prices are reminders of the need to focus on food security and agriculture-for-development, and the material presented in this Sourcebook suggests that accounting for thedifferent roles of women and men and gender equality in access to resources and opportunities isa necessary condition for doing so.Gender inequalities limit agricultural productivity and efficiency and in so doing underminedevelopment agendas. Failure to recognize the differential roles of men and women is costly as itresults in misguided projects and programs, foregone agricultural output and incomes, and foodand nutrition insecurity. It is time to take into account the roles of women in agriculturalproduction and to increase concerted efforts to enable women to move beyond production forsubsistence and into higher-value, market-oriented production.This Sourcebook is a particularly timely resource. It combines descriptive accounts of nationaland international experience in investing in agriculture with practical operational guidance as tohow to design agriculture-for-development strategies that capitalize effectively on the uniqueproperties of agricultural growth and rural development involving women and men as a high-impact source of poverty reduction. It looks at gender equality and womens empowerment, andthe associated principles have the potential to make a difference in the lives of hundreds ofmillions of rural poor.This Sourcebook is a joint project of the World Bank, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),of the United Nations, and International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). We aregrateful to the teams in these organizations for their tremendous efforts to bring over 100 expertstogether and produce this significant contribution to our development work.Juergen VoegeleDirectorAgriculture and Rural DevelopmentThe World BankMarcela VillarrealDirectorGender, Equity and Rural Employment DivisionFood and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United NationsRodney CookeDirectorTechnical Advisory DivisionInternational Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) 7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook was managed by a core team led by Eija Pehu (WorldBank), Yianna Lambrou (FAO), and Maria Hartl (IFAD). The overall coordination was providedby Catherine Ragasa (Consultant), supported by Chitra Deshpande (Consultant). Excellent overallguidance was offered from Anne Nicolaysen (FAO), Annina Lubbock (IFAD), Meena Munshi(World Bank), and Lynn Brown (World Bank).The preparation of this Sourcebook involved many people from within several units of the WorldBank, FAO, and IFAD and a variety of partner organizations. Many individuals played a leadingrole as the main author or coordinator in the preparation of the modules, namely: Lynn Brown(World Bank) and Yianna Lambrou (FAO) (Module 1); Regina Birner (IFPRI) (Module 2); LindaMayoux (Consultant) and Maria Hartl (IFAD) (Module 3); Malcolm Childress (World Bank) andSusana Lastarria-Cornhiel (University of WisconsinMadison) (Module 4); Catherine Ragasa(Consultant) and Cathy Rozel Farnworth (Consultant) (Module 5); Anne Kuriakose (World Bank)(Module 6); Eija Pehu (World Bank) and Maria Fernandez (Center for Integrating Research andAction [CIRA] at the University of North CarolinaChapel Hill) (Module 7); Elena Bardasi(World Bank) and Kristy Cook (Consultant) (Module 8); Dominique Lallement (Consultant)(Module 9); Carolyn Sachs (Pennsylvania State University) (Module 10); Ian Bannon (WorldBank) and Sanam Naraghi-Anderlini (Consultant) (Module 11); Sabine Gndel (Consultant)(Module 12); Christine Okali (Consultant) (Module 13); Catherine L. M. Hill (Consultant)(Module 14); Christine Holding-Anyonge (Consultant) (Module 15); Riikka Rajalahti (WorldBank) and Pamela White (Consultant) (Module 16).Many more individuals made written contributions to the module overviews and thematic notes.These include the following:Jacqueline Ashby (International Potato Centre [CIP])Mari H. Clarke (Consultant)Ren Frchet (IFAD)Suman Gautam (Consultant)Renee Giovarelli (Consultant)Jeanette Gurung (WOCAN)Katrien Holvoet (FAO)Leah Horowitz (IFPRI)Eriko Hoshino (Consultant)Natalie Hufnagl (Consultant)Helga Josupeit (FAO)Leena Kirjavainen (Consultant)Marina Laudazi (Consultant)M. C. Nandeesha (FAO)Yvette Diei Ouadi (FAO)Juan A. Sagardoy (Consultant)Christine Sijbesma (Consultant)Anushree Sinha (Consultant)Nidhi Tandon (Consultant) andBarbara van Koppen (Consultant).Many individuals contributed profiles of innovative ongoing or completed projects or projectcomponents: 8. Irina Akimushkina (Consultant)Reshad Alam (DANIDA)Mary Arimond (IFPRI)Shweta Banerjee (World Bank)Marie-Louise Beerling (RDP Livestock Services)Lisa Bhansali (World Bank)Paricia Colbert (FAO)Christine E. Cornelius (World Bank)Francesca Dalla Valle (FAO)Harvey Demaine (DANIDA)Grahame Beaumont Richard Dixie (World Bank)Hadiza Djibo (FAO)Christian Fauliau (Consultant)Ren Frchet (IFAD)Dian Fiana (COREMAP)Charles Greenwald (COREMAP)John Hourihan (FAO)Sagipa Jusaeva (UNIFEM)Vijaysekar Kalavakonda (World Bank)Jan W. Low (CIP)Sitaramachandra Machiraju (World Bank)Ira Matuschke (Consultant)Grant Milne (World Bank)Marietha Owenya (Consultant)Francisco Pichon (World Bank)Aleyda Ramirez (FAOHonduras)Vanaja Ramprasad (Genetic Resource Ecology Energy Nutrition [GREEN] Foundation)K. P. Rao (Society for Elimination of Rural Poverty, Hyderabad)Parmesh Shah (World Bank)Monawar Sultana (ADB)Mona Sur (World Bank)Mio Takada (World Bank)Arine Valstar (FAO) andRobina Wahaj (Consultant).Many other individuals inside and outside the World Bank, FAO, and IFAD provided usefulinputs to this Sourcebook:Festus Akinnifesi (ICRAF)Keith Clifford Bell (World Bank)David Boerma (FAO)Fatiha Bou-Salah (FAO)Francesca Dalla Valle (FAO)Carol Djeddah (FAO)Nora Dudwick (World Bank)Ambra Gallina (Consultant)Brian Griffin (FAO)John Hourihan (FAO)Aichi Kitalyi (ICRAF)Dominique Lantieri (FAO) 9. Jens-Peter Barkenow Lilleso (ICRAF)Sibyl Nelson (FAO)Laura Puletti (IFAD)John Keith Rennie (World Bank)Andrea Rossi (FAO)Dieter Schoene (FAO)Reuben Sessa (FAO)Iain G. Shuker (World Bank)Alessandro Spairani (Consultant)Silvia Sperandini (IFAD)Vivek Srivastava (World Bank)Miguel Trossero (FAO)Dina Umali-Deininger (World Bank)Rosemary Vargas-Lundius (IFAD)Doris Voorbraak (World Bank) andBriana Wilson (IFC).Each module was peer reviewed, usually by two technical staff from each partner organizationand one external reviewer on average. We appreciate the substantive comments and suggestionsfrom our reviewers:Kaori Abe (FAO)Moses Abukari (IFAD)Nilufar Ahmad (World Bank)Harold Alderman (World Bank)Sriani Ameratunga (ILO)Jamie Anderson (IFAD)Jock Anderson (World Bank)Tom Anyonge (IFAD)Henry Bagazonzya (World Bank)Douglas Barnes (World Bank)Daniela Battaglia (FAO)Diji Chandrasekharan Behr (World Bank)Rupert Best (CIAT)Nienke Bientema (IFPRI)Magdalena Blum (FAO)Hubert Boirard (IFAD)Luz Caballaro (World Bank)Karel Callens (FAO)Alice Carloni (Consultant)Elizabeth Cecelski (Consultant)Delgermaa Chuluunbaater (IFAD)Bill Clay (FAO)Rudolph Cleveringa (IFAD)Patricia Colbert (FAO)Edward Cook (World Bank)Eve Crowley (FAO)John Curry (FAO)Rekha Dayal (Consultant)Henri Dommel (IFAD)Katuscia Fara (IFAD) 10. Erick Fernandes (World Bank)Ilaria Firmian (IFAD)Ren Frchet (IFAD)Theodor Friedrich (FAO)Neela Gangadharan (FAO)Rosalia Garcia (FAO)Zoraida Garcia (FAO)Michelle Gauthier (FAO)Sophie Grouwels (FAO)Natasha Hayward (World Bank)Jennifer Heney (FAO)Katrien Holvoet (FAO)Peter Hurst (ILO)Helga Josupeit (FAO)Mary Kawar (ILO)Kieran Kelleher (World Bank)Siobhan Kelly (FAO)Karin Kemper (World Bank)Sean Kennedy (IFAD)Josef Kienzle (FAO)Renate Kloeppinger-Todd (World Bank)Ib Kollavick-Jensen (FAO)Sasha Koo (FAO)Regina Laub (FAO)Harold Liversage (IFAD)Niels Louwaars (WUR)Susan Maybud (ILO)Anni McLeod (FAO)Kerry McNamara (World Bank)Robin Mearns (World Bank)Kayoko Chibata Medlin (World Bank)Ruth Meinzen-Dick (IFPRI)Samia Melhem (World Bank)Rebecca Metzner (FAO)Victor Mosoti (FAO)Sheila Mwanundu (IFAD)Ajai Nair (World Bank)Audrey Nepveu (IFAD)Martin Oelz (ILO)Clare OFarrell (FAO)Yvette Diei Ouadi (FAO)Sabine Pallas (International Land Coalition)David Palmer (FAO)Pawan Patil (World Bank)George Politakis (ILO)Suzanne Raswant (FAO)Melba Reantaso (FAO)Francesco Rispoli (IFAD)Anne Ritchie (Consultant)Simmone Rose (FAO)Antonio Rota (IFAD) 11. Dan Rugabira (FAO)Bill Saint (Consultant)Daniel Sellen (World Bank)Andrew Shepherd (FAO)Susana Siar (FAO)Ilaria Sisto (FAO)Jimmy Smith (World Bank)Libor Stloukal (FAO)Rohana Subasinghe (FAO)Ratna M. Sudarshan (Institute of Social Studies Trust)Burt Swanson (University of Illinois)Florence Tartanac (FAO)Paola Termine (FAO)Brian Thompson (FAO)Catherine Tovey (World Bank)Richard Trenchard (FAO)Robert Tripp (ODI)Kees van der Meer (World Bank)Steve Wiggins (ODI) andTanja Winther (Oslo University).In addition to the peer review, several people provided an overall review on the concept note andfinal Sourcebook draft:Nata Duvvury (Consultant)Indira Ekanayake (World Bank)Anita Kelles-Vitanen (Consultant)Shyam Khadka (IFAD)Rekha Mehra (World Bank)Gajanand Pathmanathan (World Bank)Thomas Price (FAO)Nitya Rao (University of East Anglia)Mary Hill Rojas (Consultant) andDeborah Rubin (Cultural Practice).The team would like to acknowledge Juergen Voegele (World Bank), Mark E. Cackler (WorldBank), Marcela Villareal (FAO), and Rodney Cooke (IFAD), who contributed invaluableguidance and support throughout the preparation of the Sourcebook.Technical edits from Kelly Cassaday (Consultant), Mike Donaldson (Consultant), and GunnarLarson (Consultant) improved the readability and sharpened the key messages substantially. HildRygnestad (Consultant) and Annu Ratta (Consultant) are acknowledged for their help inshortening and editing the documents. The team is very grateful for their patience and attention todetail.At the World Bank, the team thanks Patricia Katayama, Lisa Lau, and Dina Towbin, for theirassistance in the production.The team wishes to acknowledge the support and guidance of the Poverty Reduction andEconomic Management-Gender and Development (PREMGE), under the leadership of Mayra 12. Buvinic (World Bank). We also acknowledge the support and financial assistance from the FAOInvestment Centre, especially to William Sorrenson (FAO). We also thank the IFAD TechnicalAdvisory Division for both technical and financial support.Lastly, the team would also like to recognize the assistance provided by Felicitas Doroteo-Gomez(World Bank), Claudia Escutia (FAO), and Simone Zein (IFAD). 13. ABBREVIATIONSACEcivic extension associationACTAfrican Conservation Tillage NetworkADBAsian Development BankADRalternative dispute resolutionAETagricultural extension and trainingAIDS acquired immune deficiency syndromeAISAgricultural Innovation SystemsAL alternative livelihoodALMP active labor market programANADER Agence Nationale dAppui au Dveloppement RuralAPDPIP Andhra Pradesh District Poverty Initiatives ProjectAPRPRP Andhra Pradesh Rural Poverty Reduction ProjectASCA accumulating savings and credit associationASNAPP Agribusiness in Sustainable Natural African Plant ProductsATMautomatic teller machineATMA Agricultural Technology Management AgencyAusAID Australian Agency for International DevelopmentAWLAEAfrican Women Leaders in Agriculture and EnvironmentAWMagriculture water managementB2Bbusiness to businessBINP Bwindi Impenetrable National ParkBLGWIP-III Bhairahawa Lumbini Groundwater Irrigation ProjectBRAC Bangladesh Rural Advancement CommitteeCA conservation agricultureCATIECentro Agronomico Tropical de Investigacion y EnseanzaCBDcommunity-based development; Convention on Biological DiversityCBNRMcommunity-based natural resource managementCBPD community-based disaster preparednessCBOcommunity-based organizationCeCcommunity e-centerCDDcommunity-driven developmentCDFcommunity development fundCEDAWConvention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against WomenCEMCountry Economic MemorandumCGAcountry gender assessmentCIAL-CIATCommunity Agricultural Research GroupsCIAT International Center for Tropical AgricultureCIFORCenter for International Forestry ResearchCIGARConsultative Group on International Agricultural ResearchCOHRECentre on Housing Rights and EvictionsCOREMAPCoral Reef Rehabilitation and Management ProgramCOVERCOCommission for the Verification of Corporate Codes of ConductCREPACentre for Low-Cost Drinking Water Supply and SanitationCSRcorporate social responsibilityCWANACentral and West Asia and North AfricaDACDevelopment Assistance CommitteeDEWA Division for Early Warning and AssessmentDFID Department for International Development (U.K.) 14. DLSDepartment of Livestock ServicesDOFDepartment of ForestsDPIP District Poverty Initiatives ProjectDTWdeep tubewellEALA East African Legislature AssemblyECLACEconomic Commission of Latin America and the CaribbeanEDIEconomic Development InstituteEFTA European Fair-Trade AssociationENAM Enhancing Child Nutrition through Animal Source Food ManagementESWeconomic and sector workFACfarmer advisory committeeFAOFood and Agriculture OrganizationFARC Revolutionary Armed Forces of ColombiaFARM Farmer-Centered Agricultural Resource ManagementFEDEVFemmes et DveloppementFAESIS Food and Agriculture Education Information SystemFFSFarmer Field SchoolFIAS Foreign Investment Advisory ServiceFLGfunctional literacy groupFLOFair-Trade Labelling Organisations InternationalFLSFarmer Life SchoolFRIEND Foundation for Rural Integrated Enterprises in DevelopmentFSVGDFood Security for Vulnerable Group Development Women and Their DependentsFTDfarmer training demonstrationGALGender and LivelihoodsGAPGender Action PartnershipGBIgender budget initiativeGDPgross domestic productGENRDGender and Rural Development Thematic GroupGGAgender and growth assessmentGM genetically modifiedGNAEPGreater Noakhali Aquaculture Extension ProjectGNIgross national incomeGoSL government of Sri LankaGOWE Growth Oriented Women EnterpriseGRBI Gender Responsive Budgeting InitiativeGRTI Gender and Rural Transport InitiativeGTZGesellschaft fr Technische ZusammenarbeitHLFFDP Hills Leasehold Forestry and Forage Development ProjectHIVhuman immunodeficiency virusHPAI highly pathogenic avian influenzaIADB Inter-American Development BankIAPindoor air pollutionIASC Inter-Agency Standing CommitteeICECDInternational Centre for Entrepreneurship and Career DevelopmentICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural RightsICMintegrated crop managementICRC International Committee of the Red CrossICTinformation and communication technologyIDAInternational Development Association 15. IDP internally displaced personIDRCInternational Development Research CentreIFADInternational Fund for Agricultural DevelopmentIFATInternational Federation for Alternative TradeIFC International Finance CorporationIFPRI International Food Policy Research InstituteIGA income-generating activityIIM Indian Institute of ManagementIISDInternational Institute for Sustainable DevelopmentIKindigenous knowledgeIKP Indira Kranthi PathamIMF International Monetary FundIMT intermediate means of transport; irrigation management transferINCAGRO:Peruvian Agro-Innovation and Competitiveness ProjectINSTRAW International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement ofWomenIPCCIntergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeIPM integrated pest managementIPPMintegrated production and pest managementIRADIntegrated Research and Action for DevelopmentIRAPintegrated rural accessibility planningIRRIInternational Rice Research InstituteJFFLS Junior Farmer Field and Life SchoolJSA joint staff assessmentKARIKenya Agricultural Research InstituteKRC Kabarole Research and Resource CentreKWDP: Karnataka Watershed Development ProjectLACOSREPUpper East Region Land Conservation and Smallholder RehabilitationProjectLADEP Lowlands Agricultural Development ProgrammeLao PDR Lao Peoples Democratic RepublicLARCLegal Assistance to Rural CitizensLCC Land Claims CourtLDW local development windowLEAFLivelihood Empowerment and AgroforestryLinKS Local Indigenous Knowledge SystemsLPG liquid propane gasLSA livelihood support activityLTTELiberation Tamil Tigers of EelamM&E monitoring and evaluationMACEMPMarine and Coastal Environment Management ProjectMADER:Ministry of Agriculture and Rural DevelopmentMAMSMaquette for MDG SimulationsMBFOmembership-based financial organizationMDG Millennium Development GoalMEmarketing extensionMEA Millennium Ecosystem AssessmentMFA microfinance associationMFI microfinance institutionMIGEPROFE Ministry of Gender and the Promotion of WomenMINECOFIN Ministry of Economics and Finance 16. MISmanagement information systemMOAMinistry of AgricultureMS mandal samakhyasNAADSNational Agricultural Advisory ServiceNCUnational coordination unitNERICA New Rice for AfricaNEWS Network of European World ShopsNGOnongovernmental organizationNOPEST New Options for Pest ManagementNPIU national project implementation unitNPMNew Public ManagementNRMnatural resource managementNSSO National Sample Survey OrganisationNTFP nontimber forest productNWFP nonwood forest productOECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentOECD/DAC Development Assistance Committee of the OECDPA protected areaPACTAProyecto Acceso a la TierraPAFperformance assessment frameworkPALS Participatory Action Learning SystemPARIMA Pastoral Risk Management on East African RangelandsPARPAPlan for the Reduction of Absolute PovertyPBAEPPatuakhali Barguna Aquaculture Extension ProjectPCUWAPolicy Coordinating Unit for Women in AgriculturePERpublic expenditure reviewPL post-larvaePMUproject management unitPNASAProjet National dAppui aux Services AgricolesPO producer organizationPPB-PRGA Participatory Plant BreedingPRAparticipatory rapid appraisalPRGA Participatory Research and Gender AnalysisPRMT Poverty Resource Monitoring and TrackingPRSC Poverty Reduction Support CreditPRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy PaperPTDParticipatory Technology DevelopmentRCUregional coordination unitRDCrural development societyRDIRural Development InstituteROPPARseau des Organisations Paysannes et des Producteurs Agricoles de lAfrique de lOuestROSCArotating savings and credit associationRPOrural producer organizationSACEPSouth Asia Cooperative Environment ProgrammeSADC South African Development CommunitySAFE Safe Access to Firewood and Alternative EnergySARI Selian Agricultural Research InstituteSASKISustainable Agriculture Systems, Knowledge, and InstitutionsSDCSwiss Agency for Development and CooperationSEIStockholm Environment Institute 17. SEWASelf-Employed Womens AssociationSFLPSustainable Fisheries Livelihoods ProgrammeSHG self-help groupSIDASwedish International Development AgencySIEMBRA Servicios Integrales a Mujeres EmprendedorasSIMSsector information and monitoring systemSLA Sri Lanka army; Sustainable Livelihoods ApproachSMC site management committeeSMS smart message systemSOPPEXCCA Sociedad de Pequeos Productores Exportadoras y Compradores de CafSSA sub-Saharan AfricaSSDPSeed Systems Development ProjectSTFCSEWA Trade Facilitation CentreSWAPsector-wide approachSWOTstrengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threatsT&V training and visitTAtechnical assistanceTRIPS Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property RightsUER Upper East RegionUNUnited NationsUNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat DesertificationUNDAW United Nations Division for the Advancement of WomenUNDHR Universal Declaration on Human RightsUNDPUnited Nations Development ProgrammeUNEPUnited Nations Environment ProgrammeUNESCAP United Nations Economic and Social Commission for the PacificUNFFUnited Nations Forum on ForestsUNHCR United Nations High Commission for RefugeesUNIDO United Nations Industrial Development OrganizationUNIFEMUnited Nations Development Fund for WomenUNIMASUniversity of Malaysia SarawakUNPFUnited Nations Population FundUSAID U.S. Agency for International DevelopmentUWA Uganda Wildlife AuthorityVAC vuong/ao/chuong (garden/pond/animal)VDvillage development (association)VDC village development committeeVFFPVillage and Farm Forestry ProjectVOvillage organizationVRELVolta River Estates, Ltd.VSHLI Village Self-Help Learning InitiativeWFP World Food ProgrammeWHO World Health OrganizationWID Women in DevelopmentWIEGO Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and OrganizingWIN project Empowerment of Women in Irrigation and Water Resources Management forImproved Food Security, Nutrition and HealthWINDWork Improvement in Neighbourhood DevelopmentWOUGNET Women of Uganda NetworkWRDSwomens rural development societyWUA water user association 18. WUG water user groupWWF World Wildlife Fund 19. Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook Sourcebook OverviewAgriculture is central to the livelihoods of the rural poor and in the attainment of the MillenniumDevelopment Goals (MDGs). Agriculture can be the engine of growth and is necessary for reducingpoverty and food insecurity, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa (IFAD 2001; World Bank 2007a).Understanding the dynamic processes of change is crucial to better position the sector for faster growthand sustained development, which is vital for food and livelihoods security for millions of men andwomen worldwide.The rapid changes occurring in the agriculture sector, both internally and externally, present opportunitiesand challenges for the sectors central role in poverty reduction and food security. Markets and thedemand for agricultural commodities are changing rapidly, especially for higher-value products. Thesechanges may create opportunities for greater market participation for both women and men; however, forwomen in particular, to date, equal access to these markets is still limited. Advances in agriculturalknowledge and technology that accompany the changes in the sector are creating an array of new choicesfor producers, altering what is produced, where it is produced, and how it is produced. Factors outside ofthe sector, such as widespread environmental change, are also altering agricultural potential throughoutthe world. In particular, climate change is now affecting water supply and weather conditions andconsequently is impacting agricultural production.The composition of rural households is changing considerably as a consequence of HIV and AIDS, withdeaths of young adults and farm households left in the hands of children and grandparents withsubsequent impacts on agriculture. Migration, arising mainly from poverty or prompted by naturaldisasters or violent conflict, now forms a dynamic force, changing the landscape of the rural population.Remittances sent back home by migrants form substantial sources of funds supporting householdconsumption and productive investments in rural areas. Migration shows stark gendered differences. Insome regions, men more than women are likely to abandon agricultural work at home and migrate first toseek income in other sectors. Women are being left to carry the full burdens of agricultural production,but often with no legal protection or rights to property ownership.Although the changes in agriculture create new sources of opportunities for livelihoods and food security,they also pose significant uncertainties. Equity concerns are being raised. Poor and small producers, oftenwomen, may be excluded from the lucrative high-value markets because they may not be able to competein terms of costs and prices with larger producers. Globalization and trade liberalization have openedmore market opportunities internationally and have induced greater innovations and efficiencies in manycases. But, at the same time, globalization has led to painful transition periods for some economies andhave favored the producers who have more resources and the information, education, and capacity to copewith increasingly stringent market demands. Thus, these changes may increase the vulnerability ofindividuals with few resources, especially poor women, who have traditionally had limited access tocrucial services and opportunities because of persistent cultural, social, and political biases.Within the development community, a renewed interest has been expressed in support of agriculture. TheWorld Development Report of 2008: Agriculture for Development has helped spearhead renewed thinkingabout the sector calling for more and better investments in agriculture. Increased investment in the sectoris also flowing from the private foundations (such as the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation). In light ofsuch renewed interest and resources, this is an opportune time to rethink agriculture strategies for betterdevelopment outcomes. Concerted efforts are required to use fully the strengths and diversity among therural people and their institutions, to manage innovatively the risks and challenges associated with rapidchanges in the sector, and to ensure that growth reaches poor women and men. For instance, women playa major role in agriculture, but these roles are often unrecognized. The design of many development 1 20. policies and projects continues to assume wrongly that farmers and rural workers are mainly men (WorldBank 2007b). Failure to recognize the roles, differences, and inequalities poses a serious threat to theeffectiveness of the agricultural development agenda.Why Gender Equality Is Important in AgricultureGender equality is crucial for agricultural development and the attainment of the MDGs. The definition ofgender used in the Sourcebook is the economic, social, political, and cultural attributes and opportunitiesassociated with being man or woman. The Sourcebook uses the definition in the Global MonitoringReport 2007 on gender equality, which means equal access to the opportunities that allow people topursue a life of their own choosing and to avoid extreme deprivations in outcomes, highlighting genderequality in rights, resources, and voice (World Bank 2007c: 106).Gender issues are crucial to be addressed in development. First, gender dimension is crucial for economicreasons and from the efficiency point of view. This is especially true in the agriculture sector, wheregender inequalities in access to and control over resources are persistent, undermining a sustainable andinclusive development of the sector. Second, equity or distributional issues are related to genderdifferences in outcomes. Gender differences, arising from the socially constructed relationship betweenmen and women, affect the distribution of resources between them and cause many disparities indevelopment outcomes. Third, gender roles and relations affect food security and household welfare,critical indicators of human development. Last, but not least, gender equality is a basic human right, onethat has value in and of itself.In many parts of the worldfor example, sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and South Asiadespite womenbeing the main farmers or producers, their roles are largely unrecognized. In Uganda, broadly illustrativeof SSA, 75 percent of agricultural producers are women. 1 In others areas, where migration and HIV andAIDS are affecting rural demographics, agriculture is becoming feminized as women increasinglybecome major actors in the sector. Women also play active roles as traders, processors, laborers, andentrepreneurs, despite facing many obstacles (compared to their men counterparts) in market access.However, the design of many development policies and projects continues to assume incorrectly thatfarmers and rural workers are mainly men (World Bank 2007b).Significant gender inequalities can be found in peoples access to other key productive assets andservices: land, labor, financial services, water, rural infrastructure, technology, and other inputs. Availableevidence indicates that the distribution of land ownership is heavily skewed toward men. For example,roughly 70 to 90 percent of formal owners of farmland are men in many Latin American countries (Deereand Leon 2003), and similar patterns are seen in SSA (Doss 2005; Quisumbing, Estudillo, and Otsuka2004). Evidence also suggests that strengthening womens land rights can significantly increase incomeand families welfare (for example, a new law adopted in several countries in SSA certifying womenstitle to land had a positive impact on womens and household welfare). In many countries, providing landtitles is not enough because complementary services (such as in the Lao Peoples Democratic Republicand the Philippines) also need to be in place (see Module 4).The poor, especially women, face obstacles in making their voices heard even in democratic systems andin increasing accountability and governance reforms in many areas (World Bank 2007a). For instance,recent studies stress that womens representation and gender integration into national plans andagricultural sector strategies remain a challenge (World Bank 2005b). 2Women face considerable gender-related constraints and vulnerabilities compared to men because ofexisting structures in households and societies. Property grabbing from women and children is common,particularly in communities affected by HIV and AIDS. Also, exposure to risk arising from violentconflicts or natural disaster is different for men and women; it is often influenced by existing gender-based inequalities in the allocation of food within the household, mobility restrictions, and other2 21. sociocultural factors. For example, in the aftermath of Hurricane Mitch in Honduras and Nicaragua in1998, womens household tasks and care responsibilities increased to such an extent that they found itdifficult to return to work. Womens participation and voice in organizations are limited, they are lesslikely to receive critical information for emergency preparedness, and they have limited savings or assetsto insure them against external shocks (see Module 11).The World Bank (2001) documented that ignoring gender inequalities comes at great cost to peopleswell-being and countries abilities to grow sustainably and thereby reduce poverty. Not taking genderissues into account may result in projects that are technically successful but that negatively affect bothwomen and children and augment social and economic stratification. In SSA the missed potential inagriculture is considerable, as evidenced in country studies by the World Bank (2005a): Burkina Faso: Shifting labor and fertilizer between mens and womens plots could increaseoutput by 10 to 20 percent. Kenya: Giving women farmers the same inputs and education as men could increase yields bymore than 20 percent. Tanzania: Reducing time burdens of women could increase cash incomes for smallholder coffeeand banana growers by 10 percent. Zambia: If women enjoyed the same overall degree of capital investment in agricultural inputs,including land, as their men counterparts, output in Zambia could increase by up to 15 percent.As is evident from just the few preceding examples, efforts to reach the MDGsespecially the goals ofhalving poverty and hunger (MDG 1) and promoting gender equality (MDG 3) and maternal and childhealth (MDG 4) by 2015must fully address and integrate gender into operations in the agriculturesector. Growth and development in the sector simply cannot be done while ignoring women, who are themajor actors.Recognizing the role of gender equality, key development organizations have engaged in a process ofmainstreaming gender into agricultural development. The World Bank, Food and AgricultureOrganization (FAO), and International Fund for Agriculture Development (IFAD) have made someprogress in their gender mainstreaming strategies and have recently embarked on more action-orientedprocesses of gender integration (Curry and Tempelman 2006; FAO 2007; IFAD 2003; World Bank2006b, 2008). Analytical capacity is being strengthened, and data collection and analysis have beenimproved to include gender-specific variables and indicators in these three agencies. The Gender andDevelopment Program of the International Food Policy Research Institute has contributed significantlytoward this strengthening of analytical capacity (see also IFPRI 2007a, 2007b; Quisumbing andMcClafferty 2006a, 2006b). Capacity building of staff has also been implemented (see Module 2) withthe development community, and improvement has occurred in the way gender issues and womensempowerment are addressed throughout the project cycle, starting with project design (GENRD 2006,2007; IFAD 2003; World Bank 2006b). However, studies have highlighted the need to ensure greatercontinuity between design and implementation to integrate women more fully into mainstreamdevelopment activities, and the current challenge is to shift the emphasis toward actual implementationand supervision (GENRD 2006, 2007; IFAD 2003).One of the often-cited reasons for inadequately addressing gender is that practitioners lack the tools,know-how, and good practices to integrate gender perspectives in their work, especially now that thesector itself is undergoing profound changes. Some cite the abundance of tools, the many availablehandbooks and toolkits, but often one wonders where to start. Others mention lack of training ofdevelopment practitioners in using the tools, lack of accountability in processes to show results on genderequality, and lack of resources: budget and competent human resources to deliver well-thought-outdesign, implementation, and monitoring. Although these concerns can be addressed effectively onlythrough concerted efforts, the Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook is developed to respond to some of theseneeds. The Sourcebook compiles the good practices and innovative activities that successfully integrated3 22. gender into their project and program design for sharing and learning. It synthesizes in one placeknowledge, experience, and tools, which are currently scattered in many different places, and it providesan up-to-date understanding of gender issues and the complexities linking gender equality, povertyreduction, sustainable livelihoods, and food security in one volume, especially in the context of rapidlychanging agriculture sector.Gender in Agriculture SourcebookThe Sourcebook is the outcome of joint planning, continued interest in gender and agriculture, andconcerted efforts by the World Bank, FAO, and IFAD. The purpose of the Sourcebook is to act as a guidefor practitioners and technical staff in addressing gender issues and integrating gender-responsive actionsin the design and implementation of agricultural project and programs. It speaks not with genderspecialists on how to improve their skills but rather reaches out to technical expert to guide them inthinking through about integrating gender dimensions into their operations. The Sourcebook aims todeliver practical advice, guidelines, principles, and descriptions and illustrations of approaches that haveworked so far to achieve the goal of effective gender mainstreaming in the agricultural operations ofdevelopment agencies. It captures and expands the main messages of the World Development Report2008: Agriculture for Development and is considered as an important tool to facilitate theoperationalization and implementation of the Reports key principles on gender equality and womensempowerment.The Sourcebook focuses on agricultural livelihoods, with agriculture defined broadly as agriculture,forestry, fisheries, livestock, land and water, agro-industries, and environment, following the FAOdefinition. 3 The Sourcebook is grounded in the notion of agricultures central role in providing rurallivelihoods, food security, and broad-based poverty reduction. Although the Sourcebook focuses on theagriculture sector, it is also aware of the fluctuations of agricultural livelihoods so that poverty reductionand rural development requires a holistic approach. Both nonagriculture-specific sectors, such as ruralfinance, rural infrastructure, and rural labor with a reference to agriculture-driven activities, and socialprotection policies are addressed in the Sourcebook.The Sourcebook is targeted to key actors within international and regional development agencies andnational governments, specifically, operational staff who design and implement lending projects andtechnical officers who design thematic programs and technical assistance packages. The Sourcebook canalso be an important resource to the research community and nongovernmental organizations.The Sourcebook is one of a few interorganization partnerships to take advantage of complementarities inmoving toward greater coherence and harmonization of development support, particularly in the area ofgender mainstreaming in agriculture. The Sourcebook capitalizes on the comparative strengths of thethree organizations to lead the development of the Modules. In addition, it uses the expertise in eachorganization for technical contributions, good practice selection, innovative project examples, and a seriesof reviews and quality control. The contents are assembled from across all the geographic regions, withinputs from the experiences of the African Development Bank, the Asian Development Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank, and many other development organizations.Sustainable Livelihoods through a Gender LensThe Sourcebook adopts the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA), popularized by the U.K.Department for International Development (DFID) to provide a conceptual framework for thecomplexities and synergies of gender equality, livelihoods, food security, agricultural development, andpoverty reduction. 4 The SLAs holistic concept of livelihood strategiesbased on human, physical,financial, natural, and social assetsis a helpful approach in understanding the livelihoods of the poor.Livelihoods have been defined as comprising the capabilities, assets (including both material and socialresources) and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with4 23. and recover from stresses and shocks and maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and inthe future, while not undermining the natural resource base. 5The following factors are the central defining ones in the SLA used by the Sourcebook: Assets: Sustainable livelihoods depend on the access to and control over assets, namely, human,social, physical, natural, and financial capital. Gender differences in access to and control overassets dictate power asymmetries and negotiating power between men and women within thehousehold and community. Markets: Access to agricultural markets is an important source of income, assets, and factors ofproduction and consumption to sustain the needs of the household and welfare of the family.Agricultural markets include product, input, labor (in agriculture and agribusiness), financial,land, and water markets. In many areas, participation in lucrative markets is often dependent onaccess to and control of capital, mobility, and sociocultural factors, where potential genderasymmetries persist. Risk and vulnerability: Risks include natural hazard risk, human conflict, human and animaldisease epidemics, food insecurity, agroecological and geographic factors such as watervariability and drought proneness, and market and price risks (including trade shocks).Vulnerability to these risks is a result of poverty and socioeconomic position, influenced by socialdimensions such as income levels, asset ownership, ethnicity, age, class, and gender. Knowledge, information, and organization: Access to and engagement in organizations affectaccess to assets and markets and effective management of productive and value-addedopportunities, as well as risk and vulnerability and, thus, impact sustainable livelihoods. Genderasymmetries in organization and information often reinforce or intensify gender asymmetries inthese three areas. Information includes market information, information on risks and hazards,legal rights, and skills to use to develop the rights to access markets, improve income, andmanage risks. Organization includes formal and informal forms of collective action, including thepolitical and governance structures.The gender perspective has been structured, using the SLA, to capture the gender inequalities in thesefour factors. Gender inequalities in rights, resources, and voice addressed in the Sourcebook specificallylook at the following: Gender asymmetries in access to and control over assets Gender asymmetries in participation and power in land, labor, financial, and product markets Gender-differentiated distribution of risks and gains along value chains Gender asymmetries in market information, extension services, skills, and training Gender asymmetries in participation and leadership in rural organizations Gender asymmetries in rights, empowerment, and political voice Gender asymmetries in household composition and labor availability (dependency ratios,migration, and disability) Physical and agroecological risks and their gender-differentiated impacts and vulnerability.A simplified framework of analyzing agricultural livelihoods through a gender lens is presented in figureO.1, in which sustainable livelihoods are conceptualized as influenced by access to and control overassets, access to markets, access to information and organization, and effective management of risk andvulnerability, and by the interaction of these factors with policies and institutions at the global, national,and local levels.5 24. Figure 1. Sustainable Livelihoods through a Gender Lens ASSETS Gender asymmetries inaccess to and control oversocial, physical, financial,natural and human capitalsMARKETS Gender asymmetries inINFORMATIONparticipation and power in & ORGANIZATIONland, labor, finance and Gender asymmetries in marketproduct marketsinformation; extension services; Distribution of risks and RISK & and skills/ traininggains along the valueVULNERABILITY Gender asymmetries inchains Household composition/participation and leadership labor availability (dependencyin rural organizations ratios; migration; disability) Empowerment and political voice, especially of women Physical and agro-ecological risks & gender-differentiated impacts Gender-responsive social protection measuresSustainable livelihoodsSource: Sourcebook Taskforce.Policies are defined as actions or strategies that directly influence rights and equity as well asprices of goods and services (World Bank 2005a). Institutions are defined as a set of formal rules(for example, law and regulations) and informal norms, as well as their enforcementcharacteristics (North 2005); they also include processes guiding interactions between groups ofpeople. The Sourcebook looks at livelihoods at the household level, and the policies andinstitutions (at the global, national, and local levels) are discussed in terms of their impact on theprocesses affecting livelihood outcomes. The Sourcebook also focuses on design of agriculturalprojects and programs at the country level, although important regional and global issues specificto those projects and programs are also covered. Different forms of supporttransformative,mainstreaming gender perspectives, and targeted project approaches 6 are discussed, explicitly 6 25. in some cases and implicitly in others. At the project level, recommendations and guidelines aremade on what approaches and strategies can be implemented at different stages of the projectcycle, and at different levels of development support (for example, national, local, and projectlevels).Key Considerations in the Creation of the SourcebookSeveral principles govern the writing of the Sourcebook:Focus on PeopleThe Sourcebook puts people at the center of the discussion. This focus on people is equallyimportant at both the higher levels (when thinking about the achievement of objectives, such aspoverty reduction, economic reform, or sustainable development) and at the micro- or communitylevel. Assets, resources, markets, infrastructure, and political structures are discussed in relationto their impact on people and their livelihoods.Holistic ApproachThe Sourcebook recognizes the importance of an integrated and multisectoral approach inpromoting sustainable livelihoods. It attempts to bring together different aspects of peopleslivelihoods in relation to development planning, implementation, and evaluation by exploring thepossibilities of unifying different sectors and stakeholders toward a common framework.Emphasizing holistic approaches, the Sourcebook discusses trade-offs accompanying the differentsector changes and varying responses of stakeholders. Although the Sourcebook reflects on thevarious options available to the readers, it attempts to provide balanced analysis, guidance, andkey principles to inform their decisions.Macro-Micro LinksDevelopment activity tends to focus on either the macro- or the microlevel. The Sourcebookattempts to bridge this gap by emphasizing the importance of macrolevel policy and institutionsto the livelihood options of communities and individuals. It also stresses the need for higher-levelpolicy development and planning to be informed through lessons learned and insights gained atthe local level. This simultaneously gives local people a stake in policy and increases overalleffectiveness. The treatment of the different topics and themes aims at comprehensive inclusionby drawing in relevant partners active in rural areas (the government, civil society, and privatesector; local, national, and international levels).Building on StrengthsThe Sourcebook focuses on strengths and opportunities, rather than on needs and weaknesses.This implies recognition of potentials, such as strong social networks, access to physicalresources and infrastructure, the ability to influence core institutions, or any other factor that haspoverty-reducing potential. The Sourcebook provides strategies on assisting women to becomeeven stronger and more effective partners and major players in agricultural development.Timing MattersIn response to the dynamics of agricultural development, the Sourcebook includes anchoring thepresent in past developments, describing the main drivers of change, and providing a vision forthe future. This discussion can help in understanding the sequencing of development support. TheSourcebook seeks to understand and learn from changes so that it can support positive patterns ofchange and help mitigate negative patterns. It explicitly recognizes the effects on livelihoods ofexternal shocks and trends, which are more predictable than shocks but not necessarily less7 26. damaging. The Sourcebook aims to uncover the nature of complex, two-way cause-and-effectrelationships and iterative chains of events and to provide feedback mechanisms.Context MattersThe Sourcebook also brings forth the diversity and heterogeneity of the poor. The contextwhothey are, where they are, and what they domatters in how effectively gender integration anddevelopment goals are achieved. Particular attention is paid to regional differences in theSourcebook. The policy environment and governance structure are important determinants ofwhat development support will work. Projects with gender components will be effective only ifcurrent structures are in place. Transformative approaches and changes in institutions in manyinstances are necessary to break the structural gender-related constraints in societies. TheSourcebook aims to look at modes of providing support to the rural poor that best fit the specificstructural conditions and development priorities of their area or country instead of the one-size-fits-all strategies that were adopted in the past in some cases.Heterogeneity of the Rural PoorOne of the largest groups of the rural poor consists of market-oriented smallholders, who havesmall pieces of land for economic activities but are largely constrained by liquidity, risk, andtransactions costs (Berdegue and Escobar 2001). With improved market opportunities and greatersupport services, many of these farmers can build their asset base, adopt production processes thatare more suitable to the environment, and make the transition to commercially oriented farming(World Bank 2005a). These groups are the ones with the greatest potential for growth; closeattention thus must be paid to associating both women and men in smallholders programs tocorrect the current bias in favor of men. As illustrated by many examples in the Sourcebook,several gender-specific constraints limit womens active participation; and assessing and easingthese constraints are vital not only for equity but also for efficiency perspective (see Module 5).Another of the large group, the subsistence-oriented farmers, frequently operates in less-favoredand marginal production environments with poor access to markets; this group is made up of alarge proportion of women. The major development challenge is promoting stable production andfood security among these people. Another important group consists of laborers on farms andagribusinesses. Occupational segregation by gender is particularly strong in many countries inSouth Asia, Southeast Asia, and Latin America, where there are high prevalence of women incasual, low-paid employment with limited security leads to other abuses (see Module 8). TheSourcebook pays attention to providing options for development support differentiated by thesegroups of rural poor.Structure of the SourcebookUsing the agricultural sector strategies and gender policies of the three partner organizations, theSourcebook addresses the subsectors and topics that would foster the realization of thedevelopment objectives. The Sourcebook addresses agricultural livelihoods in specific investmentor programmatic areas of the World Bank, FAO, and IFAD (table O.1). The Modules are selectedbased on themes of cross-cutting importance for agriculture and rural development with stronggender dimensions (policy and governance; agricultural innovation and education; food security;product and input markets; rural finance; rural infrastructure; water; land; labor; natural resourcemanagement; and crises) and specific subsectors in agriculture (crops, livestock, forestry, andfisheries). A separate module on monitoring and evaluation is included, responding to the need totrack implementation and development outcomes.Table O. 1. The Sourcebook Modules 1 Gender and Food Security 8 27. 2 Gender and Agriculture Livelihoods: Strengthening Governance 3 Gender and Rural Finance 4 Gender Issues in Land Policy and Administration 5 Gender and Agricultural Markets 6 Gender Mainstreaming in Agricultural Water Management 7 Gender in Agricultural Innovation and Education 8 Gender Issues in Agricultural Labor 9 Gender in Rural Infrastructure for Agricultural Livelihoods 10Gender and Natural Resource Management 11Gender and Crises: Implications for Agriculture 12Gender and Crop Agriculture 13Gender in Fisheries and Aquaculture 14Gender and Livestock 15Gender and Forestry 16Gender Issues in Monitoring and EvaluationThe Modules use the conceptual framework of agricultural livelihoods by discussing assets,markets, information and organization, and risk and vulnerability in the subsectors and themes.Political economy is intertwined throughout the Sourcebook, especially in Module 2, and thesociocultural dimension is captured in all Modules.Each Module contains three different types of subunits and can function as a stand-alonedocument: A Module Overview is intended as a broad introduction to the topic and provides asummary of the major development issues in the sector, key gender considerations, therationale of looking at gender dimensions in the sector, and a presentation of theframework that guides the analysis and links different themes, issues, and examples in theModules. Thematic Notes provide a brief but technically sound guide in gender integration inselected themes within the Module topic. These Notes summarize what has been doneand the success and lessons learned from projects and programs. They provide guidelinesin terms of key considerations, checklists, organizing principles, key questions, and keyperformance indicators that would guide the design and implementation of projects. Innovative Activity Profiles 7 describe the design and innovative features of recent andexciting projects and activities that have been implemented or are ongoing and can beconsidered for scaling up or replication. Activities profiled here have often not beensufficiently tested and evaluated in a range of settings to be considered good practice,but they should be closely monitored for potential scaling up. These Profiles provide theimportant details about the design and implementation that have contributed to thebudding success of certain activities or projects, which technical experts can adopt intotheir operations. These Profiles are aimed at igniting the imagination of task managersand technical experts about possibilities that they can explore and adopt in their projectdesigns.The Sourcebook draws on a wide range of experience from donor agencies, governments,institutions, and other groups active in agricultural development. However, in this first edition ofthe Sourcebook, the initial contributions draw mainly from the World Bank, FAO, and IFADexperiences.The themes and topics covered in the Sourcebook are not always comprehensive and areconstrained by both the availability of materials and specialists and experts willing to contribute 9 28. examples and share experiences. The Modules generally address the priority issues within athematic area or areas in which operational guidance is needed, but important gaps exist thatshould be filled in future editions. Migration, rural-urban interlinkages, biofuels, geneticallymodified foods, agricultural finance, and food safety are a few areas only briefly mentioned in theSourcebook that need to be more thoroughly addressed in future updates.The Process of the SourcebookThe Sourcebook is not a primary research product, advocacy piece, or toolkit; it capitalizes on thereal development experiences of task managers and operational staff in designing andimplementing gender-responsive agricultural projects. The Modules have undergone an iterativeprocess of development and review: A review of existing toolkits and checklists in gender: A preliminary evaluation ofexisting toolkits on gender revealed that there quite a few toolkits are available. However,the organizers felt that a distinct need exists for a more operationally relevant, updated,concise reference source to assist task managers and technical officers in their effortstoward greater gender inclusion in agricultural policies, projects, and programs. A moredetailed review of these existing toolkits was done as part of the Sourcebook preparationto distill relevant information. Subsector reviews: The Sourcebook examines key gender issues present across theconcerned subsectors at the conceptual level. It identifies the range of project designemphases and approaches implemented in the sector to date. Sources of data andinformation include the use of secondary sources and the experiences of task managersand technical officers. Project lessons learned and challenges encountered are alsoidentified. Consultative sessions with technical experts: Although the main sources of informationare project documents and studies as well as the experience of the Module coordinators,authors, and contributors, consultative sessions and discussions were used to draw on theexperiences of a wide range of experts in the World Bank, FAO, IFAD, and otherrelevant organizations. This process was very useful in identifying and verifying projectexamples with strong gender components, in documenting good practices, and indescribing the context into which these practices and innovations would fit best in futureoperations.Lessons Learned and Ways ForwardThe Sourcebook is a good practice example of the potential of interorganization cooperation. Thegender and sector expert teams in the World Bank, FAO, and IFAD worked very well together.The interest and willingness of over 100 technical experts to provide input and reviews isadmirable. The Sourcebook also witnessed great complementarities in approaches, expertise, andnetworks in the three organizations. The preparation of the Sourcebook encountered difficulty ingetting good practice examples that are based on sound impact assessment. Not many projectshave incorporated gender-disaggregated impact assessments. Good practices and innovativeprojects used in the Sourcebook relied largely on the expert judgment of the authors and thematicexperts and on a rigorous review process involving experts in the three organizations to check andverify the examples. Intensifying efforts to undertake sound gender-disaggregated impactassessment is an area of great importance for further partnership.The Sourcebook is a living document that provides a good start but that remains open to dialogueand new, imaginative ways of doing gender-responsive agricultural development. The authorsexpect the Sourcebook to be expanded and updated as new experience is gained and new10 29. approaches and initiatives arise. Most Module Overviews and Thematic Notes should be valid fora number of years. Individual Modules can be used as stand-alone documents, and it may beexpected that in time some of the Modules will be developed into their own Sourcebook.To ensure the material in the Sourcebook is updated, a wide dissemination strategy is plannedwith easy access for readers to provide updates and experiences from their development projects.The authors encourage readers to update, verify, offer feedback, and most importantly, adapt keyprinciples and relevant guidelines to individual agricultural projects and programs.ReferencesBerdegue, Julio, and Germn Escobar. 2001. Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems and Poverty Reduction. AKIS/ART Discussion Paper, World Bank, Rural Development Department, Washington, DC.Curry, John, and Diana Tempelman. 2006. Improving the Use of Gender and Population Factors in Agricultural Statistics: A Review of FAOs Support to Member Countries in Gender Statistics. FAO, Rome.Deere, Carmen Diana, and Magdalena Leon. 2003. The Gender Asset Gap: Land in Latin America. World Development 31: 92547.Doss, Cheryl. 2005. The Effects of Intrahousehold Property Ownership on Expenditure Patterns in Ghana. Journal of African Economies 15: 14980.Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 2007. Progress Report on the Implementation of the FAO Gender and Development Plan of Action. FAO, Rome.Gender and Rural Development Thematic Group (GENRD). 2006. FY06 Gender Portfolio Review. World Bank, Washington, DC.. 2007. FY07 Gender Portfolio Review. World Bank, Washington, DC.International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). 2001. Rural Poverty Report 2001: The Challenge of Ending Rural Poverty. New York: Oxford University Press.. 2003. Mainstreaming a Gender Perspective in IFADs Operations: Plan of Action 20032006. IFAD, Rome.International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). 2007a. Proceedings of the Consultation on Strengthening Womens Control of Assets for Better Development Outcomes. IFPRI, Washington, DC.. 2007b. Engendering Better Policies: Two Decades of Gender Research from IFPRI. CD-ROM. Washington, DC: IFPRI.North, Douglass. 2005. Understanding the Process of Economic Change. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Quisumbing, Agnes, and Bonnie McClafferty. 2006a. Gender and Development: Bridging the Gap between Research and Action, IFPRI Issue Brief No. 44. IFPRI, Washington, DC.. 2006b. Using Gender Research in Development, Food Security in Practice No. 2, IFPRI, Washington, DC.Quisumbing, Agnes, Jonna P. Estudillo, and Keijiro Otsuka. 2004. Land and Schooling: Transferring Wealth across Generations. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.World Bank. 2001. Engendering DevelopmentThrough Gender Equality in Rights, Resources, and Voice. Washington, DC: World Bank.. 2005a. Agricultural Growth for the Poor: An Agenda for Development. Directions in Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank.. 2005b. Evaluating a Decade of World Bank Gender Policy: 199099. Operations Evaluation Department. World Bank. Washington, DC.. 2005c. World Development Report 2006. Washington, DC: World Bank.. 2006b. Implementing the Banks Gender Mainstreaming Strategy: Annual Monitoring Report for FY04 and FY05. World Bank, Washington, DC.. 2007a. World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development. Washington, DC: World Bank.. 2007b. Agriculture for Development: The Gender Dimensions. Agriculture for Development Policy Brief, World Bank, Washington, DC. 11 30. . 2007c. Global Monitoring Report 2007: Millennium Development GoalsConfronting the Challenges of Gender Equality and Fragile States. Washington, DC: World Bank.. 2008. Gender Equality as Smart Economics: World Bank Group Gender Action Plan, First Year Progress Report (January 2007January 2008). World Bank, Washington, DC.1Gender and Shared Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, briefing notes on critical genderissues in sub-Saharan Africa,http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTABOUTUS/Resources/GenderGrowth.pdf.2See also Elaine Zuckerman, Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers and Gender,background paper for the Conference on Sustainable Poverty Reduction and PRSPsChallenges for Developing Countries and Development Cooperation,www.genderaction.org/images/PRSPs&Gender-GTZ.pdf.3 See www.fao.org/unfao/bodies/council/cl115/w9751e.htm. Manufacturing ofagricultural inputs and machinery, regional and river development, and ruraldevelopment, which are also part of FAOs definition, are not discussed in thisSourcebook.4For more details on the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA), seewww.ifad.org/sla/about/index.htm (IFAD n.d.) andwww.livelihoods.org/info/guidance_sheets_pdfs/section1.pdf.5Robert Chambers and Gordon Conway, Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: PracticalConcepts for the 21st Century, IDS Discussion Paper 296 (1992), cited inwww.livelihoods.org/info/guidance_sheets_pdfs/section1.pdf.6Transformative programs are designed to transform gender relations by tackling theunderlying structural causes and effects of inequality, such as initiatives to changeinheritance laws and related practices (at the community level). Mainstreaming genderperspectives in macro- or regular programming and strengthening capacity of institutionsto mainstream gender are crucial in supporting changes in policy and legal frameworks.Targeted project approaches through agricultural initiatives can be specifically focusedon either women only or men only to redress inequalities and lack of access or skills (seeModule 11).7The selection of the Innovative Activity Profiles was largely based on the expertjudgment of relevant project leaders and technical staff in the three organizations ofprojects and programs, with strong gender dimension or component, that worked or has astrong potential of success. These suggested projects and programs were then traced andmore information and details were gathered. However, not many of these have gooddocumentation, and only a few have gender-disaggregated impact assessments, which leftus with not many actual project examples for these Profiles..12 31. Module 1 Gender and Food Security1IntroductionFood Security, at the individual, household, national, regional, and global levels [is achieved]when all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, andnutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for a healthy and active life.FAO (2001)Today the world has enough food to feed everyone, yet an estimated 854 million people worldwide arestill undernourished (FAO 2006) (fig. 1.1).2 Povertynot food availabilityis the major driver of foodinsecurity. Improvements in agricultural productivity are necessary to increase rural household incomesand access to available food but are insufficient to ensure food security. Evidence indicates that povertyreduction and food security do not necessarily move in tandem. The main problem is lack of economic(social and physical) access to food at national and household levels and inadequate nutrition (or hiddenhunger). Food security not only requires an adequate supply of food but also entails availability, access,and utilization by allmen and women of all ages, ethnicities, religions, and socioeconomic levels.Figure 1.1Undernourished People WorldwideNational food security requires both theproduction and the ability to import food fromglobal markets to meet a nations consumptionneeds.Household food security is year-round accessto an adequate supply of nutritious and safefood to meet the nutritional needs of allhousehold members (men and women, boysand girls).Nutritional security requires that householdmembers have access not only to food, but alsoto health care, a hygienic environment, andknowledge of personal hygiene. Food securityis necessary but not sufficient for ensuringnutrition security. (IFAD)Source: FAO 2006; www.ifad.org/hfs/thematic/rural/rural_2.htm.Gender-based inequalities all along the food production chain from farm to plate impede theattainment of food and nutritional security. Maximizing the impact of agricultural development on foodsecurity entails enhancing womens roles as agricultural producers as well as the primary caretakers oftheir families. Food security is a primary goal of sustainable agricultural development and a cornerstonefor economic and social development, and so this module serves as a roadmap that indicates howaddressing gender in agriculture development in the other modules can be optimized to maximize theimpact on food security. Unlike the other modules, it does not contain thematic notes but instead guidesthe reader to modules that provide more in-depth discussions. It also demonstrates the vital and often 1 32. unacknowledged role that women play in agriculture as well as how their critical role in ensuringsustainable agricultural development translates into household-level improvements in food and nutritionalsecurity.From Agriculture to Food SecurityAgriculture and food security are inextricably linked (see figure 1.2). The agricultural sector in eachcountry is dependent on the available natural resources as well as on national and international policy andthe institutional environment that governs those resources. These factors influence women and men intheir choice of crops and levels of potential productivity. Agriculture, whether domestic or international,is the only source of food both for direct consumption and as raw material for refined foods. Agriculturalproduction determines food availability. The stability of access to food through production or purchase isgoverned by domestic policies, including social protection policies and agricultural investment choicesthat reduce risks (such as droughts) in the agriculture production cycle. Yet the production of food is notthe only goal of agricultural systems that also produce feed for livestock and fuel (see Module 10 for amore in-depth discussion). Therefore, demand for and policies related to feed and fuel also influence foodavailability and access. Staple grains are the main source of dietary energy in the human diet and are more likely to beavailable through national and international markets, even in developing countries, given their storage andtransport characteristics. Fruits, vegetables, livestock, and aquaculture products are the key tomicronutrient, that is, vitamins and minerals, sufficiency. However, most of these products are moreperishable than grains, so that in the poorest countries where lack of infrastructure, such as cold storageand refrigerated transport, predicates short food chains, local agriculture determines the diversity of diets.Food security can become a reality only when the agricultural sector is vibrant. Other elements are necessary to achieve food and nutritional security as shown in figure 1.2.These are largely assigned to women, who play a key role in ensuring food security and are the focus ofthis module.Womens Role in Food and Nutritional SecurityAgricultural interventions are most likely to affect nutrition outcomes when they involve diverseand complementary processes and strategies that redirect the focus beyond agriculture for foodproduction and toward broader consideration of livelihoods, womens empowerment, and optimalintrahousehold uses of resources. Successful projects are those that invest broadly in improvinghuman capital, sustain and increase the livelihood assets of the poor, and focus on genderequality. World Bank (2007b)Women are crucial in the translation of the products of a vibrant agriculture sector into food andnutritional security for their households. They are often the farmers who cultivate food crops and producecommercial crops alongside the men in their households as a source of income. When women have anincome, substantial evidence indicates that the income is more likely to be spent on food and childrensneeds. Women are generally responsible for food selection and preparation and for the care and feeding ofchildren. Women are the key to food security for their households (Quisumbing and others 1995).Figure 1.2Elements in Achieving Food and Nutrition Security2 33. Source: IFAD, FAO, and WFP 2000. In rural areas the availability and use of time by women is also a key factor in the availability ofwater for good hygiene, firewood collection, and frequent feeding of small children. In sub-SaharanAfrica transportation of supplies for domestic usefetching fuelwood and wateris largely done bywomen and girls on foot. In Ghana, Tanzania, and Zambia women expend most of their energy on load-carrying activities involving transport of fuelwood, water, and grain for grinding. Fields dedicated to foodcrops are often farther from home than those related to cash crops. Because women must also performdomestic tasks, they must spend a considerable amount of time traveling between their home and thefields. This burden, together with other domestic and reproductive activities, severely constrains theamount of time available to women (see Modules 9 and 7, particularly Technical Note 4 in the latter). Aswomens time constraints increase because of engagement in wage labor and other factors, they will needto build strategic alliances with men to meet all the needs of the household. In the WIN project(Empowerment of Women in Irrigation and Water Resources Management for Improved Food Security,Nutrition and Health) in Nepal, one woman trained as a para-veterinarian convinced her husband to carefor their children and perform other domestic tasks while she made her rounds.3 Changes in the availability of natural resources, due to the depletion of natural resources and/orimpacts of climate change, can compromise food security by further constraining the time available towomen. As discussed in Module 10, water degradation and pollution can force women to travel farther tocollect water, reduce the amount they collect, and compromise hygiene practices in the household.Recognizing womens needs for environmental resources, not only for crop production but also for fueland water, and building these into good environmental management can release more time for women touse on income generation, child care, and leisure. Agriculture has an additional impact on food security through its impact on health. For example,poorly managed irrigation infrastructures may become a breeding ground for mosquitoes, and excessive 3 34. use of groundwater for irrigation may compromise water sources needed by women to ensure goodhygiene practices and clean food preparation, without which children suffer more frequently fromdiarrhea and compromised growth.Poverty is a major driver of food insecurity, but the two are not always linked. Poorer householdsheaded by women have demonstrated that they often succeed in providing more nutritional food for theirchildren than those headed by men (Kennedy and Peters 1992). This demonstrates the importance ofgender-based knowledge and roles with regard to food security. Men who lack knowledge about foodpreparation may not be able to translate food availability into nutritional security for their households.The following sections examine in detail the three key components of food security and showhow womens contribution to agriculture and its translation into nutritional security can be promoted.Food SecurityFood security is essentially built on three pillars: food availability, food access, and food utilization. Anindividual must have access to sufficient food of the right dietary mix (quality) at all times to be foodsecure. Those who never have sufficient quality food are chronically food insecure. Those whose accessto an adequate diet is conditioned by seasonality are food insecure but are generally called seasonallyfood insecure. Individuals who normally have enough to eat but become food insecure in the face ofdisasters triggered by economic, climatic, and civil shocks (war and conflict) are transitorily foodinsecure. The at all times element of the food security definition makes risk and associated vulnerabilityan important element of the food security concept. The definition of food security is often applied at varying levels of aggregation, despite itsarticulation at the individual level. The importance of a pillar depends on the level of aggregation beingaddressed. At a global level, the important pillar is food availability. Does global agricultural activityproduce sufficient food to feed all the worlds inhabitants? The answer today is yes, but it may not be truein the future given the impact of a growing world population, emerging plant and animal pests anddiseases, declining soil productivity and environmental quality, increasing use of land for fuel rather thanfood, and lack of attention to agricultural research and development, among other factors. When food security is analyzed at the national level, an understanding not only of nationalproduction is important, but also of the countrys access to food from the global market, its foreignexchange earnings, and its citizens consumer choices. Food security analyzed at the household level isconditioned by a households own food production and household members ability to purchase food ofthe right quality and diversity in the market place. However, it is only at the individual level that theanalysis can be truly accurate because only through understanding who consumes what can we appreciatethe impact of sociocultural and gender inequalities on peoples ability to meet their nutritional needs. The third pillar, food utilization, essentially translates the food available to a household intonutritional security for its members. One aspect of utilization is analyzed in terms of distributionaccording to need. Nutritional standards exist for the actual nutritional needs of men, women, boys, andgirls of different ages and life phases (that is, pregnant women), but these needs are often sociallyconstructed based on culture. For example, in South Asia evidence shows that women eat after everyoneelse has eaten at a meal and are less likely than men in the same household to consume preferred foodssuch as meats and fish. Hidden hunger commonly results from poor food utilization: that is, a persons diet lacks theappropriate balance of macro- (calories) and micronutrients (vitamins and minerals). Individuals maylook well nourished and consume sufficient calories but be deficient in key micronutrients such asvitamin A, iron, and iodine. People may live in unhealthy environments with inadequate hygiene andsanitation, which results in frequent illnesses and compromised nutritional outcomes despite sufficientfood being available. Infants and very young children may have mothers who are so time constrained,particularly at peak times in the agricultural calendar, that they are unable to feed a child as often asnecessary to provide good nutrition. Malnutrition is economically costly: it can cost individuals 10percent of their lifetime earnings and nations 2 to 3 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in the worstaffected countries (Alderman 2005). 4 35. Achieving food security is even more challenging in the context of HIV and AIDS. HIV affectspeoples physical ability to produce and use food, reallocating household labor, increasing the workburden on women, and preventing widows and children from inheriting land and productive resources(Izumi 2006). A study of rural households in Mozambique has shown that an adult death due to illness,which is likely to be AIDS related, reduces the amount of staple foods produced by these households by2030 percent, contributing to household food insecurity (Donovan and Massingue 2007). Policy responses differ according to the underlying determinants of the food insecurity. Theseresponses range from legal reforms to economic incentives to infrastructure investment to the provision ofinsurance instruments. The following sections will address the specific gender issues in each pillar of foodsecurity, drawing out the links to the other modules of the Sourcebook.Food AvailabilityWomen are key players in the farming sector as shown in figure 1.3. Their roles in agriculture self-employment is notable in sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East and North Africa. Womens role infood production within agriculture is even greater. In many societies women supply most of the laborneeded to produce food crops and often control the use or sale of food produce grown on plots theymanage.However, the asymmetries in ownership of, access to, and control of livelihood assets (such asland, water, energy, credit, knowledge, and labor) negatively affect womens food production. Womenare less likely to own land and usually enjoy only use rights, mediated through a man relative. Studiescited in Deere and Doss (2006) indicate that women held land in only 10 percent of Ghanaian householdswhile men held land in 1623 percent in Ghana; women are 5 percent of registered landholders in Kenya,22.4 percent in the Mexican ejidos (communal farming lands), and 15.5 percent in Nicaragua. Onaverage, mens land holdings were almost three times the womens landholdings. This compromised landaccess leads women to make suboptimal decisions with regard to crop choices and to obtain lower yieldsthan would otherwise be possible if household resources were allocated efficiently.Insecurity of tenure for women results in lower investment and potential environmentaldegradation; it compromises future production potential and increases food insecurity. In Ghana theprimary investment in land, given the lack of availability of fertilizer, is fallowing. However, longerfallows are likely to lead to loss of land when tenure is insecure, but shorter fallows reduce yields as soilfertility is compromised. Goldstein and Udry (2005) demonstrate that those with less political capital in avillage have less tenure security and as a result leave their land fallow for shorter periods. Withinhouseholds, profits per hectare of a maize-cassava intercrop from similar plots vary according toindividuals and length of fallow. Women have less tenure security and sacrifice profits per hectare withshorter fallows. The lower production reduces not only womens potential income, but also theavailability of food for household consumption. 5 36. Figure 1.3Rural Employment by Sector of ActivityAgriculture Self-Employment by SexAgriculture Wage Labor by Sex60 57 25 54222150 4720 39 38 38403315 FemaleFemale301125 Male 1023 9 9 Male1020 Percent of Adults 13 6Percent of Adults5 9541072 1 10 0 aa c ania aaa ri c ri ci fisiia fic siancari cf Af ac be As lA As ci befriA . Pibh ra h Pa lAib A. Af nN ia/ar ut nt ut/tr aarN raC So ia enan ha st& As a,Ce So As C,C h art& st ic &&as Sa Eaer esticSaEaub leEam Eape erb SdAr opd leidro Am Suid MinEuEuinMLat atLSource: World Bank 2007c.6 37. Legal reforms need to take into account multiple-use rights to land, particularly womens rights, as wellas the different means by which women gain access to land, including divorce and inheritance systems(see Module 4, particularly Thematic Notes 2 and 4). The Lowlands Agricultural Development Projects inThe Gambia (see Module 6, partic