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APChemistrySummerAssignment

WelcometoAPChemistry.IameagerlyanticipatingagreatyearofChemistry.Inordertoensurethebeststartforeveryonenextfall,Ihavepreparedasummerassignmentthatreviewsbasicchemistryconcepts.ThereisamultitudeoftremendouschemistryresourcesavailableviatheInternet.Withthereadyaccesstohundredsofwebsiteseitherinyourhomeoratthelocallibrary,Iamconfidentthatyouwillhavesufficientresourcestoprepareadequately.Muchofthematerialinthissummerpacketwillbefamiliartoyou.Itwillbeimportantforeveryonetocometoclassthefirstdayprepared.WhileIwillreview,extensiveremediationisnotanoptionasweworktowardsourgoalofbeing100%preparedfortheAPExaminearlyMay.Therewillbeatestcoveringthebasicconceptsincludedinthesummerpacketduringthefirstweekofschool.Youmaycontactmebyemail:(ehusband@upperdarbysd.org)thissummer.IwilldomybesttoansweryourquestionsASAP.Thisassignmentisdesignedtobesixweeklyassignments.Pleasedonottrytocompleteitallinthefinalweekofthesummer.ChemistrytakestimetoprocessandgraspatalevelnecessaryforsuccessinAPChemistry.Remember,APChemistryisanequivalentcoursetotwosemestersofIntroductoryChemistryincollege.Takingacollegelevelcourseinhighschoolisdifficult,requiresdedication,andisagreatinvestmentinyoureducationsoprepareyourselfandarrivereadytolearn.Haveagreatsummer.Mrs.Husband

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SUMMERASSIGNMENT#1

SignificantFigures–RulesSingleNumber

Significantfiguresarecriticalwhenreportingscientificdatabecausetheygivethereaderanideaofhowwellyoucouldactuallymeasure/reportyourdata.Beforelookingatafewexamples,let'ssummarizetherulesforsignificantfigures.

1)ALLnon-zeronumbers(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9)areALWAYSsignificant.2)ALLzeroesbetweennon-zeronumbersareALWAYSsignificant.3)ALLzeroeswhichareSIMULTANEOUSLYtotherightofthedecimalpointANDattheendofthenumberareALWAYSsignificant.4)ALLzeroeswhicharetotheleftofawrittendecimalpointandareinanumber>=10areALWAYSsignificant.

Ahelpfulwaytocheckrules3and4istowritethenumberinscientificnotation.Ifyoucan/mustgetridofthezeroes,thentheyareNOTsignificant.

Examples:Howmanysignificantfiguresarepresentinthefollowingnumbers?

Number #SignificantFigures Rule(s)

48,923 5 1

3.967 4 1

900.06 5 1,2,4

0.0004(=4E-4) 1 1,4

8.1000 5 1,3

501.040 6 1,2,3,4

3,000,000(=3E+6) 1 1

10.0(=1.00E+1) 3 1,3,4

Thisgivesyousomeideaofhowtodeterminethenumberofsignificantfiguresinasinglenumber.

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S C I E N T I F I C N O T A T I O N ChangethefollowingtoScientificNotation(maintainthenumberofsignificantfigures):1. 5.280= _______________ 11. 2,560= _______________2. 2,000= _______________ 12. .0009= _______________3. 15= _______________ 13. 8,900,000= _______________4. 6,589,000= _______________ 14. .0920= _______________5. 70,400,000,000=_____________ 15. 6,300= _______________6. .00263= _______________ 16. .90= _______________7. .00589= _______________ 17. 250= _______________8. .006= _______________ 18. .006087= _______________9. .400= _______________ 19. 500,000= _______________10. .08060= _______________ 20. .0000000105= _______________

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MetricUnitConversions

RULES• For1dimentionalunitseachsteponthestaircasebelowrepresentsonedecimal

place.o Forexampleconvert3.5mmtocm.

§ mmandcmare1dimentionalunits.Whereasmm2isatwodimentionalunit.

§ Startatmm,thebottomofthestaircase.cmareonesteptotheleft.Movethedecimalpointoneplacetotheleft.

§ 3.5becomes0.35.Therefore3.5mm=0.35cm§ Ifnodecimalpointispresent,assumethereisadecimalpointafter

thenumber.Forexample3cm=30mm• For2dimentionalunitseachsteponthestaircasebelowrepresentstwodecimal

places.o Forexampleconvert3.5mm2tocm2.

§ mm2andcm2are2dimentionalunits.§ Startatmm,thebottomofthestaircase.cmareonesteptotheleft.

Movethedecimalpointtwoplacetotheleft.§ 3.5becomes0.035.Therefore3.5mm2=0.035cm2§ Ifnodecimalpointispresent,assumethereisadecimalpointafter

thenumber.Forexample3cm2=300mm2• For3dimentionalunitseachsteponthestaircasebelowrepresentsthreedecimal

places.o Forexampleconvert3.5mm3tocm3.

§ mm3andcm3are3dimentionalunits.§ Startatmm,thebottomofthestaircase.cmareonesteptotheleft.

Movethedecimalpointthreeplacetotheleft.§ 3.5becomes0.0035.Therefore3.5mm3=0.0035cm3§ Ifnodecimalpointispresent,assumethereisadecimalpointafter

thenumber.Forexample3cm3=3000mm31mm=0.1cm1mm2=0.01cm2

1mm3=0.001cm31cm=10mm1cm2=100mm2

1mm3=1000mm3

1km3=1x1018mm3

1mm3=1x10-17km3

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U N I T A N A L Y S I S

MakethefollowingMetricSystemconversionsusing“unitanalysis”(youmayusescientificnotation): StandardNotation ScientificNotation1. 100mg _______________g= _______________g2. 20cm _______________m= _______________m3. 50L _______________dm3= ______________dm3

4. 22g _______________cg= _______________cg5. 825cm _______________km= ______________km6. 2,350kg _______________g= _______________g7. 19mL _______________cm3= ______________cm3

8. 52km _______________m= _______________m9. 36m2 _______________cm2= ______________cm2

10. 18cm3 _______________mm3= ______________mm3

11. 6g _______________mg= ______________mg12. 4,259mL _______________dm3= _______________dm3

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SignificantFigures–RulesMathOperations

ADDITIONANDSUBTRACTION:Whenaddingorsubtractingnumbers,counttheNUMBEROFDECIMALPLACEStodeterminethenumberofsignificantfigures.TheanswercannotCONTAINMOREPLACESAFTERTHEDECIMALPOINTTHANTHESMALLESTNUMBEROFDECIMALPLACESinthenumbersbeingaddedorsubtracted.Example:

23.112233 (6placesafterthedecimalpoint)

1.3324 (4placesafterthedecimalpoint)

+0.25 (2placesafterthedecimalpoint)

24.694633 (oncalculator)

24.69 (roundedto2placesintheanswer)

Note:Thereare4significantfiguresintheanswer.MULTIPLICATIONANDDIVISION:Whenmultiplyingordividingnumbers,counttheNUMBEROFSIGNIFICANTFIGURES.TheanswercannotCONTAINMORESIGNIFICANTFIGURESTHANTHENUMBERBEINGMULTIPLIEDORDIVIDEDwiththeLEASTNUMBEROFSIGNIFICANTFIGURES.Example:

23.123123(8significantfigures)x1.3344 (5significantfigures)30.855495(oncalculator)30.855 (roundedto5significantfigures)

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Determiningthenumberofsignificantfiguresinlogarithms&antilogarithms:

o Thelogarithm(base10)ofx,logx=a,wherex=10a. o Theantilogarithm(base10)ofa,antiloga=x,wherex=10a. o Alogarithmisdividedintotwo(2)partsbythedecimal.Theinteger

beforethedecimalisthecharacteristicandthenumbersafterthedecimalarethemantissa.

o Ifanumberisalogarithm,sincethecharacteristicreflectsthepowerof10,i.e.theexponent,itisnotconsideredtobepartofthesignificantfigures.Onlythedigitsinthemantissa(afterthedecimal)aresignificant.

Antilog AntilogSigFigs Log Log

SigFigs

567(5.67X102) 3

2.754The2isjustaplaceholder.Theunderlineddigitsaresignificant.

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0.0025(2.5X10-3) 2 -2.60 2

205.203(2.05203X102) 6 2.312183 6

3.400X1020 4 20.5315 40.0000002(2X10-7) 1 -6.7 1

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SignificantFiguresCalculationsPractice

1.Add-a)16.5+8+4.37 b)13.25+10.00+9.6

c)2.36+3.38+0.355+1.06 d)0.0853+0.0547+0.0370+0.00387

e)25.37+6.850+15.07+8.056

2.Subtract-a)23.27–12.058 b)13.57–6.3

c)350.0–200 d)27.68–14.369

3.Multiply-a)2.6x3.78 b)6.54x.037

c)3.15x2.5x4.00 d)0.085x0.050x0.655

e)3.08x5.2 f)0.0036x0.02

g)4.35x2.74x3.008 h)35.7x0.78x2.3

4.Divide-a)35/0.62 b)39/24.2

c)0.58/2.1 d)40.8/5.05

e)3.76/1.62 f)0.075/0.0305.Logs-

answer w/sigfigs answer w/sigfigs

a)log5.89×10–3 ____________ _________ b)ln3.591 _____________________c)10–2.22 ____________ _________ d)e5.61 _____________________

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UncertaintyinMeasurement

A.Whentakingmeasurementsallcertaindigitsplusthefirstuncertainnumberaresignificant.

Example:Yourbathroomscaleweighsin10Newtonincrementsandwhenyoustep

ontoit,thepointerstopsbetween550and560.Yourlookatthescaleanddetermineyourweightto557N.Youarecertainofthefirsttwoplaces,55,butnotthelastplace7.Thelastplaceisaguessandifitisyourbestguessitalsoissignificant.

INTHELABORATORY:Massesshouldalwaysberecordedtoasmanyplacesafterthedecimalpointasarereadoffthebalance.Calculationofmassbydifferenceusingatareshouldbereportedtothissamenumberofplaces.Graduatedcylindersshouldbereadonedecimalplacepastthesmallestgraduation.

EX.TheGraduatedcylindertothelefthasamajorscaleof5mL.Theminorscaleis1mL.Thesevaluesaredeterminedbylookingatthegraduations(markings)anddeterminingthevalueofeachline.Thereforethisgraduatedcylindershouldberedtothenearest0.1mL.Onedecimalplacepasttheminorscal.Thelastdecimalplaceshouldbeestimated.Iwouldreadthiscylindersvolumeas36.4mL.Thisreadinghasanuncertaintyof+/-0.1mL.Thusthereadingisreallysayingthattheanswerisbetween36.3

mLand36.5mL.

U N C E R T A I N T I E S I N C A L C U L A T I O N S 1. Whenaddingorsubtractingnumberswrittenwiththe±notation,alwaysaddthe±

uncertaintiesandthenroundoffthe±valuetothelargestsignificantdigit.Roundofftheanswertomatch.

Example:(22.4±.5)+(14.76±.25)=37.16±.75=37.2±.8 Theuncertaintybeginsinthetenthsplace…itisthelastsignificantdigit.2.Whenaddingorsubtractingnumberswritteninsignificantfigures,showthe

uncertaintybyroundingtheanswertomatchthelargestplacewithuncertainty. Example:267+11.8=278.8=279 Theleastaccurateoriginalmeasurementisonlyaccuratetotheonesplace.3. Whenmultiplyingordividingmeasurementswritteninsignificantfigures,showthe

uncertaintyofyourcalculationsbyroundingoffyouranswertomatchthesamenumberofsignificantfiguresasyourleastprecisemeasurement(themeasurementwiththeleastnumberofsignificantfigures).

Example:477.85÷32.6=14.657975=14.7 32.6istheleastaccuratemeasurementwithonly3significantfigures.

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NOTE:Therearetwotypesofprecision:“absoluteprecision”and“relativeprecision.” Example:322.45x12.75x3.92=16116.051=16100 Allthemeasurementsareaccuratetothehundredthplace(absoluteprecision)butthe

answerisroundedto3significantfiguresbecause3.92hasonly3significantfigures(relativeprecision).

InSummary:

AddingandSubtracting

Multiplyinganddividing

#’swith±notation

Rule1

Don’tDoThisCase

#’swithsignificantfigures

Rule2

Rule4

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UncertaintiesinMeasurement

Directions:Foreachmeasurementpleaserecordthemajorscale,minorscaleanduncertainty.Thanreportyouranswertotheappropriatevaluewithunits.Ifthequestionhasanyextracalculations,pleasedothemtothepropersignificantfigures.Ifthereareanyextraquestions,pleaseanswerthemcompletelyandincompletesentences.

VolumeofaLiquid1.

a) Whatisthemajorscale?__________

b) Whatistheminorscale?__________

c) Whatistheuncertaintyofthisdevice?_________

d) Whatisthevolumeofliquid?__________

e) Basedontheuncertainty,

whatrangecanweassumethe“actualvolume”lies

between?_________

2.a) Whatisthemajorscale?__________

b) Whatistheminorscale?__________

c) Whatistheuncertaintyofthisdevice?_________

d) Whatisthevolumeofliquid?__________

e) Basedontheuncertainty,whatrangecanwe

assumethe“actualvolume”liesbetween?_________

3.Addthevolumesofthetwograduatedcylindersfromaboveandrecordthevaluewithpropersignificantfigures?4.Whatcanyousayabouttheprecisionofgraduatedcylinder2?Explain.5.Howshouldourknowledgeofuncertaintyeffectoutselectionoftoolsinthelab?

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Measuringlength6.

a) Whatisthemajorscale?__________

b) Whatistheminorscale?__________

c) Whatistheuncertaintyofthisdevice?_________

d) Whatisthelengthofthescrew?__________

e) Basedon

theuncertainty,whatrangecanweassumethe

“actuallength”liesbetween?_________

7.Ifacubewithamassof21.56gandsidesmeasuring2.04cminlength,whatisitsdensity?

Showallwork.

8.Whatsubstanceisthecubeinnumber7madeoutof?

9.Calculatethepercenterror.Isthisanacceptablerangeoferror?Explain.

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SUMMERASSIGNMENT#2Thefirst4pagesarerulesandguidelines.Iwouldprinttheseoutandputtheminpageprotectorsandkeeptheminmychemistrybinder.Theywillbehelpfulforthe

entirecourse.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

Inorganic Chemical Nomenclature

Binary Compound Names for Non-Metal Ions

H - hydride N 3- nitride O 2- oxide F - fluorideH + hydrogen P 3- phosphide S 2- sulfide Cl - chloride

As 3- arsenide Se 2- selenide Br - bromideTe 2- telluride I - iodide

Polyatomic Ion Names

NH3 ammonia ClO4- perchlorate PO4

3- phosphate

NH4+ ammonium ClO3

- chlorate HPO42- monohydrogen

H3O + hydronium ClO2- chlorite phosphate

CH3COO - acetate ClO - hypochlorite H2PO4- dihydrogen

(C2H3O2-) CrO4

2- chromate phosphateAsO4

3- arsenate Cr2O72- dichromate PO3

3- phosphite

BO33- borate CN - cyanide SeO4

2- selenate

B4O72- tetraborate OH - hydroxide SiO3

2- silicate

BrO3

- bromate IO4

- periodate SiF6

2- hexafluorosilicate

BrO - hypobromite IO3- iodate SO4

2- sulfateCO3

2- carbonate IO - hypoiodite HSO4- hydrogen sulfate

HCO3- hydrogen carbonate MnO4

- permanganate (bisulfate)(bicarbonate) NO3

- nitrate SO32- sulfite

NO2- nitrite HSO3

- hydrogen sulfite

C2O42- oxalate (bisulfite)

O2 2- peroxide C4H4O62- tartrate

S2O32- thiosulfate

Common Acid Names

HC2H3O2 acetic acid HNO3 nitric acidCH3COOH acetic acid H3PO4 phosphoric acidH2CO3 carbonic acid H2SO4 sulfuric acidHCl hydrochloric acid

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IONFORMULACHART1+ 2+ 3+

ammonium,NH4cesium,Cscopper(I)Cugold(I)Auhydrogen,Hlithium,Lipotassium,Krubidium,Rbsilver,Agsodium,Na

barium,Baberyllium,Becadmium,Cdcalcium,Cachromium,Crcobalt(II),Cocopper(II),Cuiron(II),Felead(II),Pbmagnesium,Mgmercury(I),Hg2mercury(II)Hgnickel,Nistrontium,Srtin(II),SnZinc,Zn

aluminum,Alchromium(III),Crcobalt(III),Cogallium,Gagold(III)Auiron(III),Fe

4+

lead(IV),Pbtin(IV),Sn

1- 2- 3-acetate,C2H3O2bromate,BrO3bromide,Brchlorate,ClO3chloride,Clchlorite,ClO2cyanide,CNFluoride,Fdihydrogenphoshate,H2PO4bicarbonate,HCO3hydrogensulfate,HSO4hydroxide,OHiodate,IO3iodide,Initrate,NO3nitrite,NO2permanganate,MnO4

carbonate,CO3chromate,CrO4dichromate,Cr2O7hydrogenphosphate,HPO4oxide,Ooxalate,C2O4peroxide,O2selenide,Sesulfate,SO4sulfide,Ssulfite,SO3tartrate,C4H4O6telluride,Tethiosulfate,S2O3

borate,BO3nitride,Nphosphate,PO4phosphide,P

4-carbon,Csilicon,Si

COVALENTPREFIXES

1-mono 2–di 3–tri 4–tetra 5–penta6–hexa 7–hepta 8–oct 9–nona 10-deca

HYDROCARBONS

Prefixes 1–meth 2–eth 3–prop 4–but

Suffixes -ANE–CnH2n+2 -ENE–CnH2n -YNE=CnH2n-2

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STUFF I SHOULD KNOW FOR THE AP TEST BUT DO NOT KNOW YET

IONS LIST acetate C2H3O2

– ferric Fe3+ (yellow) oxalate C2O42–

aluminum Al3+ ferrous Fe2+ (green) oxide O2– ammonium NH4

+ fluoride F– perbromate BrO4–

barium Ba2+ hydrogen H+ perchlorate ClO4–

bicarbonate HCO3– hydronium H3O+ periodate IO4

– bisulfate HSO4

– hydroxide OH– permanganate MnO4– (purple)

bisulfide HS– hypobromite BrO– peroxide O22–

bisulfite HSO3– hypochlorite ClO– phosphate PO4

3– bromate BrO3

– hypoiodite IO– phosphide P3– bromide Br– iodate IO3

– phosphite PO33–

bromite BrO2– iodide I– potassium K+

calcium Ca2+ iodite IO2– silver Ag+

carbonate CO32– lead Pb2+ sodium Na+

chlorate ClO3– lithium Li+ stannic Sn4+

chloride Cl– magnesium Mg2+ stannous Sn2+ chlorite ClO2

– manganese Mn2+ strontium Sr2+ chromate CrO4

2– (yellow) mercuric Hg2+ sulfate SO42–

chromium Cr3+ mercurous Hg22+ sulfide S2–

cupric Cu2+ (blue) nickel Ni2+ (green) sulfite SO32–

cuprous Cu+ (green) nitrate NO3– thiocyanate SCN–

cyanide CN– nitride N3– thiosulfate S2O32–

dichromate Cr2O72– (orange) nitrite NO2

– zinc Zn2+

SOLUBILITY RULES Always soluble: alkali metal ions (Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+), NH4

+, NO3

–, ClO3–, ClO4

–, C2H3O2–, HCO3

�

Generally soluble: (mnemonics) Cl–, Br–, I– Soluble except Ag+, Pb2+, Hg2

2+ (AP/H) F– Soluble except Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+ , Mg2+

(CBS-PM) SO4

2– Soluble except Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+ (CBS/PBS)

Generally insoluble: O2–, OH– Insoluble except alkali metal ions and NH4

+

Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+ (CBS) somewhat soluble

CO32–, PO4

3–, S2–, SO32–, C2O4

2–, CrO42–

Insoluble except alkali metals and NH4+

GASES THAT FORM o H2CO3 o CO2 + H2O o NH4OH o NH3 + H2O o H2SO3 o SO2 + H2O o H2S o 2HNO2 o NO + NO2 + H2O o HCN

WEAK ELECTROLYTES Weak Acids (esp. HC2H3O2 and HF) (Memorize the 8 strong acids… all others are weak) HCl hydrochloric acid HNO3 nitric acid HBr hydrobromic acid HIO4 periodic acid HI hydroiodic acid H2SO4 sulfuric acid HClO4 perchloric acid HClO3 chloric acid Ammonium Hydroxide (NH4OH | NH3(aq)) Water (H2O)

DRIVING FORCES –– Double Replacement x Insoluble Solid (Precipitate) x Weak Electrolyte (H2O or Weak Acid) x Gas Formation

STRONG OXIDIZERS (Oxidizing Agents) MnO4

– in acid solution o Mn2+ + H2O MnO2 in acid solution o Mn2+ + H2O MnO4

– in neutral or basic sol’n o MnO2 Cr2O7

2– in acid solution o Cr3+ + H2O Cr2O7

2– with a base o CrO42– + H2O

CrO42– in basic solution o CrO2

– + H2O HNO3, concentrated o NO2 + H2O HNO3, dilute (e.g. 6 M) o NO + H2O H2SO4, hot, concentrated o SO2 + H2O Free halogens (e.g. Cl2) o halide ions (Cl–) H2O2 in acid solution o H2O Note: H2O2 decomposes o H2O + O2 Na2O2 o NaOH HClO4 o Cl– + H2O

Other Oxidizers Metal-“ic” ions (e.g. Sn4+, Fe3+) o “-ous” ions (Sn2+, Fe2+) H2O o H2 + OH–

STRONG REDUCERS (Reducing Agents) Halide ions (e.g. Cl–) o Free halogen (Cl2) Free metals o metal ions “ites” SO3

2– or SO2, NO2– o “ates” SO4

2–, NO3–

Free halogens, dil. basic sol’n o hypohalite ions (ClO–) Free halogens, conc. basic sol’n o halate ions (ClO3

–) S2O3

2– o S4O62–

Other Reducers Metal-“ous” ions (e.g. Sn2+) o “-ic” ions (Sn4+) H2O o O2 + H+

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St u f f I Shou ld K now (Page 2)

Complex Ions & Common Ligands Ligands polar molecules & anions NH3, H2O, OH−, CN−, Cl− Central Ions transition metals and Al3+ Ag+, Cu2+, Ni2+, Zn2+, etc. & Al3+

Odd example: Fe3+ + SCN− FeSCN2+

Examples usually twice the number of ligands as the charge on the central ion. Key Words: “excess, concentrated”

Ag(CN)2−, Cu(NH3)42+,

Ni(OH)42−, Zn(NH3)4

2+, Al(OH)6

3−

Reaction with Acid: Cu(NH3)4

2+ + H+ → Cu2+ + NH4+

Organic Chemistry & Functional Groups alkanes alkenes alkynes aromatics (benzene) CnH2n+2 CnH2n CnH2n−2 C6H6

alcohol aldehyde ketone ether

carboxylic acid ester amine amide

Substituted benzene: ortho = 1,2 meta = 1,3 para = 1,4

nuclear chem

alpha He4

2

beta/electron e0

1−

neutron n1

0

positron e0

1+

∆H ∆S Spont.? − + at all temps + + high temps − − low temps + − no temps

Note: ∆S in J ∆G & ∆H in kJ

Ksp & Solubility, s 1:1 Ksp = s2 1:2 Ksp = 4s3 1:3 Ksp = 27s4 2:3 Ksp = 108s5

Lewis Acids & B ases BF3 + NH3 → BF3NH3 acid anhydrides (oxides of nonmetals, CO2) basic anhydrides (oxides of metals, MgO) MgO + CO2 → MgCO3 decomposition reactions: MgCO3 → MgO + CO2 Strange Examples: P4O10 + H2O → H3PO4

Strange Ions: (nitride, N3−) (hydride, H−) Li + N2 → Li3N LiH + H2O → H2 + Li+ + OH− Flame Test Colors Quantum Numbers Barium – green n 1, 2, 3, … Sodium – yellow l 0 … (n−1) Copper – blue (w/ green) ml −l … +l Potassium – lavender ms +½, −½ Strontium – red Lithium – red l Calcium – orange

0 = s, 1 = p, 2 = d, 3 = f

Writing Lewis Structures hint: use one valence electron to connect F’s or Cl’s then determine lone pairs (Ex: XeF4)

Product−Favored (Spontaneous) Reactions ∆G < 0 E° > 0 Keq > 1

Properties Indicate Strength of Intermolecular Forces (IMF’s)

IMF BP FP Hvap Hfus VP IMF BP FP Hvap Hfus VP

Orders of Reactions & Graphs That Give Straight Lines 0 Order 1st Order 2nd Order

[R] vs. Time ln[R] vs. Time 1/[R] vs. Time slope = -k slope = -k slope = k

Electrochemical Cells Bond Orders anode cathode bond B.O.

oxidation reduction single 1 σ − side + side double 2 σ+π

lower E° higher E° triple 3 σ+π+π e− leave e− enter

SN & hybridization & shape

Steric Number hybridization basic shape 1 s −− 2 sp linear 3 sp2 r planar 4 sp3 tetrahedral 5 sp3d r bipyramidal 6 sp3d2 octahedral

IMF’s London nonpolar molecules, ex: CH4, He dipole−dipole polar molecules, ex: H2S, SO2 hydrogen bonding H−F, H−O−, H−N−, NH3, H2O

amines and alcohols metallic metals, Ag, Pb ionic salts, NaCl, CaCO3

(Note: “ates” contain covalent bonds) covalent network C(graphite), C(diamond), SiO2, WC,

Si, SiC (Note: graphite = London, too) Activity of Metals (Four Groups)

Metals React with… Groups I & II H2O ex: Li + H2O → Li+ + OH− + H2

all others Non-oxidizing Acid, ex: HCl Zn + 2HCl → H2 + ZnCl2

Cu, Ag, Hg Oxidizing Acid, HNO3 or H2SO4 (conc.) Cu + HNO3 → NO2 + H2O + Cu2+

Au, Pt, Ir Aqua Regia (HNO3 + HCl)

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Molecules & Compounds Writing Formulas and Naming Compounds

IntroductionWritingformulasandnamingcompoundscanbeconfusingbecausetherearedifferenttypesofcompoundsthatfollowdifferentrules.Additionally,somecompounds(H2O,NH3,CH4,etc.)simplyhavecommonnamesthatmustbememorized.Thetwotypesofcompoundswewillfocusonfirstareioniccompounds(formedfrompositiveandnegativeions)andbinarynonmetalcompounds(molecularcompounds).Laterwewilladdacids.So…youmustrecognizethetypeofcompoundbeforeyoutrytonameit.[Note:+ion=“cation”and–ion=“anion”.]

Ionic BinaryNonmetal

Formula+ionbefore–ionex:NaCl(NH4)2SO4Al2S3

usuallythelesselectronegativeatomisfirstex:COCO2N2O

Naming

Nameofcation+nameofanionsodiumchloride ammoniumsulfate aluminumsulfide

Indicatethenumber(mono,di,tri,andkindofatoms.Firstelementissimplynameofelement.Secondelementnameendswith“ide”carbonmonoxide carbondioxide dinitrogenmonoxide

I. WritingIonicFormulas

Cl- NO3- S2- CO32- N3- PO43- OH-

Na+

NH4+

Sn2+

Hg22+

Al3+

Sn4+

II. NamingIonicCompounds

Cation Anion Formula Name

Cu2+ OH-

Ba2+ SO42-

NH4+ Cr2O72-

Ag+ C2H3O2-

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mono di tri tetra penta hexa hepta octa nona decaIII. WritingFormulasofBinaryNonmetalCompounds

Name Formula Name Formula

nitrogentrifluoride phosphorustrichloride

nitrogenmonoxide phosphoruspentachloride

nitrogendioxide sulfurhexafluoride

dinitrogentetroxide disulfurdecafluoride

dinitrogenmonoxide xenontetrafluoride IV. NamingBinaryNonmetalCompounds

Name Formula Name Formula

CCl4 HBr

P4O10 N2F4

ClF3 XeF3

BCl3 PI3

SF4 SCl2V. PracticeforBothTypesofCompoundsFormula Name Formula Name

HCl carbondioxide

PCl5 ammoniumcarbonate

K2S sulfurdichloride

NiSO4 calciumiodide

ClF3 borontrifluoride

OF2 phosphorustriiodide

Al(OH)3 magnesiumperchlorate

NCl3 potassiumpermanganate

(NH4)3PO4 aluminumphosphate

19

Naming

Type of Compound

Ionic Acids Molecular

How To Recognize

Recognize + and - ion H+ and - ion Not Ionic

How To Name names of + ion then - ion

“ides” ® hydro---ic acid “ates” ® ----ic acid “ites” ® ---ous acid

S (add “ur”) P (add “or”)

mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona ,deca

names ends with “ide” pentaoxide ® pentoxide, etc.

IndicatetheTypeofCompoundandthennamethecompoundusingtheappropriaterules:1. NaF I Sodiumfluoride

2. FeCl3 ___ __________________

3. CO2 ___ __________________

4. MgCl2 ___ __________________

5. HF ___ __________________

6. SF4 ___ __________________

7. HC2H3O2 ___ __________________

8. H2O ___ __________________

9. NH3 ___ __________________

10. CaO ___ __________________

11. NH4NO3 ___ __________________

12. NaI ___ __________________

13. PbCO3 ___ __________________

14. Na2O ___ __________________

15. Ba(NO3)2 ___ __________________

16. K2CrO4 ___ __________________

17. NO ___ __________________

18. HCl ___ __________________

19. MnO2 ___ __________________

20. H2S ___ __________________

21. CuCl2 ___ __________________

22. AgNO3 ___ __________________

23. CO ___ __________________

24. H3PO4 ___ __________________

25. NaCl ___ __________________

26. N2O5 ___ __________________

27. NO2 ___ __________________

28. HNO3 ___ __________________

29. NaOH ___ __________________

30. SnCl2 ___ __________________

31. CaSO4 ___ __________________

32. HBr ___ __________________

33. Cu(OH)2 ___ __________________

34. Zn(OH)2 ___ __________________

35. BaCl2 ___ __________________

36. PCl5 ___ __________________

20

Naming Acids W r i t e t h e f o r m u l a o f t h e p o l y a t o m i c i o n . T h e n W r i t e t h e f o r m u l a o f t h e a c i d . F i n a l l y , w r i t e t h e n a m e o f t h e a c i d . “ate”becomes“_____icacid”“ite”becomes“_____ousacid”“ide”becomes“hydro_____icacid

bromate BrO3- HBrO3 bromic acid

periodate _____ _______ ____________

carbonate _____ _______ ____________

peroxide* _____ _______ ____________

chloride _____ _______ ____________

chlorite _____ _______ ____________

thiosulfate _____ _______ ____________

sulfide _____ _______ ____________

dichromate _____ _______ ____________

hypobromite _____ _______ ____________

sulfite _____ _______ ____________

chromate _____ _______ ____________

permanganate _____ _______ ____________

iodate _____ _______ ____________

perbromate _____ _______ ____________

cyanide _____ _______ ____________

chlorate _____ _______ ____________

nitrate _____ _______ ____________ *=becareful

insulfurcompounds,add“ur”inphosphoruscompounds,add“or”

perchlorate _____ _______ ____________

bisulfate* _____ _______ ____________

hypoiodite _____ _______ ____________

bicarbonate* _____ _______ ____________

sulfate _____ _______ ____________

iodite _____ _______ ____________

acetate _____ _______ ____________

iodide _____ _______ ____________

bromide _____ _______ ____________

hydroxide* _____ _______ ____________

phosphate _____ _______ ____________

hypochlorite _____ _______ ____________

phosphite _____ _______ ____________

oxide* _____ _______ ____________

fluoride _____ _______ ____________

thiocyanate _____ _______ ____________

bromite _____ _______ ____________

nitrite _____ _______ ____________

21

OrganicNamingOrganicNomenclature-Alkanes,Alkenes,AlkynesNamingorganiccompoundscanbeachallengetoanychemistatanylevel.Historically,chemistsdevelopednamesfornewcompoundswithoutanysystematicguidelines.Inthiscentury,theneedforstandardizationwasrecognized.Forsimplemolecules,thenomenclaturesystemworkedoutbytheInternationalUnionofPureandAppliedChemists(IUPAC)workswell.Forcomplexmolecules,theIUPACnamesaresolongthatnooneintheirrightmindwouldusethem.ThenetresultisthatahodgepodgeofIUPACnamesandhistoricorcommonnamesisused.Anyonecompoundmayhavefiveorsixdifferentnames.So,whatwewanttoaccomplishinthismoduleissimplytoestablishthefundamentalsoftheIUPACsystemandapplythemtonamingalkanes,alkenesandalkynes.Thesegroupsarehydrocarbons,compoundsmadeoftheelementscarbonandhydrogen.NumericalPrefixes=NumberofBackboneCarbonAtomsTheprefixinthenameofanorganicmoleculeindicatesthenumberofcarbonatomsfoundinthelongestcontinuouschainofcarbonatomsinthemolecule.Youneedtomemorizethefollowingprefixes:

Prefix #Catomsmeth- 1eth- 2prop- 3but- 4pent- 5hex- 6hept- 7oct- 8non- 9dec- 10

22

Alkanes=-aneendingThealkanesaretheleastcomplexhydrocarbons.Thealkanefamilyusestheprefixforthenumberofcarbonsandan-aneending.Analkanecanberecognizedbyitsgeneralformula,CnH2n+2,wherenisthenumberofcarbonatomsinthecompound.Forexample,C5H12hasfivecarbonatomspentane.Eachmemberofthealkanefamilydiffersfromthenextbya—CH2—group,andallthecarbonsareconnectedbysinglebonds.Example1:Namethefollowingcompounds:a.CH4b.C2H6orCH3CH3c.C3H8orCH3CH2CH3d.C4H10orCH3CH2CH2CH3Solution1:Alloftheformulasfitintogeneralformula,CnH2n+2,thereforethebondsinthesecompoundsaresinglebonds;theyarealkanes.Usethenumericalprefixforthenumberofcarbonatomswiththe-aneending.a.oneCatom=methaneb.twoCatoms=ethanec.threeCatoms=propaned.fourCatoms=butane

23

Alkenes=-eneendingHydrocarbonsthatcontainmultiplebondsarecalledunsaturatedhydrocarbons.Ifthehydrocarbonhasonedoublebond,itsgeneralformulawillbeCnH2n,wherenisthenumberofcarbonatomsinthecompound.Thealkenefamilyusesthe-eneending.Thedoublebondisstrongerthanasinglebond,andthebondlengthbetweenthecarbonatomsisshorterinthedoublebond.Itisalsomorereactivethanasinglebondsincethepbond(thesecondpairofelectrons)isfartherfromthenuclei.Namingisalittlebitmorecomplexforalkenesthanalkanes.Sincethedoublebondcouldappearatvarioussitesinatypicalmolecule,wehavetospecifywhereitis.Todoso,numberthecarbonbackbonesothatthelowestpossiblenumberisusedtodescribethedoublebondposition.ThelowestnumberofthetwoCatomsinvolvedinthedoublebondisusedinfrontofthenametoindicatetheC=Cposition.Thenumberisplaceatthebeginningofthenameandisseparatedwithadash.Intheexpandedstructureformulasshownbelow,itisunderstoodthatsinceHonlyformsonebond,anydoublebondsarebetweencarbonatoms.TheexpandedstructuresgiveabitmoreinformationabouthowmanyHatomsareattachedtoeachCatom.Example2:Namethefollowingcompounds.a.C2H4orH2C=CH2b.C3H6orCH3CH=CH2c.C4H8orH2C=CHCH2CH3d.C4H8orCH3CH2=CH2CH3e.C5H10orCH3CH2CH2CH=CH2Solution2:a.2Catoms=ethene(sincetherearenooptionsforthepositionoftheC=C,wedonotneedtospecifytheposition,asin1-ethene)b.3Catoms=propene(again,sincetherearenooptionsforthepositionoftheC=C,wedonotneedtospecify1-propene.Convinceyourselfthat1-propeneand2-propenearereallythesamemolecule.)c.4CatomswiththeC=Cafterthe#1Catom=1-butened.4CatomswiththeC=Cafterthe#2Catom=2-butenee.5CatomswiththeC=Cafterthe#1Catom=1-pentene(Didyousay4-pentene?RememberthatwewanttonumberthebackboneofCatomssothatthelowestnumbersareusedinthename.Inthiscase,youwanttonumbertheCbackbonefromrighttoleft.ThissamemoleculecouldalsobewrittenH2C=CHCH2CH2CH3).

24

Alkynes=-yneendingThealkynefamilycontainsatriplebondbetweentwoCatoms.Ifthehydrocarbonhasonetriplebond,itsgeneralformulawillbeCnH2n-2,wherenisthenumberofcarbonatomsinthecompound.Thealkynefamilyusesthe-yneending.Thetriplebondisstrongerthaneitherthedoubleorsinglebond,thereforeitisalsoshorterandmorereactivethanthesingleordoublebond.Justasinthealkenefamily,thepositionofthetriplebondisspecifiedwithanumberatthebeginningofthename.Example3:Namethefollowingcompounds.a.CHºCHb.CHºCCH2CH2CH2CH3c.CH3CºCCH2CH2CH3d.CH3CH2CºCCH2CH3e.CH3CH2CH2CºCCH3f.CH3CH2CH2CH2CºCHSolution3:a.2Catoms=ethyne(thiscompoundiscommonlyknownasacetylene)b.6Catoms,triplebondafterthe#1Catom=1-hexynec.6Catoms,triplebondafterthe#2Catom=2-hexyned.6Catoms,triplebondafterthe#3Catom=3-hexynee.6Catoms,triplebondafterthe#2Catom=2-hexyne(numberthebackbonefromrighttoleft)f.6Catoms,triplebondafterthe#1Catom=1-hexyne(numberthebackbonefromrighttoleft)

25

NOMENCLATUREWorksheetDrawthefollowingorganicmoleculesliketheexample.

Methane:1.Ethane 2.Propane3.Decane 4.Propyne5.3-Octyne 6.1-Propene7.2-Nonene 8.Nonane9.4-Nonyne 10.3-Hexene11. Howmanywayscanyouwritebutene?Drawthem.12. Whyis6-decenenotpossible?Whatwoulditbecalled?

Drawit.

26

Namethefollowingcompounds.13. CH3-CH2-CH=CH-CH2-CH2-CH3

14. CH3-CH=CH-CH2-CH2-CH3

15. CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH316. CH3-CH2-CH=CH-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH317. CH3-CH3

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

27

SUMMERASSIGNMENT#3Thisassignmentisaboutnuclearchemistry.WhatIamabouttosaywillsoundodd.NuclearChemistryisNOTpartoftheAPcurricula.However,itisconsideredprior

knowledge.SoyouwillneverhaveanAPquestiondirectlyaboutNuclearChemistry,itisexpectedthatanAPstudentunderstandstheconceptandmaybeaskedtousethis

knowledgeinconjunctionwithoneofthesixbigideasofAPChemistry.

The6BigIdeasofAPChemistry• BigIdea1:StructureorMatter• BigIdea2:PropertiesofMatter–Characteristics,States,andForcesof

Attraction• BigIdea3:ChemicalReactions• BigIdea4:RatesofChemicalReactions• BigIdea5:Thermodynamics• BigIdea6:Equilibrium

YoumaywanttorefertothetwovideosIlinkedinassignment#3.Thisassignment

delvesdeeperintothenucleusandnuclearreaction;fissionandfusion.NuclearChemistry:CrashCourseChemistry#38

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KWAsz59F8gANuclearChemistryPart2:FusionandFission-CrashCourseChemistry#39

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FU6y1XIADdg StudyGuideforNuclearChemistry1.Positron

• -particleofcharge+1andmassequaltothatofanelectron.

• 2.Alphaparticle

• Emittedheliumnucleus.

• 3.Betaparticle

• Energeticelectronfromadecomposedneutron.

• 4.Transuraniumelements

28

• Elementwithatomicnumbergreaterthan92

5.Gammaradiation• Highenergyelectromagneticradiation

• 6.Transmutation

• .conversionofanatomofoneelementtoanatomofanotherelement

7.Fission• Splittingofnucleusintotwosimilar–sizedpieces.

8.Fusion• combinationoftwonucleitoformalarge

nucleus9.Radioisotope

• Elementwithunstablenucleus

29

30

10.Whatisthechargeonanalphaparticle?

11.Howmanyneutronsarethereinanalphaparticle?

12.Whatisthechangeintheatomicnumberwhenanatomemitsanalphaparticle?13.Whatisthechangeinatomicmasswhenan atomemitsanalpha particle.14.Whatisthechangeintheatomicnumberwhenanatomemitsabetaparticle.15.Whatisthechangeintheatomicnumberwhenanatomemitsgammaradiation?16.Whatparticleisemittedinalpharadiation?17.Whichsymbolisusedforanalphaparticle.18.Whatistheminimumthicknessneededtostopanalphaparticle.

• Asheetofpapercanstopanalphaparticle.• Alphaparticlesaretheweakestformof

radiation.19.Whatsymbolisusedforbetaradiation?

31

20.Whatistheminimumthicknessneededtostopa betaparticle.

• Asheetofaluminumfoil.21.Whatistheminimumthicknessneededtostop gammaradiation

• Threeinchesoflead.

22. Themostpenetratingformofradiationis 23. Whichtypeofionizingradiationcanbeblockedby

clothing?24.Ifthehalflifeofaradioactivematerialis8years,how

manyyearswillittakeforonehalfoftheoriginalamounttodecay.

25.Apieceofwoodfoundinanancientburialmoundcontains

onlyhalfasmuchcarbon-14asapieceofwoodcutfromalivingtreegrowingnearby.Ifthehalf-lifefor carbon-14is5730years,whatistheapproximateageof theancientwood

26.After42days,2gofphosphorous-32hasdecayedto .25g.

Whatisthehalf-lifephosphorous-32.27.Abovewhatatomicnumberareallatomsradioactive?

32

The Nucleus – Radioactivity

N U C L E A R E Q U A T I O N S Write“isotopicsymbols”for: Example: U

alpha,a beta,b- gamma,g positron,b+ neutron,

n°

NuclearChange:___®___ ___®___Completethesenuclearreactions:

1. U® Th+c (___________decay)

2. Th® Pa+c (___________decay)

3. Pa®c+ He (alphadecay)

4. Rn®c+ He (alphadecay)

5. Po®c+ e (betadecay)

6. C® N+c (___________decay)

23892

23892

23490

23490

23491

23491

42

22086

42

21684

01-

146

147

33

7. Bi®c+c (betadecay)

8. n+ B®c+ He (neutronbombardment

w/alphaemission)

9. Mg®c+c+ g (positrondecayw/gamma

emission)

Nuclear Chemistry W H Y A R E N U C L E I U N S T A B L E ?

Mostofanatom’schemistrydependsonit’selectrons.Gaining,losing,orsharingelectronsisthebasisofmostchemistryInthischapterweareconcentratingonthenucleus.

Radioactivitycomesfromunstablenuclei.Whatweknowisthatonlyalimitednumberofcombinationsofprotonsandneutronsformstable(un-radioactive)nuclei.Thereisasizelimit(83protons).So,ifanucleushastoomanyprotons,toomanyneutrons,orisjusttoobig,itwillgothroughradioactivedecay.Guidelines:§ Givenanisotope,compareittothemostcommonisotope(usethemassfromtheperiodictable)anddecidewhethertheisotopehastoomanyp+’s,toomanyn°’s,oristoobig(Z>83).

§ Toomanyneutrons(leftofthe“beltofstability”)willresultinbetadecay(neutron®proton+betaparticle)

§ Toomanyprotons(rightofthe“beltofstability”)willresultineitherpositrondecayorelectroncapturebothofwhichinvolveaproton®neutron.

§ Iftheatomisjusttoobig,alphadecayallowsthenucleustolosetwoprotonsandtwoneutrons.

21083

10

105

42

2312

00

34

Another Idea: BINDING ENERGY (missing mass) Calculatethemassofanatomof56Febyaddingupthemassesoftheparticles.Ifyoudoandthencompareittothemeasuredmass,youwillfindthatthereissomemissingmass.Thismasshasbeenturnedintoenergy(E=mc2)andiscalledthe“bindingenergy”whichholdsthenucleustogether.Bindingenergyincreasesasatomicnumberincreasesbecausemoreandmoreenergyisneededtoholdtogetherthelargernuclei.However,ifyoudivideanucleus’sbindingenergybythenumberofprotonsandneutrons(nucleons)beingheldtogether,yougetthegraphtotheright.Thepeakisat56Fe.Ifyouwerealargeratom(likeU)andbrokeintosmallerpieces,therewouldbesomemissingmass.Thisisnuclearfission.Ifyouareasmallnucleus(likeH)andjointogetherwithotheratomstoformlargernuclei,therewillalsobemissingmass(alotmore).Thisisnuclearfusion.

Thisgraphisbindingenergypernucleon

35

SUMMERASSIGNMENT#4Assignment#4dealswithreactionsandbonding.Ihaveattachedanactivityseries,solubilityrules,electronegativitytableandaVSPERCheatSheet.YouWILLNOTbegiventhesereferencesheetsontheAPtest.However,youDONOThavetomemorizetheserules.OntheAPexamyouwillbegivenenoughinformationtoanswerthequestions.YouwillneedtoknowyourVSPERshapesfortheAPexam.WewillbelearningsomenewVSPERshapesthisyeartoo.

36

Ion GeneralSolubilityRule

NO3- Allnitratesaresoluble

C2H3O2- Allacetatesaresoluble(AgC2H3O2onlymoderately)

Cl-,Br-,I- Allchlorides,bromidesandiodidesaresolubleexceptAg+,Pb+andHg22+.(PbCl2isslightlysolubleincoldwaterandmoderatelysolubleinhotwater.)

SO42- AllsulfatesaresolubleexceptthoseofBa2+,Pb2+,Ca2+andSr2+.

CO32-andPO43- AllcarbonatesandphosphatesareinsolubleexceptthoseofNa+,K+andNH4+.(Manyacidphosphatesaresoluble)

OH- AllhydroxidesareinsolubleexceptthoseofNa+andK+.HydroxidesofBa2+andCa2+areslightlysoluble.

S2- AllsulfidesareinsolubleexceptthoseofNa+,K+,NH4+andthoseofthealkalineearths:Mg2+,Ca2+,Sr2+andBa2+.(SulfidesofAl3+andCr3+hydrolyzeandprecipitateasthecorrespondinghydroxides.

Na+,K+andNH4+ Allsaltsofsodiumion,potassiumionandammoniumionaresolubleexceptseveraluncommonones.

ElementsandBonding

1) Classifyeachofthefollowingelementsasanalkalimetal,analkaline-earthmetal,transitionmetal,metalloid,halogen,ornoblegasbasedonitspositionintheperiodictable:

• boron _______________________________________

• gold _______________________________________

• krypton _______________________________________

• calcium _______________________________________

2) Howmanyvalenceelectronsdoeachofthefollowingelementshave?

• carbon______

• selenium______

• xenon______

• potassium______

37

3) Whichofthefollowingionsarelikelytobeformed?

• N+5______

• He+______

• F-1______

• Al+2______

• P-3______

• Mg+2_____4) Explainwhyoxygenisafairlyreactiveelementwhileneonisnot.5) Explainwhyberylliumloseselectronswhenformingionicbonds,whilesulfurgains

electrons.6) Explainwhyfluorineandchlorinehavesimilarreactivities(theword“valence”

shouldbesomewhereinyouranswer!)

38

BondingReview

1) Bariumiodidecontainswhattypeofbonding?

2) Carbontetrachloridecontainswhattypeofbonding?

3) Molecularoxygencontainswhattypeofbonding?

4) Liquidmercurycontainswhattypeofbonding?

5) Usingelectronegativitydifferencescomparethebondingincarbontetrachlorideandmolecularoxygen.(SeeTableBelow)

6) DrawLewisstructures,givemoleculargeometrynameandindicatemolecularpolarityforthefollowingspecies.(VSPERCheatSheetonnextpage)

A)CCl4 B)CO2 C)BCl3 D)H2O

39

VSPERCheatSheet

40

PredictingReactionProductsPredicttheproductsofeachofthefollowingchemicalreactions,thenbalancetheequation.Ifareactionwillnotoccur,explainwhynot:1) ____Ag2SO4+____NaNO3à2) ____NaI+____CaSO4à3) ____HNO3+____Ca(OH)2à4) ____CaCO3à5) ____AlCl3+____(NH4)3PO4à6) ____Pb+____Fe(NO3)3à7) ____C3H6+____O2à8) ____Na+____CaSO4à

41

BalancingEquationsandSimpleStoichiometryAnswersareprovidedonthesecondsheet.Pleasetrytodotheworksheetwithoutreferringtothem,becauseyou’llbeexpectedtoknowthisstuffthefirstdayofschool!Balancethefollowingequations:1) ___N2+___F2à___NF32) ___C6H10+___O2à___CO2+___H2O3) ___HBr+___KHCO3à___H2O+___KBr+___CO24) ___GaBr3+___Na2SO3à___Ga2(SO3)3+___NaBr5) ___SnO+___NF3à___SnF2+___N2O3Usingtheequationfromproblem2above,answerthefollowingquestions:6) IfIdothisreactionwith35gramsofC6H10and45gramsofoxygen,howmany

gramsofcarbondioxidewillbeformed?7) Whatisthelimitingreagentforproblem6?___________8) Howmuchoftheexcessreagentisleftoverafterthereactionfromproblem6is

finished?9) If35gramsofcarbondioxideareactuallyformedfromthereactioninproblem6,

whatisthepercentyieldofthisreaction?

42

StoichiometryPracticeSolvethefollowingstoichiometrygrams-gramsproblems:

1) Usingthefollowingequation:

2NaOH+H2SO4à2H2O+Na2SO4

Howmanygramsofsodiumsulfatewillbeformedifyoustartwith200gramsofsodiumhydroxideandyouhaveanexcessofsulfuricacid?

2) Usingthefollowingequation:

Pb(SO4)2+4LiNO3àPb(NO3)4+2Li2SO4 Howmanygramsoflithiumnitratewillbeneededtomake250gramsoflithium

sulfate,assumingthatyouhaveanadequateamountoflead(IV)sulfatetodothereaction?

43

SUMMERASSIGNMENT#5Assignment#5dealswithgaslaws.Ihavealsoincludedsomemorestoichiometry.

Boyle’sLaw Charles’Law Guy-Lassac'sLaw CombinedGasLawForagivenmassofgasatconstanttemperature,thevolumeofagasvariesinverselywithpressure

ThevolumeofafixedmassofgasisdirectlyproportionaltoitsKelvintemperatureifthepressureiskeptconstant.

ThepressureofagasisdirectlyproportionaltotheKelvintemperatureifthevolumeiskeptconstant.

CombinesBoyle’s,Charles’,andtheTemperature-Pressurerelationshipintooneequation.Eachoftheselawscanbederivedfromthislaw.

PV=k

V= kT

P= kT

PV= kT

V1T2= V2T1 P1T2=P2T1 V1P1T2=V2P2T1

P1V1=P2V2 V1= V2T1 T2

P1=

P2T1 T2

P1V1=

P2V2T1 T2

Dalton’sLaw IdealGasLawAtconstantvolumeandtemperature,thetotalpressureexertedbyamixtureofgasesisequaltothesumofthepressuresexertedbyeachgas,

The Ideal Gas Law relates the pressure, temperature,volume,andmassofagasthroughthegasconstant“R”.

Ptotal= P1+ P2+ P3+ ...Pn PV= nRT

RateB

molarmassA

Abbreviations StandardConditionsatm=atmospheremmHg=millimetersofmercurytorr=anothernameformmHgPa=Pascal kPa=kilopascalK=Kelvin°C=degreesCelsius

0°C=273K1.00atm=760.0mmHg=76cmHg=760torr=101.325kPa=101,325Pa=29.9inHg

Conversions GasLaw’sEquationSymbols

K=°C+273F= 1.8°C+ 32°C= °F- 32/1.81cm3(cubiccentimeter)=1mL(milliliter)1dm3(cubicdecimeter)=1L(liter)=1000mL

Subscript (1) = old condition or initialcondition Subscript (2) = new condition orfinal condition Temperature must be inKelvinsn=numberofmoles=grams/MolarmassR=8.31L-kPa/mol-K=0.0821L-atm/mol-K=62.4L-Torr/mol-K

Youmusthaveacommonsetofunits

intheproblem

44

IdealGasLawProblems

BackgroundTheidealgaslawstatesthatPV=nRT,wherePisthepressureofagas,Visthevolumeofthegas,nisthenumberofmolesofgaspresent,Ristheidealgasconstant,andTisthetemperatureofthegasinKelvins.Commonmistakes:

• MakesurethatTisexpressedinKelvins.RememberthatKelvinsaredegreesCelsius+273.15.

• UsingthewrongvalueforR.YouneedtomakesurethatyouhavetherightvalueofRfortheunitsyouareusing.InAPchemistrythevalueforRis0.08206L-Atm-mol-1-K-1.Makesureunitsagree!

1. Howmanymolesofgasdoesittaketooccupy105litersatapressureof1.3

atmospheresandatemperatureof240K?2. Ifyouhavea60litercontainerthatholds55molesofgasatatemperatureof300°C,

whatisthepressureinsidethecontainer?3. Itisnotsafetoputaerosolcanistersinacampfire,becausethepressureinsidethe

canistersgetsveryhighandtheycanexplode.IfIhavea1.5litercanisterthatholds3molesofgas,andthecampfiretemperatureis1400°C,whatisthepressureinsidethecanister?

45

4. Howmanymolesofgasareina20literscubacanisterifthetemperatureofthecanisteris300Kandthepressureis300atmospheres?

5. Ihaveaballoonthatcanhold50litersofair.IfIblowupthisballoonwith0.5moles

ofoxygengasatapressureof1atmosphere,whatisthetemperatureoftheballoon?Dalton’sLaw6. Ametaltankcontainsthreegases:oxygen,helium,andnitrogen.Ifthepartial

pressuresofthethreegasesinthetankare35atmofO2,5atmofN2,and25atmofHe,whatisthetotalpressureinsideofthetank?

7. Blastfurnacesgiveoffmanyunpleasantandunhealthygases.Ifthetotalair

pressureis0.99atm,thepartialpressureofcarbondioxideis0.05atm,andthepartialpressureofhydrogensulfideis0.02atm,whatisthepartialpressureoftheremainingair?

46

8. Iftheairfromproblem2contains22%oxygen,whatisthepartialpressureofoxygennearablastfurnace?

GasStoichiometry9. Forthereaction2H2(g)+O2(g)à2H2O(g),howmanylitersofwatercanbemadefrom

5Lofoxygengasandanexcessofhydrogen?10. Howmanylitersofwatercanbemadefrom55gramsofoxygengasandanexcessof

hydrogenatSTP?11. Howmanylitersofwatercanbemadefrom55gramsofoxygengasandanexcessof

hydrogenatapressureof12.4atmandatemperatureof850C?

47

Dalton’sLawofPartialPressuresBackgroundInfoWhentwoormoregasesareintroducedintothesamecontainer,eachgasindividuallyexpandstouniformlyoccupythatcontainer.Thuseachgasinthemixturehasthesamevolumebutdependingonhowmanymolesofeachispresent,exertsadifferentpressure,calleditspartialpressure.Dalton'sLawofPartialPressuresstatesthatinamixtureofgases,thetotalpressureisthesumoftheindividualpressuresofeachgaspresentinthemixture-i.e.thesumofthepartialpressures.THEREISADIRECTRELATIONSHIPBETWEENPRESSUREANDMOLES!12. If3molesofN2and4molesofO2areplacedina35Lcontaineratatemperatureof

25°C,whatwillthepressureoftheresultingmixtureofgasesbe?13. Twoflasksareconnectedwithastopcock.Thefirstflaskhasavolumeof5litersand

containsnitrogengasatapressureof0.75atm.Thesecondflaskhasavolumeof8Landcontainsoxygengasatapressureof1.25atm.Whenthestopcockbetweentheflasksisopenedandthegasesarefreetomix,whatwillthepressurebeintheresultingmixture?

14. What’sthepartialpressureofcarbondioxideinacontainerthatholds5molesof

carbondioxide,3molesofnitrogen,and1moleofhydrogenandhasatotalpressureof1.05atm?

48

StoichiometryReview15.Determinetheformulaweightforthefollowing:

a.N2O5b.CuSO4c.Ca(HCO3)2

d.CaSO4.2H2O16.Calculatethepercentagebymassofthefollowingcompounds:

a.SO3b.CH3COOCH3c.AmmoniumNitrate.

17.Determinetheempiricalformulaofthecompoundswiththefollowingcompositionsbymass:a.10.4%C,27.8%S,61.7%Clb.21.7%C,9.6%O,and68.7%F

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18.Arsenicreactswithchlorinetoformachloride.If1.587gofarsenicreactswith3.755gofchlorine,whatisthesimplestformulaofthechloride?

19.Washingsodaisahydrateofsodiumcarbonate.ItsformulaisNa2CO3.xH2O.A2.714gSampleofwashingsodaisheateduntilaconstantmassof1.006gofNa2CO3isreached.Whatisx?

20.Whatisthemolecularformulaofeachofthefollowingcompounds?

a.empiricalformulaCH2,molarmass=84g/mol.b.EmpiricalformulaNH2Cl,Molarmass=51.5g/Mol

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21. Sodiumhydroxidereactswithcarbondioxideasfollows:

2NaOH(s)+CO2(g)→Na2CO3(s)+H2O(l)Whichreagentisthelimitingreactantwhen1.85molofsodiumhydroxideand1.00molcarbondioxideareallowedtoreact?Howmanymolesofsodiumcarbonatecanbeproduced?Howmanymolesoftheexcessreactantremainafterthecompletionofthereaction?

22. Topreventaconditioncalledthe“bends”,deepseadiversbreatheamixturecontaining,inmolepercent,10.0%O2,10.0%N2,and80.0%He.

a.Calculatethemolarmassofthismixture.b.WhatistheratioofthedensityofthisgastothatofpureOxygen?

23.A2.0gsampleofSX6(g)hasavolumeof329.5cm3at1.00atmand20oC.Identifythe

element‘X’.Namethecompound.

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SummerAssignment#6Assignment#6dealswithsolutionsanddilutions.Ihavealsoincludedsomemorestoichiometry.

MolarityandDilutionsPracticeProblemsMolaritySolution=solute+solvent Solute–thingbeingsdissolved Solvent–thingdoingthedissolving(wateriscalledtheuniversalsolvent)Molarity=molesofsolute/litersofsolution M=n/V Units–mol/LorM

1) Howmanygramsofpotassiumcarbonate,K2CO3,areneededtomake250mLofa2.5Msolution?(moles=molarity*volume.Makesurevolumeisinliters.Convertmolestograms)

2) Howmanylitersof4.0Msolutioncanbemadeusing125gramsoflithiumbromide,

LiBr?3) Whatistheconcentrationofasolutionthathasavolumeof2.5Landcontains

660gramsofcalciumphosphate,Ca3(PO4)2?(Molarityisameasureofconcentration)

4) Howmanygramsofcopper(II)fluoride,CuF2,areneededtomake6.7litersofa1.2

Msolution?5) Whatistheconcentration,inmolesperliter,ofasolutionwithavolumeof3.3mL

thatcontains12gramsofammoniumsulfite,(NH4)2SO3?

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6) A50Lbabypoolhasachlorineconcentrationof0.200M.If20Lofwaterevaporatedonahotsummerday,whatisthefinalconcentrationofthepool?(Rememberonlywaterevaporated.Calculatemolesofsolute.Thendividebynewvolume)

7) 233.76gofNaClisdissolvedin1Lofwater.Whatistheconcentrationofthis

solution?

• Whatwouldhappentotheconcentrationifweaddedanotherliterofwater?

• Whatwouldhappentotheconcentrationifweallowhalfofthewatertoevaporate?

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DilutionsDilutesolutionsareoftenmadebydilutingconcentratedsolutions.Thedilutionformulaisusedforthis.Thatformulais:

M1V1=M2V2ThisformulacanONLYbeusedfordilution.DONOTUSEITFORNEUTRALIZATION!YOUMUSTUSESTOICHIOMETRYFORNEUTRALIZATION.

8) Whatvolumeofconcentratedhydrochloricacid(12M)wouldberequiredtocreatea500.0mLsolutionwithaconcentrationof1.00M?

9) Whatvolumeofthesolutioninquestion#10wouldberequiredtocreatea250mLsolutionwithaconcentrationof0.100M?

ChemicalEquationsandStoichiometry10.Oilpaintingsinwhich“whitelead”hasbeenusedcanbeblackenedbyreactionwith

H2Sfromairpollutionorfromtheglazeoverthepaintingitself.Theblackeningcomesfromtheformationofleadsulfide,whichmaybecleanedoffbywashingwithhydrogenperoxide,H2O2.Thereactionforthecleaningprocessis

PbS(blacksolid)+4H2O2(aq)→PbSO4(s)+4H2O(l)

a.HowmanygramsofH2O2mustbeusedtocleanoff0.24gofPbS?

b.If0.072gofH2Oforminthereaction,howmanygramsofPbSO4mustalsohavebeenformed?

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11.Methylalcohol,CH3OH,isaclean-burning,easilyhandledfuel.Itcanbemadebythe

directreactionofCOandH2(obtainedfromcoalandwater).

CO(g)+2H2(g)→CH3OH(l)Assumeyoustartwith12.0gofH2and74.5gofCO;

a.Whichofthereactantsisinexcess?b.Whichisthelimitingreagent?c.Whatmass(ingrams)oftheexcessreagentisleftafterthereactioniscomplete?d.Howmanygramsofmethylalcoholcanbeobtainedtheoretically?

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12.Zincandchlorinereactdirectlytogivezincchloride.

Zn(s)+Cl2(g)→ZnCl2(s)

Ifyoubeginwith1.00moleofzincandexcessCl2,whatisthetheoreticalyieldofZnCl2ingrams?Ifyouisolate115gofZnCl2,whatisthepercentyieldofthemetalchloride?

13.Butane,whichcontainsonlyCandH,isacommonlyusedfuelincampingstoves.To

determinetheformulaofbutane,assumeyouburn0.580gofthegasandobtain1.760gofCO2and0.900gofH2O.Whatistheempiricalformulaofbutane?