Career Transitions: An Empirical Examination of Second Career of Military Retirees

Career Transitions: AnEmpirical Examination ofSecond Career ofMilitary RetireesBy Eran Vigoda-Gadot, PhD, Yehuda Baruch, D.Sc. and Shmuel Grimland, PhD

We examined the prospects of successful career transition from the defense forcesand into the dynamic and turbulent civilian career, focusing on possibleantecedents for success in the second career. Based on a sample of 202 high levelretirees from military and civilian defense organizations in Israel, our resultsindicate that preparations for retirement, social capital, perception oforganizational politics in the new working place and work-family conflict arerelated to the dependent variables and affect the retiree’s success in their secondcareer. In addition, organizational commitment was found to serve as a mediator inthese relationships. Implications for theory of career development and change, aswell as practical implications and recommendations for future studies, arediscussed.

Key words: Military, Retirement, Second Career Success, Career Transition

IntroductionOne characteristic of modern careers is frequent job changes, either caused bydynamic market economics or initiated by the individual.1 The single lifelongemployment relationship with one employer tends to be rarer, with people tending tohave multiple careers in different organizations and various areas. Within thecontemporary career system, scholars found that individuals changing their careerattitudes and behaviors, and many individuals taking charge of their own careers,seeking to fulfill personal aspirations for learning, development and growth.2

In order to succeed in their second career, people utilize the experience gainedfrom their earlier career. Organizations that are committed to their employees tend tosupport them, making the process of transition into a second career less painful. Thisphenomenon is a new one, and the impact of organizational support mechanisms forthe second career is less known.3

Studies examining the success in second career for individuals that moved fromthe stable traditional system to the turbulent contemporary career system are scarce,4

but nevertheless of high importance. Identifying the adjustment process involved with

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passing through this transition can be used to test the validity and relevance of recenttheories relating to the new shape of careers.

The aim of this paper is to add to our knowledge about the military-society nexus5

and to examine possible antecedents to the perceived career success of people retiringfrom the military career system, embarking on a second career.6 Early militaryretirement and consequently second career is not merely an Israeli phenomenon. It isrelevant to the wider global labor market where military career tends to end earlier,enabling a second career to the former career officers. Even more important, due toglobal changes, armies tend to be decreased in size and early military retirement iswidely applied world wide. The study utilized a survey method, as recently proposed byGroves et al.7

Careers, second career and organizationalcommitment: background and theoryThe study of careers has benefited from a number of theoretical perspectives. Somesociologists view the career as an issue that is related to social functioning,8 whereaspsychologists tend to consider the career as a profession and a way of self-developmentand enrichment.9 Much emphasis has been placed on the compatibility between thepersonality of the worker and his/her profession, while seeing the benefit for both theindividual and the organization. Contemporary frameworks see career as amultidisciplinary issue. It comprises aspects from psychology, sociology, anthropology,economy and political science. Issues like status and rank; wealth, property andearning capacity; social reputation, prestige and influence; knowledge and skills;friendship and network connections; health and well-being; culture and career; labormarkets and economy conditions, all discussed in career research. In modern times,career has evolved from a classical concept of employment or profession to have amuch wider meaning.

Many managers who enjoyed prosperous careers in large organizations look forother companies to serve as executives,10 although the transition to a second career isseldom easy. In one of the rare studies looking at former army military servicemenmoving to a second career, many opted to stay within the familiar hierarchical system;for example, moving to governmental agencies.11 Others found a wider range ofchoice, although a major proportion of former high-rank military retirees did preferthe defense industry.12 However, the options are open, and with a professionalorganizational support system, many can explore different trajectories. For example, astudy of retired NASA pilots found that, when encouraged, they settled in roles withinacademic settings working on aerospace projects.13

Until recently, research of success in career was developed using concepts likedemographic affects , human capital, work-family spillover affects, motivational,organizational, and industry influence.14 Our study broaden the empirical study ofJudge et al.15 and contributes an additional layer of understanding career success byemploying a conceptual framework that integrates advances in four fields oforganizational behavior: organizational support theory, social capital theory,

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organizational politics theory, work-family interactions theory and in addition by usingthe concept of person-role fit.16

Organizational support theory17 tackles the relationship between organizationalreadiness to reward increased work efforts of employees and their beliefs thatorganization values their contribution. Perceived organizational support is valued asassurance that aid will be available when it is needed.18 Based on social exchangedtheory, resources received from others are valued if they are based on discretionarychoices rather than circumstances beyond the control of the provider. Such voluntaryaid is appreciated that the provider genuinely values and respects the recipient.19

Organizational rewards such as pay, promotions, job enrichment or influence overorganizational policies, contribute more to the perceived organizational support if theemployees believe that they result from organizational voluntary actions, as opposed toexternal constrains.20 Following this, employees facing retirement and the employeesremaining in the organization will highly appreciate organization activities aimed tosupport preparations towards retirement. We believe that employees will see it asorganization commitment for their well being and helping them when they face achallenging situation as the forthcoming retirement.

Advances in social capital theory enable a better understanding of howindividuals' social network can influence career success.21 The features of socialnetwork pertained to career success are access to information, resources andsponsorship.22 People with better knowledge about potential jobs, projects or withbetter access to organizational resources (for example procurement, production,customer support or support from influential persons in the organization) will increasethe probability of their career success.

The next perspective proposed here is the perception of organizational politics. Abetter understanding of organizational politic influence on careers in organizations23

and work outcomes24 can add to our understanding of career success. For example,people in second career, especially after long service, understand that following somefigures in organization can highly affect their career success.

The last perspective proposed here is the effect of work family interactions. Theimportance of this follows the change in the demographic characteristic of westernworkforce, with relatively high women participation in the workforce and highpercentage of dual earners.25 Following the recommendation of Martins et al.26 aboutthe need to incorporate work family conflicts in career success models, incorporatingfamily conflict variable into the study of careers will enrich the understanding secondcareers. The second career may enable people who work extremely hard in the first,highly demanding career (as is the case with a typical military career) to devote more totheir families during the second career. Indeed, some families may even expect certaincompensation for the sacrifices made during the military career.

The theory of person-role fit27 may shed further light on the phenomenon ofsecond career. Preparations of retirement and investment in social capital could beinterpreted as factors that affect person-role fit. The same can be applied to theperception of organizational politics, where military retirees feel that playing politicsconstantly for personal advancement will be in conflict to the fundamental values


instilled on them during their military career, like professionalism, performance,collegiality and teamwork.

One major construct in the study of careers is organizational commitment (OC).Commitment is an attitude that reflects feelings like attachment, identification orloyalty to the object of commitment. OC is defined as a strong belief in theorganization, acceptance of its goals and values, willingness to invest an effort for thebenefit of the organization and a strong desire to stay a member of it.28 It refers tostrength of attachment of a person to his or her organization. Cohen29 suggests that OCis a phenomenon with multiple foci; employees can express commitment to theorganization in general, but also to parts or segments of it such as career commitment,job commitment, work-group commitment or union commitment. Studying OC in thecontext of second career may contribute, first, by helping to better explaining how toencourage satisfaction and higher productivity; and second, by helping to explain anattachment among employees to their new workplace or career, and their contributionto society at large.30

Theoretical model and hypothesesThe model presented in Figure 1 depicts the process of second career success forpeople who transferred from a hierarchical military career system into a dynamic and


Figure 1: The Research Model

Preparationfor Retirement

SocialCapital

Perception ofOrganizationalPolitics

Work-FamilyConflict

Control Variables1. Age2. Education3. Rank at the Retirement4. Service Time Before the Retirement

Success in Second Career1. Career Satisfaction2. Life Satisfaction3. Turnover Intentions4. Number of Jobs5. Tenure in New Job

OrganizationalCommitment

turbulent civilian system. The model manifests the cumulative role of the individualapproach, the organizational practice and the social networking as antecedents tosuccessful second career. The model refers to the success in the second career, asperceived by people who have experienced a major career change. The followingsection suggests rationality for the model and a set of hypotheses for empiricalexaminations.

Preparations for retirement, OC and career successRetirement is a complex concept that has no single definition. According to Bardasi etal.31 there are three accepted definitions of retirement. First, report of labor marketstatus; a second definition relates to the number of work hours and the occupationalactivity of the retirees; while a third definition uses the pension data as criteria fordefining retirement. All three definitions are problematic and do not fit well with thecurrent dynamic nature of the labor market. Thus, for the purpose of the present study,we follow Marcellini and Sensoli32 who argue that a retiree should be defined by his orher self-understanding of being in such a status and by the formal standing of being amember of a retiree organization.

Many organizations attribute great significance to preparations for retirement, asit manifests and reflects commitment of the organization to its employees. Suchorganizational practice supports the creation of a climate of trust in the organizationand the feeling that the way the organization manages retirement influences themotivation of the workforce in the organization.33 There is little reference in theliterature to the issue of preparation for retirement within organizations, especially inthe context of second career.34 For military personnel who retire at a relatively earlyage, pre-retirement planning is instrumental for a successful transition to civilian life.35

Good retirement preparation will allow the retirees to better understand second careerreality. The preparation will affect expectations from the new organization and willenable retirees to overcome difficulties and frustrations in their new career workplaces.The retirees will probably make second career choices that they feel will fit the skillsand values acquired in their first career and will enhance their probability of fit for thechosen second career. We estimate that meeting the expectations of both theindividual and the organization, and better understanding the new organizationalatmosphere, will affect the retiree’s career satisfaction, life satisfaction, intention toleave the new working place, tenure time and the number of jobs in the second career.Thus, the first hypothesis is:

H1a: Preparations for retirement are positively related with success in a second career(new career satisfaction, life satisfaction and tenure in second career), and arenegatively related with turnover intentions and with number of jobs one experiencesafter retirement. H1b: Preparations for retirement are positively related with organizationalcommitment during the second career.


Social capital and career successThe social capital of a person is defined as an aspect of the social structure that createsadditional value and helps a person within the social structure in which he/sheoperates.36 In a similar way that physical capital involves changing the materials thatenable the creation of products, social capital is created when the relations betweenpeople change the options of functioning within the society in which they operate.Understanding the relationship between the social capital and the career wasdeveloped in depth in the work of Seibert et al.37 Their model describes the meaningsof the relationships with regard to acquiring information and economic and materialresources for the benefit of developing a person’s career. The contribution of the socialrelationships to success is also expressed in giving career sponsorship, when the careersponsor is willing to supply information, help and protection when needed.38

Another reference to the contribution of social capital to career success is the‘know whom’,39 which is also a prominent element in the intelligent career concept.40

The ‘know whom’ is directed to the network of relationships and contacts withsuppliers and clients at work and to the private network of relationships in theprofessional and social field. The main benefits of ‘knowing whom’ result from thenetwork being a resource for expertise, from developing reputation and from learning.In this manner, networking increases the chances of success in a career.41 Anothercontribution of social capital to the study of career success is suggested by Useem andKarabel,42 who argue that a combination of several types of personal capital (such associal capital or scholastic capital) can be related to career success more than that ofjust a single type.

We suggest that due to the aspect of trust as a major component of social capital,mainly due to the feeling that we can never be confident that resources we allocate tohelping others will be ever reciprocated, we are obliged to trust,43 social capital will bepositively related to OC.44 People who trust the organization and its policies will becommitted to the organization.45 Trust will also influence the turnover rate.46 Wefurther expect that the retirees who have gained new employment as a result ofpersonal relationships in the organization developed during the military service,especially near to the conclusion of the service, will feel committed to the people whobrought them there (and through this to the organization itself) and will try to succeedin the organization as much as possible.

As a result of these relationships and the information that is acquired throughthem, the retirees will reach more attractive and interesting jobs and, for this reason,will feel a higher degree of career satisfaction. In addition, as a result of the advice andguidance of supporting retirees (mentors), the retirees will overcome the adaptationdifficulties in the second career and in the present job, and for this reason they will alsofeel good in their lives. As a result of the support of other retirees at work, or as a resultof their protection, we expect that these retirees will manage to better overcome thecrisis associated with the transition to the second career compared with others.Similarly, they are expected to have lower levels of intention to leave the organization.In the same way, we expect that people who gain support from other retirees will stay


for a longer time in the organization and will change jobs less often. Hence, wepropose a second hypothesis:

H2a: Social capital is positively related with success in second career (new career jobsatisfaction, life satisfaction and tenure in second career), and is negatively related withturnover intentions and with number of jobs one experiences after retirement. H2b: Social capital is positively related with organizational commitment during thesecond career.

Work-family conflict and career successThe third antecedent to career success, as proposed here, is the conflict between thefamily of the retiree and his/her current job. The work-family conflict (WFC) is definedby Greenhaus and Beutell47 as “a form of interrole conflict in which role pressures fromwork and family domains are mutually incompatible in some respect”. That is,participation in the work (family) role is made more difficult by virtue of participationin family (work) role. The conflict results mainly from the fact that the tension anddemands at work also influence the family life.48 WFC is a complex issue, related toculture, values and norms.49 Time is considered a limited resource that can be devotedmainly to one of these domains. Schein50 also claims that culture influences the normsand values that determine the degree of separation between work and the family andthe degree of preference of the family values over work.

Yang et al.51 deal mainly with WFC in relation to the time and energy devoted toeach domain. WFC has a negative effect on satisfaction from the career52 and on thefeeling of life satisfaction.53 Accordingly, we suggest that WFC increases the intention ofthe retirees to leave their new workplace. WFC is also expected to be negatively relatedto OC. When family demands and work demands conflict, it is expected that onedomain will be neglected at the expense of the other.54 Thus, commitment to theworkplace may be lower when family duties are high or when difficulties occur inmatching both roles effectively. An employee who tries to integrate work and familyroles, but faces problems, may lower his/her levels of commitment to the workplace inorder to meet highly demanding family roles. Alternatively, when family roles are lessdemanding, it is likely that commitment to the workplace will be higher, both as aresult of energy and time left, and interest in the professional domain. Studies alsosuggest that employees with high WFC may perceive their organization asunsupportive of their other life’s duties and will therefore feel less committed to theorganization as a balance mechanism.55 While studies have not related WFC to jobnumber and work tenure, we further suggest a relationship among these variables.When WFC is high, employees are more stressed and thus expected to try and reducethis stress to balance this conflict by frequent job changing (and subsequently shortertime employment with each employer). We suggest that a high level of WFC will makeemployees work shorter periods of time in their new career and that these employeeswill change jobs more often compared with employees with low WFC. All thementioned above is especially relevant to the retirees facing second career, typicallythese retirees will try to success highly in second career and due to limited resources


(time and energy) available to them it might come at the expense of resourcesdedicated to their families, issue which is a direct application of conservation ofresources principle (COR).56 Thus, a third hypothesis is suggested:

H3a: Work-family conflict has a negative relationship with success in second career: itis negatively related to new career satisfaction, life satisfaction and tenure in secondcareer. Similarly, it is positively related to turnover intentions and with number of jobsone experiences after retirement. H3b: Work-family conflict has a negative relationship with OC during the secondcareer.

Perceptions of organizational politics and career successPerception of the organizational politics is suggested in our study as the fourth andfinal antecedents to career success. Studies generally agree that organizational politicsrefers to the complex mixture of power, influence and interest-seeking behaviors thatdominate individuals’ activities in the workplace. Ferris et al.57 suggest thatorganizational politics is a social-influence process in which behavior is strategicallydesigned to maximize short-term or long-term self-interest. A study by Kumar andGhadially58 concluded that organizational politics is both helpful and harmful formembers of the organization. The positive outcomes of politics are careeradvancement, recognition and status, enhanced power and position, accomplishmentof personal goals, getting the job done, feeling achievement, enhanced sense of controland success. The negative outcomes are loss of strategic power and position credibility,negative feelings towards others, internal feelings of guilt and hampered jobperformance of various kinds.

In light of this, Harrel-Cook et al.59 suggested that perception of organizationalpolitics is a subjective evaluation of situations or behaviors that are perceived by theworker as political. Ferris et al.60 suggested and validated a measure for the examinationof employees’ perceptions of organizational politics (POPS: Perceptions ofOrganizational Politics Scale) which became the most salient measure of thisphenomenon.61 A considerable number of studies conducted during the 1990sresponded to the challenge to empirically test various outcomes of POPS, and most ofthem affirmed its negative impact on employees and organizations. To the best of ourknowledge, to date, the relationships between organizational politics and careersuccess, especially during the second career, have not been investigated. When peopleexperience more internal politics in a new workplace their performance is harmed62

and their new career aspects are affected. Hence, hypothesis H4 is suggested:

H4a: Perceptions of organizational politics have a negative relationship with success insecond career; they are negatively related to new-career job satisfaction, life satisfactionand tenure in second career. Similarly, they are positively related to turnover intentionsand with the number of jobs one experiences after retirement.H4b: Perceptions of organizational politics have a negative relationship with OC insecond career.


Each of the independent variables investigated so far is predicted to be related tocareer success. As these variables are distinct and reside in different realms, we expectthat each will have an independent unique contribution to the explained variance ofvarious aspects of career success. We are especially interested to identify and exploreantecedents that influence career success, mainly due to the implications of CORtheory63 According to COR theory, individuals tend to preserve and minimize loss ofresources (e.g. time, personal energies). The COR perspective suggests that theretirees will focus their energies and resources in the most promising directionrelevant to their career success. Thus, hypothesis H5 is suggested:

H5: Each of the independent variables will have a significant, unique contribution tothe explanation of success in second career.

Organizational commitment as a mediatorOne of the most important aspects of OC is the mediating role that it fulfills inorganizational behavior.64 For example, the works of Mowday65, Iverson et al.66,Mathieu and Zajac67, Morgan and Hunt68, Harrison and Liska69 and Suliman70 describethe different aspects of the mediation of OC. Summing up earlier works, Suliman71

noted that OC mediates between personal variables, job and organizationalcharacteristics, and work experiences on one hand, and job outcomes, jobperformance, intention to leave/remain in the organization, attendance and lateness onthe other hand.

Following this, our model places OC as a mediator between the independentvariables and career success. We expect that retirees who experience betterpreparation for retirement will be more likely to develop higher levels of commitmentto their new career environment and thus better succeed in the new job. In addition,employees with richer social capital or lower levels of WFC are also likely todemonstrate more OC in their new career, as they have more energy and availableresources (i.e., networks, experience, peace of mind) to do so. For example, the strainof WFC will intrude on the commitment to the organization and may negatively affectfeelings about success in the present organization. Finally, those retirees whoexperience more fairness and equality in their new career environment will have alower level of perception of organizational politics; as a result, these retirees will bemore committed to the organization and succeed better in their new career.Understanding and perceiving organizational politics will induce commitment to theorganization and affect feelings about success in the organization. In light of the above,the sixth hypothesis suggests that:

H6: OC mediates the relationship between preparation for retirement, social capital,perceptions of organizational politics, work-family conflict and success during thesecond career.


Method

Sample and procedureThe research population included people who retired either from the army or from acivilian body in the Israeli defense set during the last ten years, following long-termservice. The Israeli army is based on mandatory service, which last for three years andarmy career, comprised of officers and non commissioned officers. The may serve forsome further 20 years before being eligible for an early retirement. The civilian body isbased on civil servants and the behavior code is semi military, with top-down commandand control system. Typical service longevity within the civilian body is about twenty totwenty five years. The retirement process in the army and the army related civilianbodies (especially at the high ranks) is a mixture process of voluntarily and compulsoryretirement. Rarely a person without a proper career horizon is compelled to leave thesystem. Most of the people understand the organizational situation and are leaving thesystems upon their own decision. The sample included retiring officers with ranks oflieutenant colonel, colonel, brigadier general and their respective parallels in thecivilian defense system: heads of branches, heads of departments and heads ofdivisions. Questionnaires were sent to the retirees by means of their associations of thedifferent bodies during the summer of 2004. To increase response rate, thequestionnaires were accompanied with a supportive letter from the chairman of therespective association of retirees and a stamped addressed envelope. Full anonymitywas assured.

Questionnaires were distributed using the mail-survey method to 596 knownaddresses. Two hundreds and two usable questionnaires were returned - a return rateof 33.9%. The sample included 89.7% males and 10.3% females. The marital status ofthe subjects was 91.6% married and 8.4% not married. The subjects’ ages ranged from45 to 63, with a mean age of 54.83 years (S.D. = 2.33). Some 4.1% of the sample hadreceived a high school education, 8.7% had an education above high school but notacademic, 28.4% had a first degree, 52.1% had a second degree and 6.7% had a thirddegree. The service time ranged from 11 to 40 years, with a mean of 26.41 (S.D. =5.16). Ranks at the time of retirement for the sample were 36.9% lieutenant colonel,15.0% colonel, 12.8% brigadier general, 3.7% head of branch, 18.2% head ofdepartment and 13.4% head of division. The subjects came from the following fields ofactivity: 35.9% from technology, 36.5% from operation and 27.6% from administration.64.7% retirees came from the military service and 35.3% retired from a civilian body inthe Israeli defense alignment. The nature of employment after retirement was asfollows: 83.3% became employed, 5.1% became independent workers, 8.6% did notwork at all and 3% performed voluntary activities.

MeasuresCareer satisfaction: Career satisfaction was measured via the five item set developedby Greenhaus et al.72 using the Likert scale of 1-5 (from highly disagree to highly agree).A sample item is “I am satisfied with the success that I have achieved in my career”. The


correspondent Cronbach’s α was .89. Life satisfaction: Life satisfaction was measured by the ‘Satisfaction with Life’ scale.Five items (Diener et al.73) were used and answers were provided on a 1-5 scale (fromhighly disagree to highly agree). A sample item is “In most ways, my life is close to myideal”. The correspondent Cronbach’s α was .82.Turnover intentions: Turnover intentions were measured by the four item setdeveloped by Farrell and Rusbult74 using the Likert scale of 1-5 (from highly disagree tohighly agree). A sample item is “I often think about quitting”. The correspondentCronbach’s α was .88.Number of jobs (after retirement): This variable is defined as the number ofworkplaces that the retiree worked in after retirement. Tenure in new job (after retirement): This variable is defined as the duration ofwork in the different places after the retirement, averaged according to the number ofjobs (the sum of the durations of work divided by the number of jobs after retirement).This variable was measured in months.Organizational commitment: OC was measured by a sub-set of the scale developedby Porter et al.75 Porter’s original scale includes 15 items, but in order to shorten thequestionnaire we applied only six items. The variable was measured using the Likertscale of 1-5 (from highly disagree to highly agree). A sample item is “I am willing to putin a great deal of effort beyond that normally expected in order to help thisorganization to be successful”. The correspondent Cronbach’s α was .86. Preparations for retirement: We applied Baruch and Quick’s76 measure for theefficiency of the preparations for retirement at the level of the organization and at thelevel of the retiree. The measure was based on two items: (a) "Did you have the optionto receive career counseling?" and (b) "Did you have the option to participate in a pre-retirement preparation program?" The three possible answers are: No; Yes, but did notuse it; Yes, and use it. The efficiency of each program was further measured on a scaleranging from 1= (a very low efficiency of the program) to 5= (a very high efficiency ofthe program). The correspondent Cronbach’s α was .69.Social capital: The variable of social capital was based on the research of Seibert etal.77 We followed their line of thinking about the social capital measure andrespondents were asked to state in the research (in initials) the people who helpedthem by speaking in their favor, supplying them with information regardingopportunities in their career, supporting them psychologically or by speaking to themabout the difficulties of the job, alternative functions or long-term goals in their career.The participants were also asked to state only long-term relationships and not single orrandom relations. The measure comprised five items, asking: "Please mark (in initials-ifpossible) the name of person who assist you, advised you or supported you in thecourse of time in your second career". Five levels of assistance efficiency weresuggested: 1 (a very low efficiency) to 5 (a very high efficiency). The correspondentCronbach’s α was .92. Perception of organizational politics: The perception of organizational politicswas measured by the set based on the works of Kacmar and Ferris78, Kacmar andCarlson79 and Vigoda.80 The original measure included 40 items, but for the purpose of


this research and in order to shorten the questionnaire we used only seven items,based on Vigoda's81 studies that validated the shorter version of the original measure.Each item was assessed on a scale ranging from 1 (not at all true - a low level oforganizational politics) to 5 (very true - a high level of organizational politics). A sampleitem is “People here usually don’t speak up for fear of retaliation by others". Thecorrespondent Cronbach’s α was .82. Work-family conflict: The work-family conflict was measured by the six item setdeveloped by Carlson et al.82 using the Likert scale of 1-5 (from highly disagree tohighly agree). A sample item is “My work keeps me from my family activities more thanI would like”. The correspondent Cronbach’s α was .83. Demographic variables: Demographic variables included gender, marital status, age,education, service length before retirement, rank at retirement, and a datum regardingthe nature of service before retirement (technological, operational or administrative).

Data analysisTo test the research hypotheses, we employed four strategies. First, a zero-ordercorrelation was utilized to examine the first section of hypotheses H1-H4. A multiplehierarchical regression analysis was used to test hypotheses H5 and H6. Finally, weused the last stage of the hierarchical regression analysis to examine the effect of theindependent variables on the three prospects of career success (career satisfaction, lifesatisfaction and turnover intentions), controlling for the mediating variable (OC). Weconducted the test of mediation following the works of Baron and Kenny83 and Kennyet al.84 All 202 responses were analyzed, but due to partial missing data, the validnumber for the analysis was 168.


Table 1: Means, standard deviations and inter-correlations of the research vari

13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 S

-

- -.070

- .605** -.015

- .570** .414** -.231**

- -.530** -.533** -.625** .199**

- .015 -.099 -.015 .037 .068

- -.465** .000 .064 .197* .027 -.084

- .024 -.063 .054 .019 -.007 -.140 .040

- -.006 -.004 .020 .032 .098 .188* -.008 .210**

- -.158* .184* -.149 -.018 .162* .016 -.169* -.121 .012

.366** .114 .060 -.103 -.107 .173* .057 .008 -.123 -.026

*p≤ .05 ; **p≤ .0185; N=168-202 due to missing data

FindingsTable 1 presents descriptive statistics, zero-order correlations and reliabilities for theresearch variables. As can be seen, most of the inter-correlations hold in the expecteddirections and none of them exceeds the maximum level of .70, which is a goodindication for the absence of multicollinearity among the variables. The basic bi-variatecorrelations are much in line with the hypotheses and, in general, also support the firstthree conditions for mediation as suggested by Barron and Kenny86 for most of thevariables. However, these correlations require more analysis on the multivariate level.Note, however, that none of the independent variables or OC as a potential mediatingvariable showed any significant relationship with tenure in second career and withnumber of jobs in second career, which were thus excluded from the following analysis.

Table 2 presents the results of a four-step multiple hierarchical regression analysiswhere OC was regressed on the independent and control variables. According to thistable, with the exception of work-family conflict, all the other independent variablesshow a relationship with OC. Preparations for retirement were positively related withOC (β=.26; p<.001) and added (ΔR²)87=6% to the explained variance of the equation.Social capital was positively related with OC (β=.22; p<.001) and added 5% to theexplained variance of the equation. Perceptions of organizational politics werenegatively related with OC (β=-.16; p<.05) and added 2% to the explained variance ofthe equation. These findings support hypothesizes H1b, H2b, H3b, and H4b about therelationship between the preparations for retirement, social capital, perception oforganizational politics and organizational commitment. For these variables, thefindings also support the condition of mediation that requires a relationship betweenthe independent and the mediating variable in the model.


ables

3 2 1 S.D Mean Variables

- 0.97 3.27 1.Preparations for Retirement

- .187 1.03 3.68 2. Social Capital

- -.153 -.203* .82 2.62 3.Perception of organizational politics

.135 .134 .026 0.89 2.33 4.Work-Family Conflict

-.601** .314** .323** 0.73 3.92 5.Organizational commitment

-.337** .414** .234** 0.84 3.64 6.Career satisfaction

-.341** .270** .244** 0.64 3.65 7.Life satisfaction

.541** -.179* -.280** 1.09 2.15 8.Turnover intentions

-.045 .057 -.190* 0.98 1.62 9.Number of Jobs

.170* .015 .080 34.94 49.00 10.Tenure in new job

.136 -.006 -.170* 2.33 54.83 11.Age

.068 .159 .037 0.90 3.55 12.Education

.240** -.031 -.076 5.16 26.41 13.Service time before retirement

.188* -.156 -.201* .81 1.88 14.Rank at retirement


Table 2: Findings of multiple hierarchical regression analysis forthe relationship between the independent variables andorganizational commitment

Organizational Commitment

Step 5 Step 4 Step 3 Step 2 Step 1 Variables

β(t) β(t) β(t) β(t) β(t)

NS NS NS NS NS 1. Age

NS NS NS NS NS 2. Education

NS NS NS NS NS 3. Service time before retirement

-.14 (-2.06*) -.13 (-1.97*) -.14 (-2.06*) -.15 (-2.14*) -.16 (-2.30*) 4. Rank at the retirement

.23 (3.54***) .23 (3.52***) .23 (3.41***) .26 (3.77***) - 5. Preparations for Retirement

.20 (3.04**) .19 (2.91**) .22 (3.23***) - - 6. Social Capital

-.16 (-2.41*) -.16 (-2.44*) - - - 7. Perception of organizational politics

NS - - - - 8. Work-Family-Conflict

.19 .18 .16 .11 .05 R²

.16 .15 .13 .09 .03 Adjusted R²

5.73*** 6.21*** 6.10*** 5.00*** 2.52* F

.01 .02 .05 .06 - ΔR²

2.13 5.92* 10.46*** 14.23*** - F for ΔR²

*p≤ .05; **p≤ .01; ***p≤ .001; N=168-202 due to missing data; NS=Not Significant

Table 3: Findings of hierarchical regression analysis (standardizedcoefficients) for the relationship between the independentvariables and career satisfaction

Career satisfaction

Step 3 Step 2 Step 1 Variables

β(t) β(t) β(t)

NS NS NS 1. Age

. 15 (2.58*) .14 (2.12*) .16 (2.27*) 2. Education

NS NS NS 3. Service time before retirement

.16 (2.76**) NS NS 4. Rank at the retirement

NS .15 (2.35*) - 5. Preparations for Retirement

NS NS - 6. Work-Family-Conflict

NS -.18 (-2.85**) - 7. Perception of organizational politics

. 19 (3.30***) .29 (4.47***) - 8. Social Capital

.51 (8.39***) - - 9. Organizational Commitment

. 43 .22 .05 R²

.40 .19 .04 Adjusted R²

16.10*** 6.84*** 2.84* F

. 21 .17 - ΔR²

70.46*** 10.31*** - F for ΔR²



Table 4: Findings of hierarchical regression analysis (standardizedcoefficients) for the relationship between the independentvariables and life satisfaction

Life satisfaction


β(t) β(t) β(t)

NS NS NS 1. Age

.14 (2.18*) NS NS 2. Education


.15 (2.43*) NS NS 4. Rank at the retirement

. NS .20 (3.03**) - 5. Preparations for Retirement

-.24 (-3.77***) -.27 (-4.06***) - 6. Work-Family-Conflict

-.17 (-2.80**) -.22 (-3.46***) - 7.Perception of organizational politics

.14 (2.14*) .20 (3.05**) - 8. Social Capital

.31 (4.63***) - - 9. Organizational Commitment

.30 .22 .02 R²

.27 .19 00 Adjusted R²

9.18*** 6.92*** .95 F

.08 .20 - ΔR²

21.45*** 12.67*** - F for ΔR²


Table 5: Findings of hierarchical regression analysis (standardizedcoefficients) for the relationship between the independentvariables and turnover intentions

Turnover intentions


β(t) β(t) β(t)

NS NS NS 1. Age

NS NS NS 2. Education


NS NS NS 4. Rank at the retirement

NS -.22 (-3.25***) - 5. Preparations for Retirement

.15 (2.68**) .21 (3.06**) - 6. Work-Family-Conflict

NS -.19 (-2.95**) - 7. Perception of organizational politics

NS NS - 8. Social Capital

-.55 (-9.03***) - - 9. Organizational Commitment

.43 .18 .04 R²

.40 .15 .02 Adjusted R²

15.84*** 5.38*** 2.03 F

.25 .14 - ΔR²

81.57*** 8.42*** - F for ΔR²


To examine the additional conditions for mediation, as suggested by Baron andKenny88 and Kenny et al.,89 we ran three multiple hierarchical regressions in which thedependent variables were career satisfaction, life satisfaction and turnover intentions(see Tables 3, 4 and 5). First, each of these variables was regressed on the controlvariables (step 1),90 Second, the independent variables were added to the equations(step 2), and finally OC was added (step 3) to examine the equation when controllingfor this variable as suspected mediator.

According to the results presented in Table 3, preparation for retirement andsocial capital were positively related to career satisfaction in the second stage of theregression (β=.15; p<.05, and β=.29; p<.001 respectively). Perceptions of politicswere negatively related with career satisfaction (β=-.18; p<.01). The inclusion of thesevariables in step 2 contributed 17% of the explained variance. In the third step of theequation, OC was positively and strongly related to career satisfaction (β=.51;p<.001), but the relationship between the other variables and the dependent variablesdiminished or decreased significantly. This finding is much in line with the other threeconditions for mediation. We support a relationship between the independent variableand the dependent one, we support a relationship between the mediating variable andthe dependent variable, and we further support the fourth condition about the needfor reduction in the magnitude of relationship between the independent and thedependent variables when the mediating variable is controlled. OC added 21% to theoverall explained variance, which was 43%. These findings strongly support H1, H2 andH3. They also support H6 for all the independent variables, with the exception of WFC.

According to the results presented in Table 4, preparation for retirement, WFC,perceptions of organizational politics and social capital were all related to lifesatisfaction in the second stage of the regression (β=.20; p<.01, β=-.27; p<.001, β=.-22; p<.001 and β=.20; p<.01 respectively). The inclusion of these variables in step 2contributed 20% of the overall explained variance. In the third step of the equation, OCwas positively related to career satisfaction (β=.31; p<.001), but the relationshipbetween the other variables and the dependent variables diminished or decreasedsignificantly. This finding is much in line with the other three conditions for mediation.As with the previous findings, this table demonstrates the relationship between theindependent variables and the dependent one. It also supports a relationship betweenthe mediating variable and the dependent variable. Finally, it supports the fourthcondition regarding the need for reduction in the magnitude of relationship betweenthe independent and dependent variables when the mediating variable is controlled.Thus, we concluded that the mediation effect for the variable preparation forretirement was full, whereas for the other variables it was partial. OC added 8% to theoverall explained variance, which was 30%. These findings strongly support H1, H2, H3and H6 (the mediating relationship).

Based on Table 5, preparation for retirement, WFC and perceptions oforganizational politics were all related to turnover intentions in the second stage of theregression (β=-.22; p<.001, β=.21; p<.01 and β=-.19; p<.01 respectively). Theinclusion of these variables in step 2 contributed 14% of the explained variance. In thisequation, social capital had no effect on turnover intentions. In the third step of the


equation, OC was negatively and strongly related to turnover intentions (β=-.55;p<.001), but the relationship between the other variables and the dependent variablesdiminished or decreased significantly. This finding is again in line with the other threeconditions for mediation. As with the previous findings, this table also demonstratesthe relationship between the independent variables (with the exception of socialcapital) and the dependent one. It also supports a relationship between the mediatingvariable and the dependent variable. Finally, it supports the fourth condition regardingthe need for reduction in the magnitude of relationship between the independent andthe dependent variables when the mediating variable is controlled. Thus, weconcluded that the mediation effect for the variables preparation for retirement andperceptions of organizational politics was full. No mediating effect was found for thevariables WFC and social capital. OC added 25% to the overall explained variance,which was 43%. Again, these findings strongly support H1, H3, H4 and H6 (themediating relationship). In addition we tested for possible difference in careersatisfaction, life satisfaction and intention to leave between the military sample and thecivilian one. No significant differences were found, supporting a possible generalizationof our findings.

Discussion and conclusionsIn this study we developed and empirically examined a second career success model.The model offers four antecedents to career success, as well as the direct and indirectrelationships among these antecedents and three aspects of career success: careersatisfaction, life satisfaction and intentions to leave the new job. Lastly, organizationalcommitment was suggested as a mediator in this relationship. Testing the modelamong retirees from the Israeli defense system provided empirical support for themodel.

Theoretically, our findings highlight the central role of the antecedents and theireffect on second career success. Whereas three variables (preparation for retirement,social capital and perceptions of organizational politics) demonstrate a directrelationship with OC, the relationship of the independent variables with career successis much more complex. Preparation for retirement had a direct positive relationshipwith career satisfaction and with life satisfaction, but manifested no relationship withturnover intentions. Preparation for retirement was indirectly related to all aspects ofcareer success, with a full mediating effect of OC. WFC was not related with careersatisfaction, but was partially and indirectly related to life satisfaction and turnoverintentions. Findings were also mixed for perceptions of organizational politics andsocial capital. Perceptions of organizational politics were indirectly related to careersatisfaction and turnover intentions, and the effect was fully mediated. This variablewas only partially and indirectly related to life satisfaction. In the same vein, OC onlypartially mediated the relationship between social capital on the one hand and careersatisfaction and life satisfaction on the other hand. No direct or indirect relationshipwas found between social capital and turnover intentions.

Our study suggests that its key variables are strong predictors of successful


second career, and that OC has a mediating effect in career modeling theory. Whereasto date OC was researched primarily in the conventional workplace context91 our studyhas expanded the boundaries of research, showing the centrality of OC for betterunderstanding the processes of career development, second career progress andissues beyond one’s primary career stage.

Our contribution to the broader literature of careers is that earlier studies on theeffect of preparation for retirement concerned people retiring from work, whereasrecent developments in the literature identify that more retiring people opt for asecond career, while studies focusing on success in a second career are scarce.

Earlier studies on preparation for retirement are rare, and typically focused onissues such as health problems, legal problems and problems in the relationship withthe family and partner.92 Even rarer are retirement studies conducted on retirees fromdefense bodies. In such exceptional studies, both Baruch and Quick93 and Spiegel andShultz94 found a positive relationship between preparation for retirement and lifesatisfaction, in line with our findings. Our findings add knowledge about the negativerelationship between preparation for retirement and the intention for turnover.

Another unique contribution of our study is due to testing the effect of socialcapital on the processes of adaptation of retirees to life after retirement from work andon their success in the second career. We found that social capital was positively relatedto various aspects of career success, in line with Eby et al.95, although their populationwas different and positive relationships were shown for experience with a mentor andrelationships within and outside the organization. The outcome at a society level is thatthe civilian workforce benefits from a strong investment made in the high-rank officersduring their army service. The competencies can be utilized by civil employers,maximizing national level of managerial cadre. We believe that this aspect should beinvestigated further in future studies.

Regarding the effect of perceptions of organizational politics on career success,we found negative relationships between career and life satisfaction and theperceptions of organizational politics, and positive ones regarding intention to leavework. The perceptions of organizational politics contribute significantly to theexplained variance in career satisfaction and life satisfaction, in line with earlierstudies.96

In contrast to earlier studies relating to the effect of the work-family conflict onsecond career, we found no significant support for the earlier findings.97 However, inline with Kossek and Ozeki’s98 meta-analysis, we found significant negative relationshipbetween WFC and life satisfaction, and positive relationship with intention to leave.Probably this has to do with the fact that WFC doesn't affect the match between theretirees' skills and career values on one hand and the work role on the other hand,therefore it has no effect on commitment and career satisfaction; but it will affect howthe retirees feel about their life and whether they want to continue with the conflictingwork role.

Perhaps the most significant contribution is in identifying the mediating effect ofOC in career success. Our research validated OC as a full mediator for severalantecedents (preparation for retirement and perceptions of organizational politics)


and for several prospects of career success (career satisfaction and life satisfaction). Italso partially mediates the relationship between social capital and career satisfaction, aswell as social capital and life satisfaction. These are new contributions to the careerliterature.99

Concerning the unsupported hypothesizes, we recommend that future studiesshould examine the complex relationship between the number of jobs and tenure andantecedents to career success, as these outcomes are important to the retirees, mainlydue to the fact that they can associate them with typical behaviors in second career.

Managerial implications Beyond its theoretical contribution to the study of career development, this study alsohas a number of meaningful practical implications. The implications for managementare beyond the military context. Indeed, the implications should be perceived in amuch wider context, as Shultz et al.100 found that civilian retirement and militaryretirement are becoming similar as the years go by. One major implication formanagement is that the defense industry may be a great source for new managerialtalent, possessing high skills and qualities, and may be instrumental in applyingorganizational changes. Organizations that hire retired military officers may benefitfrom the highly skilled people, typically characterized by strong personal integrity. Afurther message to organizations is this: effective organizational support mechanismsneed to be in place, including the career practice of preparation for leaving theorganization. Promoting the employability of their high grade managers would yieldlong-term bonds with employees at all levels. By doing it right, the organizationensures that executives who leave will play a positive role as ‘ambassadors’, helpingwith good networking for the organization and for future generations of organizationalmembers.

LimitationsAs a new addition to the career literature, this research also has limitations that need tobe acknowledged and addressed in future studies. The research design is based on self-report and thus might be subject to common-method bias. Furthermore, the study wasconducted only on a specific population of retirees from different defense bodies,which may limit the external validity of our results. Following Podsakoff and Organ101,we conducted a factor analysis, which showed that the model has no dominant factor(five factors were acquired in the analysis) and thus less sensitive to such bias. Inaddition, the study was conducted in a single country – Israel. It should be mentionedthat Israel may be considered as a ‘Maduradam’ (microcosm) for studies representingthe wider Western society.102 Finally, the response rate of 34% is not high, though it fallswithin the norm of response rates in academic studies based on mailed surveys.103

Notes1 Hall, D.D., & Chandler, D.E. (2005). Psychological success: When the career is calling. Journalof Vocational Behavior, 26, 155-176.


2 Arthur, M. B. (2008). Examining contemporary careers: A call for interdisciplinary inquiry.Human Relations, 61(2), 163-186; Arthur, M. B., Khapova, S. N., & Wilderom, C. P. (2005).Career success in a boundaryless career world, Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26, 177-202; Sturges, J., Conway, N., & Liefooghe, A. (2010). Organizational support, individualattributes, and the practice of career self-management behavior. Group & OrganizationManagement, 35, 108-141; Sullivan, S. E., & Baruch, Y. (2009). Advances in career theory andresearch: critical review and agenda for future exploration. Journal of Management, 35(6),1452-1571.

3 Baruch, Y., & Quick, J. C. (2007). Understanding second career: Lessons from study of U.S navyadmirals. Human Resource Management, 46, 471-491.

4 Arthur, M. B., & Inkson, K., & Pringle, J. (1999). The new careers individual action andeconomic change, London: Sage.

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7 Groves, R. M., Fowler, F. J., Couper, M. P., Lepkovski, J. M., Singer, E., & Tourangeau, R. (2004).Survey Methodology. NJ: Wiley.

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9 Holland, J. L. (1985). Making vocational choices: A theory of personality and workenvironments. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

10 Lorsch, J. W. (1995). Second career, Directors & Boards, 19, 88-90.

11 Vardi, Y. (1991). Military and field experience as enhancers of managerial promotions in agovernmental agency, implications for second careers. Academy of Management Proceedings,62-66.

12 Baruch, Y., & Quick, J. C. (2007), Ibid.

13 Hornestay, D. (2000). Careers: NASA pilot launches second careers. Government Executive,Jobs and Careers, http://www.govexec.com/features/0800/0800careers.htm (accessed July 21,2006).

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15 Judge, T. A., Cable, D. M., Boudreau, J. W., & Bretz, R.D. Jr. (1995). An empirical investigationof the predictors of executive career success. Personnel Psychology, 48, 485-519.

16 Seibert, S. E., Kraimer, M. L., & Linden, R. C. (2001). A social capital theory of career success.Academy of Management Journal, 44, 219-237.

17 Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison, S., & Sowa, D. (1986). Perceived organizationalsupport. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 500-507.

18 Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison, S., & Sowa, D. (1986). Ibid.

19 Blau, M. P. (1992). Exchange and power in social life. London: Transaction.

20 Eisenberger, R., Cummings, J., Armeli, S., & Lynch, P. (1997). Perceived organizational support,discretionary treatment, and job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 812-820.

21 Podolny, J. M., & Baron, J. (1997). Resources and relationships: Social networks and mobility inthe workplace. American Sociological Review, 62, 763-693.


22 Seibert, S. E., Kraimer, M. L., & Linden, R. C. (2001). Ibid.

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27 Holland, J. L. (1985). Ibid.

28 Porter, L. W., Steers, R. M., Mowday, R. T., & Boulian, P. V. (1974). Organizational commitment,job satisfaction and turnover among psychiatric technicians. Journal of Applied Psychology, 59,603-609.

29 Cohen, A. (2003). Multiple commitments in the workplace: An integrative approach. Mahwah,NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

30 Cohen, A. (2003). Ibid.

31 Bardasi, E., Jenkins, S. P., & Rigg, J. A. (1999). Retirement and the economic well-being of theelderly: A British perspective. http://www. iser. essex. ac. uk/pubs/workpaps/pdf/1999-25. pdf(accessed 21 December 2006)

32 Marcellini, F., & Sensoli, C. (1997). Preparation for retirement: Problems and suggestions ofretirees. Educational Gerontology, 23, 377-389.

33 Kiefer, T., & Briner, R. B. (1998). Managing retirement-rethinking links between individual andorganizations. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 7, 373-390.

34 Shultz, K. S., Taylor, M. A., & Morrison, R. F. (2003). Work related attitudes of naval officers beforeand after retirement. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 5, 259-274.

35 Spiegel, P. E., & Shultz, K. S. (2003). The influence of preretirement planning and transferabilityof skills on naval officer’s retirement satisfaction and adjustment. Military Psychology, 15, 285-307.

36 Coleman, J. S. (1990). Foundation of social theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.


38 Lin, Shu-Chi., & Huang, Yin-Mei. (2005). The role of social capital in the relationship betweenhuman capital and career mobility. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 6, 191-205.

39 Eby, L.., Butts, M., & Lockwood, A. (2003). Predictors of success in the era of the boundarylesscareer. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24, 689-708.

40 Arthur, M. B., Claman, P. H., & DeFillipi, R. J. (1995). Intelligent enterprise, intelligent careers.The Academy of Management Executive, 9, 7-22.

41 Arthur, M. B. (1994). The Boundaryless career: A new perspective for organizational inquiry.Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15, 295-306.

42 Useem, M., & Karabel, J. (1986). Pathways to top corporate management. AmericanSociological Review, 51, 184-200.

43 Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. The American Journal ofSociology, 94, 95-120.


44 Watson, G. W., & Papamarcos, S. D. (2002). Social capital and organizational commitment.Journal Business and Psychology, 16, 537-552.

45 Watson, G. W., & Papamarcos, S. D. (2002). Ibid.

46 Konovsky, M., & Cropanzano, R. (1991). Perceived fairness of employee drug testing as predictorof employee attitudes and job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 698-707.

47 Greenhaus, J., & Beutell, N. Y. (1985). Sources of conflict between work and family roles.Academy of Management Review, 10, 76-88.

48 Martins, L. L., Eddelston, K. A., & Veiga, J. F. (2002). Ibid.

49 Schein, E. H. (1984). Culture as an environmental context for career. Journal of OccupationalBehavior, 5, 71-81.

50 Schein, E. H. (1984). Ibid.

51 Yang, N., Chen, C.C., Choi, J. & Zou, Y. (2000). Sources of work-family conflict: a Sino-UScomparison of the effects of work and family demands. Academy of Management Journal, 43,113-123.

52 Martins, L. L., Eddelston, K. A., & Veiga, J. F. (2002). Ibid.

53 Kossek, E., & Ozeki, C. (1998). Work-Family-Conflict, policies and job-life satisfaction: A reviewand directions for organizational behavior-human resources research. Journal of AppliedPsychology, 83, 139-149.

54 Cohen, A. (2003). Ibid.

55 Allen, T. D., Herst, D. E., Bruck, C. S., & Sutton, M. (2000). Consequences associated with work-to-family conflict: A review and agenda for future research. Journal of Occupational HealthPsychology, 5, 278-308.

56 Hobfoll, S. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress.American Psychologist, 44, 513-524.

57 Ferris, G. R., Fedor, D. B., Chachere, J.G., & Pondy, L. (1989). Myths and politics inorganizational context. Group and Organizational Studies,14, 88-103.

58 Kumar, P., & Ghadially, R. (1989). Organizational politics and its effects on members oforganizations. Human Relations, 42, 305-314.

59 Harrel-Cook, G., Ferris, G. R., & H. Dulebohn, J. H. (1999). Political behaviors as moderators ofthe perceptions of organizational politics-work outcomes relationships. Journal ofOrganizational Behavior, 20, 1093-1105.

60 Ferris, G. R., Fedor, D. B., Chachere, J.G., & Pondy, L. (1989). Ibid.

61 Vigoda-Gadot, E. (2003). Development in organizational politics: How political dynamicsaffect employee performance in modern worksites. Northampton, MA: Edward ElgarPublishing.

62 Cropanzano, R., Howes, J. C., Grandey, A., & Toth, P. (1997). The relationship of organizationalpolitics and support to work behaviors, attitudes and stress. Journal of OrganizationalBehavior, 18, 159-180.

63 Hobfoll, S. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. Ibid.

64 Iverson, R. D., Mcleod, C. S., & Erwin, P. J. (1996). The role of employee commitment and trustservice relationship. Marketing Intelligence and Planning, 14, 36-44.

65 Mowday, R. T., Porter, L., & Steers, R. M. (1982). Employee-Organization linkages: Thepsychology of commitment and absenteeism and turnover. NY: Academic Press.

66 Iverson, R. D., Mcleod, C. S., & Erwin, P. J. (1996). Ibid.


67 Mathieu, J. E., & Zajac, D. M. (1990). A review and meta-analysis of antecedents, correlates, andconsequences of organizational commitment. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 171-194.

68 Morgan, R. M., & Hunt, S. D. (1994). The commitment–trust theory of relationship marketing.Journal of Marketing, 58, 20-38.

69 Harrison, D. A., & Liska, L. Z. (1994). Promoting regular exercise in organizational fitnessprograms: Health-related differences in motivational building blocks. Personnel Psychology, 47,47-71.

70 Suliman, A. M. (2002). Is it really a mediating construct? The mediating role of organizationalcommitment in work climate-performance relationship. Journal of Management Development,21, 170-183.

71 Suliman, A. M. (2002). Ibid.

72 Greenhaus, J. H., Parasuraman, S., & Wormley,W. M. (1990). Effects of race on organizationalexperiences, job performance evaluations, and career outcomes. Academy of ManagementJournal, 33, 64-86.

73 Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale.Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71-75.

74 Farrell, D., & Rusbult, C. E. (1992). Exploring the exit, voice, loyalty and neglect typology: Theinfluence of job satisfaction, quality of alternatives and investment size. EmployeeResponsibilities and Right Journal, 5, 201-218.

75 Porter, L. W., Steers, R. M., Mowday, R. T., & Boulian, P. V. (1974). Ibid.

76 Baruch, Y., & Quick, J. C. (2007). Ibid.


78 Kacmar, K. M., & Ferris, G. F. (1991). Perception of organizational politics scale (POPS):Development and construct validation. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 51, 193-205.

79 Kacmar, K.M., & Carlson, D. S. (1997). Further validation the perceptions of politics scale(POPS): A multiple sample investigation. Journal of Management, 23, 627-658.

80 Vigoda, E. (2001). Reactions to organizational politics: A cross-cultural examination in Israel andBritain. Human Relations, 54, 1483-1518.

81 Vigoda, E. (2000). Organizational politics, job attitudes and work outcomes: exploration andimplications for the public sector. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 57, 326-347.

82 Carlson, D. S., Kacmar, K. M., & Williams, L. J. (2000). Construction and initial validation of amultidimensional measure of work-family conflict. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 56, 249-276.

83 Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator – mediator variable distinction in socialpsychology research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personalityand Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.

The first and second terms for mediation in Baron and Kenny studies requires significantrelationship between the dependent and the independent variables and between the mediatorand the independent variables. The third requirement for mediation in their studies requiresthat mediator must effect the dependent variable, and the effect of independent variables onthe dependent variable must be less in the equation of the relationship between theindependent variables and the dependent variable, than in the regression equation regressingthe dependent variable on both the independent variables and the mediator.

84 Kenny, D. A., Kashy, D. A., & Bolder, N. (1998). Data analysis in social psychology. In D. T.Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology (vol. 1, 4th edition, pp.233-265). New York: Oxford University Press.


85 The figure in the parenthesis notes the statistical test (the t-test) for the significance ofcoefficients in the regression model and the star notes the probability of obtaining theestimated value of the coefficient if the actual value is zero-smaller value indicates highersignificance and the less likely that the actual coefficient is zero. Higher value of t test indicatesthe likelihood that the actual value of the coefficient is not zero and the star notes the agreedupon value of acceptance is 0.05, two stars notes the agreed value of 0.01 and three starsindicate value of .001.

86 Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). Ibid.

87 ΔR²= change in R²

88 Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). Ibid.

89 Kenny, D. A., Kashy, D. A., & Bolder, N. (1998).

90 In order to apply rank (an ordinal variable) in regression equations, we changed it to adichotomy variable based on the split between LTC and higher ranks as colonels and brigadiers.The same principle was applied to the educational variable, we changed the variable of theeducational level to a dichotomy variable based on the split between up to first degree leveland second\third degree level.

91 Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1997). Commitment in workplace: Theory, research andapplications. CA: Thousands Oak Sage.

92 Kim, J. E., & Moen, P. (2002). Retirements transitions, gender, and psychological well-being: Alife-course, ecological model. Journals of Gerontology Series, B 57, 212-222.

93 Baruch, Y., & Quick, J. C. (2007). Ibid.

94 Spiegel, P. E., & Shultz, K. S. (2003). Ibid.

95 Eby, L.., Butts, M., & Lockwood, A. (2003). Ibid.

96 Ferris, G. R., Fedor, D. B., Chachere, J.G., & Pondy, L. (1989). Ibid.

97 Aryee, S. & Luk, V. (1996). Works and nonwork influences on the career satisfaction of dual-earner couples. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 49, 38-52.

98 Kossek, E., & Ozeki, C. (1998). Ibid.

99 Suliman, A. M. (2002). Ibid.

100 Shultz, K. S., Taylor, M. A., & Morrison, R. F. (2003). Ibid.

101 Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. (1986). Self reports in organizational research: problems andprospects. Journal of Management, 12, 531-544.

102 Harel, G. H., & Tzafrir, S. S. (1999). The effect of human resource management practices onthe perceptions of organizational and market performance of the firm. Human ResourceManagement, 38, 185-199.

103 Yehuda Baruch, Y. (1999). Response rate in academic studies- a comparative analysis. HumanRelations, 52, 421-438.

AuthorsEran Vigoda-Gadot, PhD

Division of Public Administration & PolicySchool of Political SciencesThe University of HaifaHaifa 31905, Israel


[email protected]

Yehuda Baruch, D.Sc.

Yehuda Baruch, D.Sc.Rouen Business School, France and Middlesex University, UKRouen Business SchoolBoulevard André Siegfried - BP 21576825 Mont-Saint-Aignan [email protected]

Shmuel Grimland, PhD

[email protected]

Dr. Eran Vogoda-Gadot is professor of public administration and organizational behav-ior at the School of Political Sciences, The University of Haifa, Israel. Currently, he is thehead of the school and head of the Center for Public Management and Policy (CPMP).In addition, he is member of several consulting committees working closely with publicinstitutions and local municipalities in Israel. Vigoda-Gadot is the author and coauthorof more than 110 articles and book chapters, eight books and symposiums as well asmany other scholarly presentations and working papers. He received his PhD from theUniversity of Haifa in 1998 and spent time as a visiting professor in Britain, Ireland,Canada (McGill) and the United States (Harvard Kennedy School and UGA). His currentresearch interests include behavior and performance in the public sector, organizationalpolitics (OP), organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and citizenship behavior out-side organizations.

Dr. Yehuda Baruch is a professor of management at Rouen Business School, France.He formerly held positions at the UEA Norwich, University of Texas at Arlington, GeorgeMason University, University of Canterbury, NZ, and London Business School. He holds aB.Sc. in electronic engineering (Ben Gurion, Israel), M.Sc. and D.Sc. in management andbehavioral sciences (The Technion, Israel). After being a project manager in the hightechnology industry he encountered a career in academia. His research interests areglobal and strategic HRM, careers, and technology impact on management. He has hadpublished some 100 refereed papers in a number of journals, including the Journal ofManagement, Human Resource Management, Organizational Dynamics, the Journalof Vocational Behavior, Human Relations, and Organization Studies. Baruch hasauthored and/or co-edited four books, as well as 30 book chapters. He is the editor ofGroup & Organization Management, the former editor of Career Development Inter-national and served as the chairperson for the Careers Division of the Academy of Man-agement.


Dr. Shmuel Grimland is a retiree from the public sector. For 25 years he was a proj-ects manager in high tech fields, leading multidisciplinary teams and systems. After theretirement he worked for six years in Comverse, managing projects in Israel and work-ing with customers from several cultures- Singaporean, Turkish and Scandinavian. Afterleaving Comverse he took a PhD course and holds from 2010 a PhD from Haifa Univer-sity. He graduated from Technion Haifa, M.Sc and B.Sc in electrical engineering. Todayhe is a freelancer, researching why organizational learning is usually ineffective and whygood managers and organizations repeat the same mistakes and behave foolishly. He isalso interested in applying martial arts principles in organizational behavior and busi-ness activities.


Documents

Career Transitions: An Empirical Examination of Second Career of Military Retirees