Citizenship Education

CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION 2015

CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION Page 1

MICHAEL PARASMENTO MHLANGA MTASA AND GROUP

Global citizenship education

Global citizenship education (GCE) „highlights essential functions of education related to the

formation of citizenship [in relation] with globalization. It is a concern with the relevance of

knowledge, skills and values for the participation of citizens in, and their contribution to,

dimensions of societal development, which are linked at local and global levels. It is directly

related to the civic, social and political socialization function of education, and ultimately to the

contribution of education in preparing children and young people to deal with the challenges of

today‟s increasingly interconnected and interdependent world‟. Global citizenship education

(GCE) inspires action, partnerships, dialogue and cooperation through formal and non-formal

education. GCE applies a multifaceted approach employing concepts, methodologies and

theories from related fields, including human rights education, peace education, education for

sustainable development and education for international understanding. It promotes an ethos of

curiosity, solidarity and shared responsibility. There are also overlapping and mutually

reinforcing objectives, approaches and learning outcomes with these and other education

programmes, such as intercultural education and health education.

As a framing paradigm, components of GCE can be mainstreamed within existing education

interventions. It is most productive to view GCE as trans-disciplinary rather than as a separate

or overlapping discipline.

� encourage learners to analyse real-life issues critically and to identify possible solutions

creatively and innovatively;

� support learners to revisit assumptions, worldviews and power relations in mainstream

discourses and consider people/groups that are systematically marginalised;

� Focus on engagement in individual and collective action to bring about desired changes and

� involve multiple stakeholders, including those outside the learning environment, in the

community and in wider society.

While GCE can take different forms, it has some common elements, which include fostering in

learners the following competencies:

� an attitude supported by an understanding of multiple levels of identity, and the potential for

a collective identity that transcends individual cultural, religious, ethnic or other differences

(e.g. sense of belongingness to common humanity, respect for diversity);



� A deep knowledge of global issues and universal values such as justice, equality, dignity and

respect (e.g. understanding of the process of globalization, interdependence/

interconnectedness, the global challenges which cannot be adequately or uniquely addressed by

nation states, sustainability as the main concept of the future);

� Cognitive skills to think critically, systemically and creatively, including adopting a

multiperspective approach that recognizes different dimensions, perspectives and angles of

issues (e.g. reasoning and problem-solving skills supported by a multi-perspective approach);

� Non-cognitive skills, including social skills such as empathy and conflict resolution, and

communication skills and aptitudes for networking and interacting with people of different

backgrounds, origins, cultures and perspectives (e.g. global empathy, sense of solidarity).

� Behavioural capacities to act collaboratively and responsibly to find global solutions to

global challenges, and to strive for the collective good (e.g. sense of commitment, decision-

making skills).

Defining Citizenship and citizenship education

Citizenship is a complex and contested concepts. Consequently, its interpretations are broad

and its definitions are varied ((Osler & Starkey, 2006; Sears & Hughes, 2006; Davies,

2001Kerr, 1999).

Barbalet (1988) simply defines citizenship as „those who are and those who are not, members

of a common society‟. Gould and Kolb (1964:88) provide what can be regarded as a

contemporary conception of citizenship, defining it as “— a state of relationship existing

between a natural person and a political society known as a state, by which the former owes

allegiance and the later protection.” Taking this conception further, Cogan and Derricott (2004)

came up with five basic tenets of citizenship:

A sense of dignity;

The enjoyment of certain rights;

The fulfilment of corresponding obligations;

A degree of interest in public affairs and;

An acceptance of basic social values.

Four Domains of Citizenship

Four major domains of citizenship are commonly distinguished: civil, political, socio-

economic, and cultural or collective dimensions. T.H. Marshall identified the first three after

the Second World War, and the fourth has emerged since then. These four domains of modern

citizenship are dynamic and interconnected in a complex interaction within a global context.

The civil domain of citizenship refers to a way of life where citizens define and pursue

commonly held goals related to democratic conceptions of society. It inscribes fundamental

community values, the limits of governmental decision making in relation to the individual

citizen, and the rights of private interest groups and associations (Bogdanor, 1991). It includes

freedom of speech, expression and equality before the law, as well as the freedom of

association and access to information.

The political domain of citizenship involves the right to vote and to political participation. Free

elections are key to this dimension of citizenship, as is the right to freely seek political office. In

other words, political citizenship refers to political rights and duties with respect to the political

system.

The socio-economic domain of citizenship refers to the relationship between individuals in a

societal context and to rights of participation in political spaces. The definition of social and

economic rights includes the rights to economic well-being, for example, the right to social

security, to work, to minimum means of subsistence and to a safe environment. Social

citizenship refers to the relations between individuals in a society and demands loyalty and



solidarity. Economic citizenship refers to the relation of an individual towards the labour and

consumer market and implies the right to work and to a minimum subsistence level.

The cultural or collective domain of citizenship refers to the manner in which societies take into

account the increasing cultural diversity in societies, diversity due to a greater openness to other

cultures, to global migration and to increased mobility. Cultural citizenship refers to awareness

of a common cultural heritage. This component includes the quest for recognition of collective

rights for minorities. The culture state relationship is based upon human rights which recognize

an anthropological dimension of a person, and which imply a certain conception of human

beings, their dignity, and the affirmation of legal equality against all forms of discrimination

based on membership in a particular group or category.

Presidential Report‟s (1999) defined citizenship education as that which „enables children to

grow into good citizens who conform to certain accepted practices; trains them to hold beliefs‟.

Citizenship education, which is sometimes referred to as education for democracy or civic

education (Nieuweinhuis, 2007), also tends to provoke debate and controversy. Consequently,

its value and contribution to people has at times been questioned (Kisby & Sloam, 2009). In

this paper, citizenship education is viewed as the preparation of young people for their roles and

responsibilities and for the challenges and uncertainty of life through provision of relevant

education (Kerr, 1999). The main goals of citizenship education are to provide political

socialisation and to equip young people with knowledge, skills and values to participate

effectively in democratic a society (Kisby & Sloam, 2009). Along the same lines, Davies

(2001) views the functions of citizenship education as socialisation into norms and citizen

duties and promotion of autonomy and critical thinking. The Crick Report cited in McLaughlin

(2003) posits that citizenship education is about enabling citizens to make their own decisions

and to take responsibility for their own lives and communities. Gross and Dynneson (1991) say

citizenship education is a societal means of enabling the youth to acquire knowledge, skills and

values needed to maintain and perpetuate the republic. For the purposes of discussion in this

paper, citizenship education shall be taken to mean an education that is concerned with the

political, civic and socio-economic matters of a nation and its citizens.

An analysis of historical antecedents validates the assertions above. Greek democracy | of the

Aristotelian era was fundamentally preoccupied with education for citizenship as Aristotle cited

in Watkin (2000:13) once wrote,

“It is a law giver's duty to arrange for the education of the young. In states where this is not

done, the quality of the constitution suffers.”

Rousseau added his voice to the concept of citizenship education by advocating that children

should learn from an early age values and procedures that were beneficial to society that were

acceptance of the general will and patriotism. Smith asserts that the French and the American

Revolutions “irreversibly linked citizenship to democratic rights, equality and self-

government‟‟. With Marx came a new dimension that rights and responsibilities were key

elements of citizenship within a democratic setup. This appears to have dominated Western

conceptions of citizenship in recent decades (Smith 2000).

Citizenship education has a number of basic features that have been outlined by, among others,

Nziramasanga (1991), Remy (1979) and Osley and Starkey (2000). Nziramasanga (1991)

argues that citizenship education makes the youth know. Young people need an increasingly

wide range of knowledge in order to fully discharge their role as citizens and this is reflected in

the national curricula for citizenship education.



It encompasses decision-making, involving political, economic, social and moral choices at

various levels including the individual, family, community and nation and thereby teaches

group governance. Pupils, who are in fact young citizens, learn to govern themselves first and

the groups they are part of, “formulating and making rules governing behaviour, relations,

distribution of resources among the individuals and within the groups” and “implementation

plans affecting each and all the citizens for better or worse” (ibid, p. 5).

The development of political literacy often includes learning about issues such as social,

political and civic institutions; human rights; national constitutions; citizens' rights and

responsibilities; social issues; recognition of the cultural and historical heritage as well as the

cultural and linguistic diversity of society. Critical thinking is crucial to developing political

literacy since it allows young people to analyse and evaluate information on social and political

issues. Although not an exhaustive list, the objectives may comprise, for instance, learning

about respect and mutual understanding, social and moral responsibilities, and developing a

spirit of solidarity with others. The last objective, which requires students to actively participate

in their community, enables them to put into practice the knowledge and skills they have

learned, as well as the values and attitudes they have acquired through their learning in

connection with the first three objectives. These four objectives also reflect the fact that to be

successful, citizenship education, when taught and learnt at school, must go beyond „narrow,

formal approaches [which are] largely content-led and knowledge-based. The primary aim is

not only to inform, but also to use that information to help students to understand and to

enhance their capacity to participate‟ (Kerr 1999, p. 11).

Nziramasanga (1991) identifies four key components of citizenship education related to the

questions posed by Remy (1971). These are:

1. Citizen confrontation with the need for choice and an occasion for making such choice;

2. The determination on the part of the citizen, of important values, goals, attitudes and factors

affecting the decisions;

3. A citizen‟s identification of alternative courses of action within the framework of the laws of

that society or nation; and

4. The way in which the citizen can predict the positive/negative consequences of the

alternatives in view of the need to decide national or individual goals. (Nziramasanga, 1991 p.

7).

Citizenship education “requires an understanding and an acceptance of human rights” to

“provide the framework for political and social interaction in democracies by ensuring the

equality of all individuals before the law and in respect of their rights to dignity and to the

fundamental freedoms” (Osley and Starkey, 2003, p. 4). Spencer (2003) says citizenship

education should include values whose legitimacy and acceptance go beyond a single religion

or local authority. She argues that:

International human rights standards provide that framework of values. They have an authority

beyond any code of ethics agreed at national level and, being a balanced package of rights and

responsibilities, entirely fit the objectives of education for citizenship (Spencer, 2003, p. 23).

School Subjects and Citizenship Education

Although citizenship education is a priority learning area in many countries of the world, it

comes under a wide variety of subject names. Some of the names used in schools are

“citizenship, civics, social sciences, social studies, studies of society, life skills and moral

education” and there are links to subjects such as “history, geography, economics, law, politics,

environmental studies, values education, religious studies, languages and science” (Kerr, 1991,

p. 202).



For this study, four skills were defined as essential for pupils and students to become active and

responsible citizens:

-related skills (participating in society through, for example, volunteering, and

influencing

public policy through voting and petitioning);

others, resolving conflicts);

The aims of citizenship education included promoting or supporting students in their

acquisition of knowledge or development attitudes or skills in the following areas:

1. Social, political and civic institutions, respect for and safeguarding the environment,

Defending one's own point of view, Conflict resolution, Citizens' rights and responsibilities,

Participation in the local community, Critical and independent thinking, Participation in school

life, Effective strategies to combat racism and xenophobia and Future political engagement

Challenges to Citizenship education

Students‟ reception of citizenship education issues

Firstly, after studying topics whose content is overtly citizenship education students might

apply the lessons from topics. For instance according to Magudu (2012) in his research after

studying the Human Rights topic, some students refused to clean toilets and to do manual work

around the school because there were some people employed for the job. The History teacher

was then accused of inciting the students to revolt against the school authorities. Another

participant in the aforesaid research cited an incident whereby the headmaster tried to exclude

some students from classes for non-payment of school fees, again after the affected students

had been exposed to the Human Rights topic. The students pointed out to the school head that

they have a right to education.

.

Secondly, some of students might become civic and politically literate and can relate what is

being taught in classes for citizenship to occurrences they encounter in their day-to-day

interactions. The participants in Magudu (2012)‟s research explained that they could be more

politically literate than assumed as a result of everyday experiences where, in some instances,

they have witnessed political violence in their communities.

Fear of victimisation

Teachers might be afraid of teaching citizenship related topics because of fear of victimisation

by the school administration and the community and being labelled as bad apples and

unpatriotic. In his research, Magudu (2012) claimed that History teachers are often accused of

teaching politics. One respondent in the research said that whenever there is victimisation of

teachers in the community, teachers of History bear the brunt. Another participant related an

incident where a young newly qualified teacher taught the Human Rights and Democracy

topics. There was uproar in the community about it resulting in his transfer from the school.

After the incident, education officials visited the school and teachers were advised that they

should know the limits to which they teach certain topics.

Tension between citizenship education and issues of the day

In teaching citizenship education related topics teachers are misinterpreted and misconstrued to

be attacking politicians or the school administration. In the words of one participant,



Examples used by the teacher may be perceived as an attack on individuals. Teachers may

therefore have problems in explaining and giving examples to certain concepts and aspects of

citizenship education related topics.

tertiary institutions;

should be continuous syllabi review to accommodate current trends and community

sensitivities and make the subject examinable;

seriously;

tudies lecturers should be given in-service courses and there should

vigorous production of learning materials for the subject.

should be more creative to cater for freedom of expression and

responsiveness.

Chitumba 2013

Production of Ideal Citizens Besides helping Zimbabwean people to gain their identity and self-esteem, a meaningful education informed by Ubuntu philosophy may see its graduates being better citizens, employment creators and morally upright leaders who shun corruption. There are plenty positive spinoffs when one is a recipient of relevant and meaningful education that is grounded in one’s values.

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REFERENCES

Nziramasanga C. T. (1999). Report of the Presidential Commission of Inquiry Into Education and Training. Harare: Government Printers. Matereke, P. (2011). Whipping into line: The dual crisis of education and citizenship in postcolonial Zimbabwe. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 44(52), 84-99. Nieuweinhuis, J. (Ed.) (2007). Growing human rights and values in education. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. Kerr, D. (1999).Citizenship education: An international comparison. London: Qualification an and Curriculum Authority. Kisby, B. and Sloam, J. (2009). Revitalising politic: The role of citizenship education.

Barbalet, J.M. (1988) Citizenship. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Osler, A. and Starkey, H. (2006). Education for democratic citizenship: A review of research policy and practice 1995-2005. Research Papers in Education, 24, 433-466.

Remy, R. (1979). Handbook of basic citizenship competencies. Washington D.C.:

National council for the Social Studies

Osler, A., Starkey H. (2003). Citizenship, human rights and cultural diversity. In A.

Osler (Ed.) Citizenship and democracy in schools: Diversity, identity, equality. (pp.3-17). Stoke

on Trent: Trentham Books.



Mbiti, J. S. (1989). African religions and philosophy. Oxford: Heinmann

Spencer, S. (2003). The implications of the Human Rights Act on citizenship

education. In A. Osler (Ed.) Citizenship and democracy in schools: Diversity, identity, equality

(pp. 19-32). Stoke on Trent: Trentham Books.

Remy, R. (1979). Handbook of basic citizenship competencies. Washington D.C.:

National council for the Social Studies.

Davies, C. A. (1999). Reflexive ethnography: a guide to researching selves and

others. London: Routledge.

Gross R.E. & Dynneson, T.L., eds., 1991. Social Science Perspectives on Citizenship

Education. New York: Teachers College Press.

Gould, R.E. and Kolb, W.L. (Eds.) (1964) A Dictionary of the Social Sciences. New j York. Free Press.

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Citizenship Education