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International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018

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AN ASSESSMENT OF THE LEVEL OF HEAVY ACCUMULATION IN MAIZE FARMLAND OF ABAJI AREA COUNCIL

OF FCT ABUJA

Shehu, D. E., Nadana, R. W. and Ejeikwu, E. O.

Department of Biology, School of Scieces FCT College of Education Zuba Department of Biological Sciences Faculty of Sceinces University of Abuja

Abstract

This paper assessed the level of heavy metals accumulation in soils and maize of Abaji area council. The objectives of the study were to determine the relationship between heavy metals concentration in soil and maize,to determine the soil physicochemical parameters and also to compare the concentration with the WHO permissible limit in soil and in food.The method of Association Of Analytical Chemist (AOAC) was used to analyse the soil physicochemical parameters while Atomic absorption spectrophotometer was use to analysed the soil and maize for heavy metals .The result revealed that the soil and maize planted inAbaji area council were not contaminated with heavy metals .The soil physicochemical parameter were within the range with sandy soil, low organic matter, electrical conductivity and moisture content. It wastherefore concluded that heavy metals accumulation in soil and maize was below the WHO(2001) permissible limit Recommendation was also given based on the findings. For example1 The use of pesticides, herbicide and fertilizers by farmers should be discouraged

Key words: Heavy metal, soils and accumulation

Introduction

Heavy metal pollution is one of the environmental

problemsin natural environmentthat have become a

global problem. The production and emission of

heavy metals have increased as a result of increase in

industrial activities and agricultural practices. Heavy

metals bio accumulatesand cause toxicity in

biological systems such as humans, animals,

microorganisms and plants. Accumulation of heavy

metals can reduce soil quality, reduce crop yield and

the quality of agricultural products, and thus give

negative impacts to the health of human, animals, and

the ecosystem (Nagajyoti:.,Lee, andSreekamh2010).

Some metals for example copper, zinc and iron are

important and beneficial to plants, and animals, but

high concentrations of all these metals have strong

toxic effects and can pose an environmental threat

(Nodelkoska, 2000). Wang and Chen (2009) reported

that heavy metals are of considerable environmental

concern due to their toxicity, wide sources,

nonbiodegradable properties, and accumulative

behaviors. According to Demirar; Yilmaz.: Tuna

:Ozdemir, and Khairul (2006). Maize is known as one

of the main food sources for human being since

ancient times. It is a domesticated plant and has

many beneficial uses for human and animal.

Prasannaet. al (2001) cited inKhairul; Zaida; Amelia;

Som; Nurul; Rahaiza,;Othman; Burok; Yunos; Tengku

(2015)reported that maize has been one of the most

intensively cultivated cereals worldwide, and it is

known to be the main energy source in human food.

Statement of the problem

Maize is one of the major crops that is cultivated and

also popularly consumed by all ecological zones in

Nigeria in either boiled, roasted, or in form of moimoi

and locally prepared beverages. According to central

bank report (1992) about 5.6 million tonnes of maize

is cultivated annually in Nigeria due to its demand. It

is therefore necessary to assess the level of

contamination of maize by heavy metals considering

the farming practice in the country which is

characterised by fertilizer, manure, pesticides and

herbicides application that are potential sources of

heavy metals


2

Justifications

Maize is a very important crop in Nigeria. It is ranked

as the second most important crop by food ranking

interns of the of people it feeds .It is used as a, staple

crop, raw materials for various food based industries

such as beverages, animal feeds, export commodity

etc. A lot of concern has been shown towards heavy

metal pollution with reported cases of heavy metals

contents of the soil and maize plant. Studies

conducted in Beijing china on heavy metal residues in

soil and accumulation in maize at long term irrigation

area by Yintao et al., (2015) revealed that maize is a

potential accumulator plant. Yintao ; Hong; Dan;

Yichen ; Shichao; and Jun (2015)therefore concluded

that maize plant can serve as an ideal slope

phytoremediation plant With this development it has

become obvious that heavy metals can become a

source of worry especially in agricultural lands,

vegetation, soil, animals and ultimately to the quality

of human life, Heavy metals have been linked to

serious environmental and health complications as

such studies into the levels of heavy metal

accumulation and contamination in maize is very

important and crucial.

The aim of this study is to:

To assess the level of accumulation of heavy metals in

soil and yellow open pollinated maize (kampam4 )

cultivated in the raining season

To compare the concentration with WHO standard

To determine the soil physico-chemical parameters

Methodology

Soil sample collection

Three sampling stations, Abaji, Yaba, Paikonbasa,

were used for the study. Soil samples were randomly

collected from each of the station monthly for the

period of 6 months from the rain feed farms

fourteen (14) soil samples was collected from the

rain feed farms in 2016. This method is in line with

the method described by Nwaogbe and Hymore

(2001).

One kilogram (1kg) of soil samples and 5 ears of

maize from 3 different points from each sampling

station was randomly collected. The soil sample were

collected in the depth of 0-15.cm from the surface of

the soil using metal cylinder borer and a simple

centimetre ruler the samples were later homogenised

into one sample to give better results. The samples

collected was kept in an appropriately labelled

polythene bag and taken to the laboratory for

analysis. Samples collected were analysed for the

presence and quantity of Cadmium (Cd), Iron (Fe),

Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn) and Lead (Pb) as randomly

selected from the list of the top ten heavy metals that

are classified by WHO (2015) as metals of major

environmental concern and are metals that are

contained in most of the chemicals that are apply on

the farms. Some soils physicochemical parameters e.g

moisture content, pH, electrical conductivity and

organic matter of the soil were analysed.

Determination of heavy metals in soil and maize

sample

Sample preparation

The method described by Mathew; Omono;, and

Kakulu (2012) was adapted for sample preparation.

This method involve placing the soil and maize

samples collected on a paper for air drying on bench

after freshly plants, stones and samples were left on

bench for 3-4 days to air dry at room temperature.

The dried soil samples was pounded in a mortar into

a fine powder and passed through a 2mm nylon sieve

and store in small labelled polythene bags. One gram.

About 1.0g of the ground samples was homogenized

and digested with 20mls of 1:1(v/v) concentrated

HNO3 and HCl acids (Analar grade) in 100ml beaker.

The flask was swirled gently and heated in an electro

thermal heater until evolution of white fumes

marking the end of the digestion process. The digest

was then cooled and filtered through whatman No 1

filter paper into 50ml volumetric flask and diluted to

50ml mark with distilled water according to

procedure reported by Pye (2009).

Preparation of standard solution

Standard solutions of the five metals was prepared by

dissolving (1.89g) Lead Sulphate (PbSO4),(4.39g),

Zinc sulphate ZnSO4, (3.93g) ,Copper sulphate CuSO4,

(1.8g), iron sulphate FeSO4and cadmium sulphate

CdSO4 (2.282g) analytical reagent grade in one litre of

deionised water to get standard solution of 1000m/l

Metal determination in the samples

The Five heavy metals (Zinc, Copper, Iron, Lead and

Cadmium) were determined by running the prepared

samples through Atomic Absorption spectrophoto-

meter machine and the absorbance of each sample

was taken in line with method described by (Wagboe

and Hymore, 2001).


3

Calibration curves.

The calibration curve for zinc was plotted with

2.0ppm,4.0ppm, 6.0ppm, 8.0and 10.0 for copper, lead

and cadmium it was plotted with

05ppm,1.0ppm,1.5ppm.2.5ppm and 3.5ppm and

4.5ppm that of iron was plotted with 10ppm,

20pp,30ppm40ppm, and 50pp. The concentration of

the metals in ppm analysed in the sample was

obtained by making reference to the standard curves

Determination of soil physicochemical

parameters

Moisture content analysis

The percentage moisture lost due to drying was

determined in triplicate at a temperature of 1050c for

3hrs using the method of Association of Analytical

Chemist (AOAC, 1990).

Soil particle analysis

Fifty grams (50g) of soil was weighed grinded and

sieve into a small bottle. To the soil 100ml of distilled

water was added and 50ml of sodium chloride was

also added and shaken on a flask shaker for one hour.

The sample was also fragmented further using

motorized mechanical shaker. Each sample was

quantitatively transferred into a sedimentation

cylinder and made up to a 1 litre mark with distil

water. The samples were disturbed by using a

plunger for proper soil suspension. The hydrometer

reading was taken by immersing the hydrometer into

the sample and a stop watch was used to determine

the readings. The temperature of suspension was also

taken in other to measure the percentage of silt and

clay in suspension while the two hours readings

without disturbance was taken to measure the

percentage of clay suspension (Andrés et al., 2014)

Organic Matter content analysis

The organic carbon content of the soil samples will be

determined by the method of American Society for

Testing Materials (ASTM D 2974 – Standard Test

Methods) used by Raluca and Simona (2006) using

titration

pH determination

Genway pH electrode meter was used to determine

the PH of the soil sample in accordance with AOAC

(1990)

Electrical conductivity (EC)

The electrical conductivity of the samples was

determined electrometrically with a calibrated

REXDOB-350 portable electrical conductivity meter.

The electrical conductivity of the sample was read

directly and recorded μS/cm in line with (Herk,

2012)

Table 1: Result and discussion

ANOVA analysis on heavy metals concentration of

soil and maize samples Sources of

Variation

SS Df MS F-

Ratio

F-

critical

Between

Groups

66.29 1 66.29

87.43

4.13

Within

Groups

25.78 34 0.76

Total 92.07 35

P=0.05

The table above shows Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

on soil and maize samples. The table indicated that

the calculated F-value of 87.43 is greater than the

critical value of 4.13. This means that there is no

(statistically) significant difference among the mean

concentration of heavy metals in soil and maize

samples ofAbaji Area Council at 0.05 level of

significance.This means that the higher the

concentration of heavy metals in soil, the higher the

concentration of the metals in maize. This is in line

with a research work by Yintao; Hong; Dan; Yichen;;

Shichao and Jun (2015) that maize is a hyper

accumulator plant and can be used for

phytoremediation of areas that are contaminated

with heavy metals.

Table 2 The comparison of mean rainy season heavy

metals concentration in soil and maize of Abaji area

council with WHO standard. The result showed that

Zn concentration in soil was 3.17, Cu was 0.1, Fe was

40, Pb and Cd was not detected. In paikonbasa Zn was

2.33, Cu was 0.08, Pb was 0.1, Fe was 40.83, Cd was

not detected. In Abaji Zn concentration was 1.75, Cu

was 0.53, Fe was 44.17, Cd and Pb was not detected.

In maize the result in yaba showed that Zn

concentration in yellow maize was 2.5, Cu was 6.2, Pb

was 0.1, Fe was 9.67, Cd was 4.0. In paikonbasa, Zn

concentration in white maize was 2.17, Cu was 0.18,

Pb was 0.1, Fe was 7.5, Cd was 3.22. The result of

heavy metals concentration in yellowmaize

kampam4 of Abaji station showed that Zn

concentration was 2.53, Cu was 0.1, Pb was 0.1, Fe


4

6.83, Cd and Cdwas 4.0. The concentration of the

heavy metals in soil and maize ofAbaji area council

was below the WHO permissible limit except Cd

which was above the WHO, 2000 permissible limit.

However heavy metals concentration was higher in

yellowmaize (kampan 4) compare to white (Rido) in

Abuja. The result of these findings does not support

the assertion by USAID (2015) p that any soil that

fertilizer, herbicides, and pesticides were used for

five years should be tested for heavy metals

contamination .This result also showed that maize

farmlad in Abaji area council was not contaminated

with heavy metals .However.there was evidence of

traces of this heavy metals in the soil which may

build up over time

Table 2: Comparison of the mean raining season heavy metal concentration in soil and maize of Abaji area council

with WHO standard

Location ZINC COPPER LEAD IRON CADMUM

Soil maize Soil Maize Soil maize Soil Maize soil Maize

Yaba/Kampam 4 3.17 2.5 0.1 0.2 ND 0.05 40 9.67 ND 1.5

Paikonbas/Rido 2.33 2.17 0.08 0.18 0.1 0.05 40.83 7.5 ND 1.21

Abaji/Kampam 4 1.75 2.53 0.53 0.1 ND 0.01 44.17 6.83 ND 1.51

WHO STANDARD 73 50 73.5 40 0.3 0.2 99.40 15 0.2 0.05

Figure 1 .The comparison of mean rainy season soil

physiochemical parameters of Abaji area council.

From the figure the result showed that all the

parameters from the three sampling stations were

within the same range. The soil was sandy; PH was

alkali, with low organic matter, moisture and

electrical conductivity

Figure 1. Mean raining season soil physicochemical

parameters in Abaji area council

Conclusion

It is obvious that the soils in Abaji area councils were

not contaminated with heavy metals, especially the

metals analysed .However traces of the metals were

observed at the absorbance level. This means that

there is possibility of the contamination of the soils

by heavy metals over time if the current farming

practice of fertilizer, herbicides, pesticides and other

chemicals continue

Recommendations

1. The use of pesticides, herbicide and fertilizers by

farmers should be discouraged among farmers by

relevant authorities

2. Alternative to the use of these chemicals should be

provided to farmers by relevant organizations or

ministry

1 0.84 7.22

128.1382.03

16.67 1.64 251.83 1.65 6.94

148.6

59.31

31.4714.22

251 2.73 7.43

138.45

76.15

18.485.26

25

%Moisture %OrganicMatter

PH EC ms/cm %Sand %Silt %Clay TEMP.

Yaba P/Basa AbajiKEY:


5

References

Demira .k, A., Yilmaz. F., Tuna A.L.Ozdemir, N and

Khairul N.I (2006). Heavy Metal Concentration in

water, sediment and tissues of

Leuciscuscephalus from a stream in

southwestern Turkey Chemoshere 63, 1451-

1458,

Khairul N. I, Zaida R Y, Amelia M.d, Som ,N R, Nurul A

M, Rahaiza, EOthman, N. A,Burok Y M, Yunos R

O, Tengku F T Y (2015) Heavy Metal

Concentration (Pb,Cu,Fe,Zn,Ni) in Plant Parts of

Zea Mays L. Cultivated in Agricultural Area Near

Alor Gajah, Melaka, Malaysia American Journal of

Environmental Engineering 5(3A): 8-12DOI:

10.5923/c.ajee.201501.02

Mathew A, Omono C,and Kakulu S (2012) comparison

of digestion methods for the determination of

metal levels in soils in

Itakpe,KogiState,Nigeria International Journal of

Pure and Applied Science and Technology 13(2)

42-48

Nagajyoti, P.C., Lee K.D, andSreekamh S.V.M. (2010)

“Heavy metals, occurrence and toxicity for

plants: a review”, Environment, Chemical

Letters, (8), 199-216,.

Nodelkoska T.V. and P.M. Doran, “Characteristics of

heavy metal by plant species with potential for

phytoremediation and phytomining”, Minerals

Engineering 5, 549-56, 2000.[14]

Prasanna, B. M., Vasal S. K: Kasshm B.Kand Singh N.

N.(2001) Quality Protein Maize”, Current Science

Journal, 10, 1308–1319,

Wang J. C. and Chen, B (2009) Biosorbents for heavy

metals removal and their future”, Journal of

Biotechnology advances, Research review, China.

Elsevier,

Yintao,L,1 Hong Y, Dan S, Yichen J, Shichao Z, and Jun

Y,(2015).Heavy Metal Residues in Soil and

Accumulation in Maize at Long-Term

Wastewater Irrigation Area in Tongliao, China

Journal of Chemistry Available online Article

ID628280, 9pageshttp ://dx .doi .org/ 10. 1155/

2015/628280


6

TEACHERS’ CHARACTERISTICS AND DISCIPLINARY PROBLEMS IN PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN SOUTH-

WEST, NIGERIA

Alabi, F. O.

Department of Educational Management, Adekunle Ajasin University,

Akungba-Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria

Abstract

This paperinvestigated Teachers’ characteristics and disciplinary problems in public primary schools in South-West Nigeria. The research design adopted for the study was a descriptive type. The population for the study comprised all the public primary school teachers and their heads in the South-Western geo-political Zone of Nigeria, the sample for study consistedof 48 head teachers and 240 teachers selected through multi-stage, stratifiedand purposive sampling techniques. A research design questionnaire titled “Teachers Characteristics and Disciplinary Problems Questionnaire” (TCDPQ) was used to obtain necessary information from the respondents. The questionnaire was subjected to face and content validity by colleagues and pilot tested specifically for the study. The reliability co-efficient was 0.80. The researcher personally administered the questionnaire and 218 responses representing 90.8 percent return was achieved for analysis. The findings of the study revealed that more males than females are into teaching profession. Also, the two major identifiable disciplinary problems in public primary schools are; (i) pupils are often absent from schools in the first two weeks of resumption for a new academic term or session and (ii) examination malpractices are common. Based on the findings, it is recommended among other things that: (i) teachers should create an ethical school climate that can reduce indiscipline such as examination malpractices and (ii) manpower planning approach should be employed in the recruitment of staff into the teaching force.

Key words: Teachers, Characteristics, Disciplinary Problems, Public Primary Schools, South-west, Nigeria

Introduction

In Nigerian educational institutions, primary,

secondary or tertiary, the incidence of indiscipline is

common. It has, for the past decades generated

serious concern among parents, educators, policy

makers and government due to the extreme

disciplinary problems evident in moral degradation

and economic disasters that have characterized

Nigerian societies. The thinking is that education is

the gateway to achieving a nation’s aims and

aspirations, so whatever disciplinary problems

observed in schools has carry over effects in the

world of work and in governance. According to

Timothy, in Ali, Dada, Isiaka and Salmon (2014),

indiscipline is the opposite of discipline. According to

them, indiscipline refers to any act that contradicts

the societal value and norms. In the school system,

any act that runs contrary to school rules and

regulations and could hinder effective and efficient

realization of the school goals.

Considerable search attention have focused on causes

of indiscipline particularly in secondary schools and

tertiary institutions in Nigeria with the student factor

taking the Lion’s share. This is aptly expressed in Ali

et al (2014) definition of indiscipline as “an act, habit

or behavior exhibited by the learners or students

within the school premises and outside the school

which attract condemnation (instead of praise) by

the public/or the school staff”. There has been little

or no consideration for research work on the school’s

disciplinary disposition in relation to the teacher’s

characteristics particularly at the primary school

level. The thinking is perhaps as a result of what

Onyali (2014) observed that primary schools

encounter fewer forms of indiscipline than secondary

and tertiary institutions. Whereas the primary school

is the bedrock of the Universal Basic Education (UBE)

(FRN, 2004) upon which the quantum of the entire

body of knowledge, skills and competence at the

senior secondary schools and tertiary institutions

rests. A sound primary education, as Obidike (2014)

notes, is a prerequisite not only to sound secondary


7

education and tertiary education but to continuing

education which is life-long. Moreover, children at

the level of primary schools in Nigeria are usually

within age 6 and 12, thus are in their formative age.

This stage of their development coincides with Jean

Piaget operational stage of cognitive development. So

whatever virtue learnt at this stage of human life is

enduring.

It is widely believed that the essence of any school

organization with regard to maintenance of discipline

is defined majorly by its teachers, as the mirror image

of the student and the singular most critical change

agent in the education industry, it is an

incontrovertible fact that a teacher can only teach

what he knows and has the ability, experience and

enablement for dissemination. These teachers

everywhere are not the same. Obviously, they are

human beings that vary in terms of age, gender,

educational qualifications, marital status and cognate

experience, hence varying work behavior

(Ivancevick, Konopaske & Matteson, 2011). This

perhaps, explains why some parents, guardians

prefer certain teachers for their children/wards in

the school especially for effective teaching and

positive character development. This study is

therefore out to examine teacher’s characteristics

and disciplinary problems in Nigerian primary

schools. The teacher’s characteristics in this study are

those demographic variables such as age, sex,

teaching qualifications, cognate experience and

marital status which teachers bring into work place.

Statement of the Problem

There has been growing quest for character and

moral development education through schooling that

will produce responsible individuals in Nigeria as

evident in the stipulates of the NPE and several

curricular reforms at the various levels of the nation’s

education industry. Unfortunately, this quest has

remained a forlorn hope as cases of truancy,

absenteeism, sex offence, drug abuses, cultism,

examination malpractices, stealing, disobedience and

the likes have sadly, continued to be on the increase

even at the primary school level, which represents

the foundational level upon which all other levels of

the country’s educational development and even, the

work and leadership behaviour at societal level rests.

Worse still, in the series of research work on the

incidence of indiscipline in Nigerian schools, teacher

factor appears overlooked as they too are not left out

among the stakeholders that express their worries

and condemnation on the ugly disciplinary sceneries.

Therefore, it is pertinent to investigate teachers’

disciplinary disposition alongside variations in their

age, marital status, educational qualifications and

teaching experience in Nigerian primary schools.

Purpose of the Study

The study examined the characteristics of teachers in

South-westNigerian public primary schools. Also, the

study investigated the level of indiscipline in South–

west Nigerian public primary schools. The study also

identified the major disciplinary problems

experienced in South-west Nigerian public primary

schools.

Research Questions

1. What are the teachers’ characteristics of

teachers in public primary schools in South-

west Nigeria?

2. What are the major disciplinary problems

experienced in public primary schools in

South-west Nigeria?

3. What is the level of teacher indiscipline in

public primary schools in South-west

Nigeria?

Assumption

It is assumed that a teacher must be self-disciplined

to be able to enforce discipline in his students. An

undisciplined teacher presumed to be the parent of

his/her pupils and therefore is responsible for the

complete upbringing of the pupils will breed

indiscipline pupils and invariably indiscipline future

leaders.

Methodology

The study adopted the descriptive research design.

The researcher collected information that describes

teachers’ characteristics as well as the disciplinary

problems in public primary schools in Nigeria. The

target population consists all public primary school

teachers and their heads in the south-western geo-

political zone of Nigeria, consisting of six states

namely: Lagos, Ondo, Ogun, Oyo, Osun and Ekiti

states. The sample for this study consisted of 48 head

teachers and 192 teachers selected through multi-

stage, stratified and purposive sampling techniques.

At the first stage, 4 states namely: Ondo, Oyo, Ogun

and Osun were selected out of the 6 states in the

study area through simple random sampling


8

technique. In stage two, each of the 4 sampled states

were stratified into 3 senatorial districts (North,

Central and South) making a total of 12 senatorial

districts. In stage three, 4 public primary schools

were selected from each senatorial district through

stratified and purposive sampling technique to reflect

urban and rural setting as well as variations in

teachers’ demographic variables, thus making a total

of 48 schools. In stage four, 5 teachers handling

primary one to five in each school were purposively

selected to be evaluated by their head teachers,

making a total of 240 subjects. The rationale for using

the head teachers’ perception of their teachers’

disciplinary disposition was that they, as accounting

officers in their schools were believed to provide

realistic responses as regards the disciplinary

dispositions of their teachers.

A strong limitation to the study was the reluctance of

some of the Head teachers to complete the appraisal

instrument of some of their teachers.

A research instrument titled “Teachers’

Characteristics and Disciplinary Problems

Questionnaire” (TCDPQ) was designed by the

researcher to gather information. It consisted of

three sections, A, B and C. Section A consisted of

items seeking information on the respondents

demographic variables (age, sex, marital status,

educational qualification and teaching experience);

section B probed the disciplinary problems that are

prevalent in primary schools while section C

contained items that probed the respondents’

perception of the level of indiscipline. The

questionnaire was subjected to face and content

validity by colleagues and pilot tested specifically for

the study. The reliability coefficient was 0.80.

The researcher personally administered the

questionnaire to all the respondents in their

respective schools during the school hours. The

administration of the questionnaire was carried out

by the researcher with the assistance of a research

assistant. The selected teachers were instructed to

complete the section A of the questionnaire

administered on them and collected on the spot. The

questionnaires were then taken to the

headmaster/headmistress of each school to complete

the B and C aspect of the questionnaire for objectivity

sake because it bothers on character (value)

appraisal. In all, 218 responses representing 90.8

percent return rate was achieved.

Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the

research questions. The statistical techniques

employed for the collected data varied in accordance

with the nature of research questions for the study.

Tables, frequency counts and mean scores were used

to answer the three research questions (1, 2 and 3)

the decision rule was determined by a criterion mean

of 2.50 which was derived from the values assigned

to the response value. Therefore any item with mean

of 2.50 and above is positive while any one with

mean below 2.50 is negative.

Findings

Research Question 1: What are the teachers’

characteristics in public primary schools in South-

western Nigeria?

Table 1

Descriptive Analysis of Teachers’ Characteristics in

Public Primary Schools in South-west Nigeria Variables Level Frequency Percentage

% Gender Male

Female Total

70 148 218

32.11% 67.89 % 100 %

Age 18 – 25 26 – 35 36 – 45 46 and above Total

30 53 71 64 218

13.76 24.31 33.81 29.36 100

Marital status Single Married Widow/Widower Divorced Total

42 160 10 6 218

19.27 73. 40 4.59 2.10 100

Highest Educational Qualification

NCE HND Bachelor’s Degree/HND+PGDE Master’s Degree Doctoral Degree Total

113 - 99 6 - 218

51.84 - 45.41 2.10 - 100

Teaching Experience

Less than 10 years 10-19 years 20-29 years 30 years and above Total

14 76 104 24 218

6.42 34.86 47.71 11.01 100

From Table 1, it is shown that 32 percent of the

participants were male while 68 percent were

females. 34 percent of the participants were aged 36-

45 years, while another 29 percent were 46 years old

and above. Fewer participants were between 18 and

25 years and between 26-35 years that is, 14 percent

and 24 percent respectively. Thus, aged teachers 36-

45 years and 45+ years constituted a total of 63

percent of the respondents.


9

In regard to marital status, 19 percent of the

participants were single, 73 percent were married

while just 5 percent were widow/widower and 2

percent were divorced.

As to teaching experience, 6 percent of the

respondents had between 1 and 10 years of

experience, 35 percent had 10-19 years, 48 percent

had between 20-29 years, while 11 percent had 30

years and above.

Concerning highest educational qualification of the

respondents, large majority had National Certificate

of Education (NCE) and bachelor’s degree/Higher

National Diploma (HND) + Post Graduate Diploma in

Education (PGDE) 52 percent and 45 percent

respectively while fewer respondents, 3 percent had

Masters Degree, there were no respondents with

HND or Doctoral Degree.

From the percentage ratings discussion of the

characteristics of the respondents, it is obvious that

there are more female teachers (58%) than male

(42%).

Also, older teachers represented by those between

36-45 years and 46 years and above far outweigh the

younger ones (25 years and below, and 26 -35 years).

This portends dangerous succession signal in the

school as the few new entrants may not match the

vacuum that will be created by the exit of the more

experienced retirees in the near future. Moreover,

there is the possibility of high rate of graduate

unemployment with regard to teaching profession

whereas the rational quest for globalization with

regard to science, information communication

technology and entrepreneurship education requires

more new professionals in the education industry.

Also, the vast majority of the respondents (73%) are

married while 19 percent are single, the remaining 5

percent and 2 percent are widows/widowers and

divorced respectively.

Research Question 2: What are the major

disciplinary problems experienced in public primary

schools in South-west Nigeria?

Table 2: Major Disciplinary Problems experienced in Public Primary Schools in South-west Nigeria

ITEM SA A D SD TOTAL MEAN 1. There is frequent cases of bullying and fighting among

pupils 16 34 69 99 403 1.85

2. Stealing is rampant among pupils in the schools 18 56 55 89 439 2.01 3. Truancy is common among students 34 39 55 90 441 2.02 4. Pupils here flout school rules and regulations with

impunity 18 36 65 99 409 1.88

5. There is frequent cases of impudence or assault of teachers by pupils or parents

21 30 67 100 408 1.87

6. Sex offences like having sex within the school or possessing of pornographic literature or films are common in the school

11 18 101 88 388 1.78

7. Suicide cases are rampant in the school 04 16 33 165 295 1.35 8. Pupils are often absent from school in the first two

weeks of resumption for a new term 101 67 25 25 680 3.12

9. There is frequent cases of willful destruction of school properties of other colleagues in the school

30 35 56 89 426 2.03

10. Drug offences like cigarettes, Indian hemp are rampant in the school

36 40 78 64 484 2.22

11. Cultism is common among pupils 31 34 58 87 429 2.04 12. Examination malpractices are common in the school 50 69 64 35 570 2.61

Grand Mean 2.07

Table 2 reveals that out of 12 items on the

disciplinary problems experienced in public primary

schools in South-west Nigeria, the respondents

agreed to 2 items and disagreed to 10 items.

Therefore, it is shown that pupils are always absent

from school in the first two weeks of resumption for a

new term and examination malpractices are common


10

in the schools. However, the grand mean of 2.07 is an

evidence that the problems experienced in these

primary schools as highlighted in table 3 are minimal.

Research Question 3: What is the level of teacher

indiscipline in public primary schools in South-west

Nigeria?

Table 3: Mean Rating of the Level of Teachers’ Indiscipline in Public Primary Schools in South-west Nigeria

Item Very

High

High Low Very

Low

Total Mean

1. Level of flouting of school rules and regulations with

impunity

20 32 66 100 408 1.87

2. Level of involving bias in introducing and enforcing

class rules

60 68 58 32 592 2.72

3. Level of involvement in smoking or alcoholism 26 39 60 93 434 1.99

4. Level of insubordination to the school administrator 18 36 65 99 409 1.88

5. Level of display of lackadaisical attitude towards

student welfare and safety needs

15 30 70 103 398 1.83

6. Level of dereliction to duty (not punctual or accepting

responsibility)

42 65 66 45 540 2.5

7. Level of lack of concern to extracurricular activities 34 39 55 90 441 2.02

8. Level of rough and indecent dressing 22 28 65 103 405 1.86

9. Level of involvement in leakage of examination

questions to students

12 22 75 109 373 1.71

10. Level of involvement in illicit relationship with his/her

students

18 36 65 99 409 1.88

11. Level of carelessness about school plant maintenance 78 86 31 23 655 3.0

12. Level of making or receiving phone calls while teaching

in the class.

46 66 59 47 547 2.51

Grand Mean 2.15

Table 3 shows that the level of teacher indiscipline

was high on 4 items while it was low on 8 items out

of the 12 items listed on the level of teacher

indiscipline in public primary schools in South-west

Nigeria. However, the grand mean 2.15 suggests that

generally, the level of teacher indiscipline in public

primary schools in South-west Nigeria was low.

Discussion of Findings

Indiscipline has continued to be the concern of all

right-thinking individuals with regard to the

operation of educational principles and practices in

Nigeria; education presumed to be the determinant of

the future destiny of the individual and invariably the

society at large. While energies are being dissipated

in the direction of other stakeholders – government,

students, parents and the society in general apart

from the teacher- in finding out the causes and

solution to the problems of indiscipline in Nigerian

schools, the aspect of the teacher factor seems

overlooked perhaps on the belief that teachers are

always right. The present study x-rays scholarly,

teachers’ characteristics and indiscipline in public

primary schools in South-west Nigeria.

The findings from research question one revealed

that 32 percent of the participants were male while

68 percent were females. This is in consonance with

Ivancevich et al.’s view that jobs can be gender

stereotyped. While some jobs like nurses and

teachers are “female”, some others like electricians

are “male”. Also, a total of 63.17% of the respondents

are 36 years and above while 36.83% falls below 35

years of age. The implication is that the disproportion

of younger workers to older workers will herald

succession incongruence in the near future and there

will be occurrence of young graduate unemployment

in the labour market.

The findings that overwhelming majority are married

should be expected because of the presence of more

teachers in the marriageable age category in the

teaching force. This shows that marital status of


11

people seems to be a factor stimulating teaching

drive. This is consistent with the earlier finding of

Oluwanife (2015) that marital status of the

entrepreneurs is a factor stimulating

entrepreneurship drive among entrepreneurs in

Ondo State. This finding also corroborates Zatran and

Zawitz (2007) who posited that certain distinct roles

and behaviours of men and women in a given culture

are dictated by that culture’s gender norms and

values.

Findings from research question three shows that of

the 12 identifiable problems examined in public

primary schools in South-west Nigeria, 2 are

significant that is (pupils are often absent from

schools in the first two weeks of resumption for a

new termand examination malpractices are common

in the school. The reason for the first stated

identifiable disciplinary problem could be the

practice of using the first week of resumption for the

new academic term to subject pupils to clean up the

school surroundings that would have been untidy

after some weeks of vacation which they (pupils) are

trying to avoid.

Conclusion

Flowing from the assumption in Nigerian parlance

that “like teacher like pupils” and therefore, a

disciplined teacher would more likely produce

disciplined pupils and vice versa. This paper, through

the review of related literature and descriptive

analysis of the survey type has been able to establish

low level of acts of indiscipline among teachers in

Nigeria primary schools. However, certain acts of

indiscipline such as making phone calls during

classes and carelessness in school plant maintenance

are notable.

Recommendations

1. Teachers should behave in a fair, ethical and

courteous manner in order to reduce the

incidence of indiscipline in schools.

2. Teachers should create an ethical school climate

that can reduce indiscipline such as examination

malpractices.

3. Concerted effort and attendance strategies such

as opening test for students in the first week of

resumption should be instituted in our public

primary schools to guide against students staying

away from school in the first week of resumption.

4. The school principal should be proactive and

aggressive in enlightening the parents on the

needs to join hands with the school to release

and monitor the resumption of their

children/wards whenever the school resumes for

a new session/term.

5. Young teachers should be recruited into the

teaching force to forestall the probability of

occurrence of succession difficulty in the event of

retirement of old workers.

References

Ali, A. A., Dada, I. T., Isiaka, G. A., & Salmon, S. A. (2014). Types, causes and management of indiscipline acts among secondary school students in Shomolu local government area of Lagos state. Journal of Studies in Social Sciences, 8(2), 254 – 287.

Federal Republic of Nigeria. (2004). National policy on education. Lagos: NERDC Press.

Ivancevich, J. M., Konopaske, R., & Matteson, M. T. (2011). Organizational behavior and management. New York: McGraw Hill.

Obidike, N. D. (2014). Administration and control of primary school education in Nigeria. In G. O. Unachukwu & P. N. Okorji (Eds.), Educational management: A skill building approach (pp. 653–671). Anambra, Nigeria: Rex Charles & Patrick Limited.

Oluwanife, M. S. (2015). Demographic factors influencing entrepreneurship drive among entrepreneurs in Ondo State. AAUA Journal of Developing Institutional and Human Capacity, 1(1), 90 – 99.

Onyali, L. C. (2014). School discipline. In G. O. Unachukwu & P. N. Okorji (Eds.), Educational management: A skill building approach. (pp 231–254) Anambra: Rex Charles & Patrick Limited.

Zafran, A., & Zawitz (2007). Gender roles and sex roles. Retrieved from http://www. academics.tjhsst.edu

http://www/


12

QUALITY ASSURANCE AND JOB PERFORMANCE OF ACADEMIC STAFF IN PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES IN

SOUTHWEST NIGERIA

Arogundade, B. B., Fakunle, A. F. and Adetule O. Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education,

Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti.

Abstract

The study examined the relationship between quality assurance and job performance of academic staff in public universities in Southwest Nigeria. The study was a descriptive research design of the survey type. A sample of 500 lecturers were selected using simple random and proportionate sampling technique. The instruments used to collect data was questionnaire titled Quality Assurance and Job Performance of Academic Staff Questionnaire (QAJPASQ). The instrument was validated and had reliability coefficient of 0.82. The three hypotheses formulated were tested using Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation at 0.05 level of significance. The study revealed that there was a significant relationship between educational facilities and academic staff job performance. It was also revealed that there was significant relationship between funding and academic staff job performance. The study revealed a significant relationship between quality assurance and job performance of academic staff. Based on the findings, it was recommended that government should increase funding in public universities in Nigeria, this will enhance better facilities and high quality academic staff. This will reduce the frequent industrial actions by university workers.

Keywords: Quality Assurance, Job Performance, Academic Staff, Qualified Staff

Introduction

Education has been described as the bedrock of every

society and tool for nation building. For quality

education to be achieved in a nation the principal

agents of learning who are academic staffs, students

and conducive environment must be properly

organized. The academic staff must be adequate in

quality and quantity and facilities must be provided

as well. The key to efficient and effective education

system depend on the ability of the academic staff to

perform excellently. The Federal Republic of Nigeria

(2013) in the National Policy on Education states that

the goals of tertiary education shall be to contribute

to national development through high level of

relevant manpower training; to develop and inculcate

proper values to the survival of the individual and

society; to also develop the intellectual capacity of

individuals to be self-reliant and useful members of

the society.

In recent times, it has been observed that the level of

job performance of academic staff in universities has

become worrisome. It appears academic staff that are

expected to provide sound educated future leaders

are no more dedicated and committed to their

primary assignment, that is teaching, research and

community services. Some are fond of engaging

themselves in others services that are likely to fetch

them personal gains, when they actually suppose to

pay adequate attention to students. The problem has

been attributed to inadequate funding, facilities,

motivation, staff development and shortage of

qualified staff.


In recent times, the level of job performance of

academic staff in public universities in Southwest

Nigeria was becoming worrisome to educational

stakeholders. There is concern about the manner in

which the system is loosing its confidence as regards

the effective and efficient nature of the system.

It appears that the perceived low level of job

performance of academic staff in the area of lectures

delivery skills, release of results and research

publications may be attributed to quantity and

quality of academic staff, poor educational facilities

and inadequate funding of tertiary education. Hence,

this study tends to examine the relationship between

quality assurance and job performance of academic

staff in public universities in Southwest Nigeria.


13

Research Hypotheses

1. There is no significant relationship between

quality assurance and job performance of

academic staff.


quality of academic staff and their job

performance.


educational facilities and job performance of

academic staff.


funding and job performance of academic

staff

The Concept of Quality Assurance in University

The aim of the quality assurance in university system

is to guarantee the improvement of standards and

quality in university education in order to make

higher education meet the needs of students,

employers and financers (Lomas, 2002).It involves a

systematic procedures of verifying that education is

meeting the specified conditions requisite to the

actualization of its goals (Archibong, 2013). For

instance, teaching that is internally measured and

evaluated at a given university, and also measured

and evaluated externally during an accreditation

process are to ensures that quality assurance

principles are used as an indicators to ensure

compliance. Since quality assurance issues concern

all institutional responsibility and activities by

considering the specific characteristics of each area;

universities must therefore maintain the highest

international quality standards as benchmarks and

apply them to all areas of university activities all

these include research, teaching, quality educational

facilities, funding as well as in university

administration (Adu – Oppong, 2012).

Quality of education is often considered an

indefinable construct that is nebulous and at best

abstract. Quality assurance has to do with the process

of education. Quality assurance refers to deliberate,

evidence – based strategies and processes of

satisfying quality expectations. This is based on the

processes, environment and product (Okebukola,

2010; Okojie, 2013). In the same vein, Arikewuyo

(2004) sees quality in education as the ability of the

students to perform well in standard examinations

and relevance to the needs of individuals, community

and the society as a whole. He finally concludes that

quality serves as determination of gradations based

on standards of excellence beneath which a mark of

inferiority is imposed or adduced and above which

grades of superiority are defined.NPE(2004) stated

that quality assurance policy in Nigeria is concerned

with eight components of quality standards which

are :teaching and learning environment, leadership

and management, curriculum and other activities,

care ,guidance and support, learner’s welfare and

participation and school community relationship.

Quality assurance in education refers to conformity

to general accepted academic standards as defined by

an institution. it focuses on quality of input, process

and output of the educational system.

Quality Assurance and Job Performance

As the quality of university education comes under

serious criticism from various stakeholders in recent

years, it has become necessary for both internal and

external mechanisms to be deployed to control

education quality. The university academic staff is

considered central to the quality process. The

European Trade Union Committee for Education

General Assembly (2001) concedes that education is

a complex process whose outcome is the result of the

interplay of several factors. In other words, the

teacher and teaching are central to issues of

education quality. The National Policy on Education

(2004) clearly states that “no educational system can

rise above the qualities of its teachers”. Ajayi and

Ekundayo (2008) therefore concluded that teachers

are responsible for ensuring positive changes in the

lives of students.

Similarly, Adegbesan (2011) opined at the pivotal

role of teachers in ensuring educational quality.

Therefore the author observes that a nation can only

achieve quality education if the various actors such as

academic staff, students and the environment are

well organized. In other words, the academic staff

must be adequate in quality and quantity, facilities

must be provided as well and adequate funds must be

allocated to the university system. Consequently, this

paper examines the relationship between quality

assurance and job performance of academic staff in

public universities in Southwest Nigeria. Ajayi(2000)

emphasized on the need for the availability of

physical materials in the school system in order to

boost teachers job performance which would

invariably enhance academic performance of the

students.


14

However, owing to the roles of NUC, it is express that

the quality of university education across the country

would have been improved in terms of having

building that are conducive to learning, adequate

lecture rooms that are well-equipped, adequate and

well equipped libraries and furniture. it is also

expected that universities would be well funded and

adequately staffed with qualified lecturers. But the

reverse is the case, Obemeata (1995) observed that if

all these factors, which indications of quality, are

provided in universities, it is expected that quality as

well as attainment of the objective of university

education will be high and achieved which will

invariably improve the job performance of academic

staff in public universities in south west Nigeria..

Methodology

The study adopted a descriptive survey research

design. The sample for the study consisted of five

hundred academic staff from ten universities in

Southwest, Nigeria were randomly selected for the

study using proportionate random sampling

techniques. Six research assistants were employed to

administer questionnaires titled Quality Assurances

Variables of Job Performance of Academic Staff

(QAVJPAS) to collect data for the study. The

instrument was validated by experts and test – retest

method of reliability was adopted with reliability co –

efficient 0.76. This was considered high.

The data collected were analyzed using Pearson

Product Moment Correlation. The hypotheses

formulated were tested at 0.05 level of significance.

Hypothesis 1: There is no significant relationship between quality assurance and job performance of academic staff.

Table 1: Relationship between quality assurance and

job performance.

Variable N Mean SD rcal rtab Quality Assurance

500 53.36 11.46 0.729*

0.195

Job performance

500 52.54 9.02

Significant p < 0.05

Table 1 reveals that rcal(0.729) is greater than

rtab(0.195) at 0.05 level of significance. The null

hypothesis is rejected. This implies that there is

significant relationship between quality assurance

and job performance among academic staff.

Hypothesis 2: There is no significant relationship

between quality of academic staff and their job

performance.

Table 2: Relationship between quality of academic

staff and their Job Performance.

Variable N Mean SD rcal rtab

Qualified

lecturers

500 8.53 1.21

0.638*

0.195

Job

performance

500 20.00 1.70





significant relationship between quality of academic

staff and job performance among academic staff.


between educational facilities and job

performance of academic staff in public

universities in Southwest Nigeria

Table 3: Relationship between Educational facilities

and Job Performance


Educational

facilities

500 14.88 8.46

0.435*

0.195

Job

performance

500 52.54 9.02


Table 3 reveals that rcal (0.435) is greater than rtab

(0.195) at 0.05 level of significance. The null


significant relationship between educational facilities

and job performance among academic staff.


between funding and job performance of

academic staff in public universities in Southwest

Nigeria

Table 4: Relationship between Funding and Job

Performance of academic staff


Funding 500 15.95 3.15

0.567*

0.195 Job

performance

500 52.54 9.02

* p < 0.05


15

Table 4 revealed that rcal(0.567) is greater than



significant relationship between funding and job

performance of academic staff.

Discussion

The study showed that there was significant

relationship between the quality assurance and their

job performance. The findings agree with Obemeata

(1995) that if all these factors, which indications of

quality, are provided in universities, it is expected

that quality as well as attainment of the objective of

university education will be high and achieved which

will invariably improve the job performance of

academic staff in public universities in south west

Nigeria..


relationship between the quality of academic staff

and their job performance. The findings agree with

Okojie (2013) that the number of qualified lecturers

is a crucial factor in university quality assurance.

The study also showed that there was significant

relationship between educational facilities and job

performance of academic staff. The finding agrees

with Owuamanam and Owuamanam (2008) that

facilities form one of the potent factors that

contribute to academic achievement in the university

system.


relationship between funding and job performance of

academic staff. The findings also agree with Umoh

(2002) who identified funding as an aspect that must

be looked into if the quality of university education

must be improved in the country. Adegbesan (2011)

and Okojie (2013) opined that funding is at the core

of achieving quality education in terms of input,

process and output.

Conclusion and Recommendation

Based on the findings of the study, it was concluded

that quality assurance in terms of qualified academic

staff, educational facilities and funding were

determinants of job performance of academic staff in

public universities in Southwest Nigeria. It was

therefore recommended that government should

increased funding of public universities in Southwest

Nigeria. This will enhance better provisions of

educational facilities in universities and qualified

academic staff. This will reduce the frequent

industrial actions by universities workers.

References

Adegbesan, S. O. (2011). Establishing Quality

Assurance in Nigeria Education System:

Implication for Educational Managers,

Educational Research and Reviews, 6(2), 147 –

151. Retrieved from

http://www.academicjournals.org/ERRISSN.19

90-3839.

Adu – Oppong, A. A. (2012). Managing Quality in

Academic Institutions. Unpublished Thesis

Chartered Institute of Administrators and

Management Consultant – Ghana, 2012.

Ajayi,I.A(2000).Cost Analysis in Education topical

issues in research and Education. in institute of

education occasional publications. university of

Ado-Ekiti,Nigeria,pp:43

Ajayi, I. A. and Ekundayo, H. T. (2008). The

Deregulation of University Education in Nigeria:

Implications for Quality Assurance Nebula; 5(4),

218.

Archibong, I. A. (2013). Strengthening Internal

Quality Assurance for Improved Education

Delivery in Nigeria Public Universities. Research

on Humanities and Social Sciences, Vol. 3, No. 1,

172 – 177.

Arikewuyo, M. O. (2004). Effective Funding and

Quality Assurance in Nigeria Education System.

A Paper presented at the 1st National Conference

of the Institute of Education, Olabisi Onabanjo

University, Ago – Iwoye, Jan. pp. 12 – 15.

European Trade Union Committee for Education

General Assembly (2001). Indicators and

Benchmarks on Quality of School Education.

Retrieved from http://etuce.homestead.com/

publication_until_2004/2000/etuce_rep_quality

_2000_eng.pdf

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013). National Policy

on Education, 6th Edition, Yaba, Lagos, NERDC

Press.

Lomas, L. (2002). Does the Development of Mass

Education Necessarily Mean the End of Quality.

Quality in Higher Education, Vol. 8, No. 1.

Obemeata,J.O.(1995).Education: An Unprofitable

Industry in Nigeria. postgraduate school

http://www.academicjournals.org/ERRISSN.1990-3839

http://www.academicjournals.org/ERRISSN.1990-3839

http://etuce.homestead.com/


16

Interdisciplinary Research Discourse University

of Ibadan, Ibadan.

Okebukola, P. (2010). Fifty years of Higher Education

in Nigeria: Trends in Quality Assurance. A Paper

presented at the International Conference on

the Contribution of Nigerian Universities to the

50th Independence Anniversary of Nigeria, 27th –

29th September.

Okojie, J. (2013). Quality Assurance and the

Challenges of Mandate Delivery in Nigerian

Universities, Paper presented at the Lagos State

University, Lagos, Nigeria, 18th Convocation

Lecture; 19th February.

Owuamanam, D. O & Owuamanam.T.O.(2008).

Sustaining Academic Progress through Objective

Evaluation of Research in Nigeria.College

Teaching Methods and Styles Journal,4(8).27-31.

Umoh, M. O. (2002). Reducing Teachers Instructional

Deficiencies in some Content Area of the Senior

Secondary School, Biology for Sustainable

Development. Proceedings of the 43rd Annual

Conference of STAN and Inaugural Conference

of CASTME Africa of STAN (pp. 219 – 223).

Wahlen, S. (1998). Is There a Scandinavian Model of

Education of Higher Education? Higher

Education Management, Vol. 10, No. 3.


17

THE ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF CHAOTIC DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS BEHAVIOUR

1Owolabi, K.I and 2Gwary, T. M. 1Department of Psychology

F.C.T. College of Education, Zuba-Abuja 2Department of Mathematics, University of Abuja, Nigeria

Abstract

Many natural and social systems including climate, temperature, population growth, planetary motion and even the

stock and financial derivatives market exhibit chaotic dynamical systems behavior. The objective of the paper is to

present an overview of some chaotic dynamical systems that have been economic benefits. Specifically we wish to

discuss chaotic dynamical systems models in natural and social sciences especially in physics, climatology and

economics that have economic significance. Prominent among the chaotic models are the following: Henri Poincare’s

model of planetary motion, Edward Lorenz model of convection currents, foreign exchange chaotic model in economics

and bank account time evolution system.

Key Words: dynamical system, Henri Poincare; Edward Lorenz; Butterfly effect; foreign exchange; bank account.

Introduction

A key feature of non-linear dynamical systems is

chaotic behavior. To explain, analyze and understand

chaotic behavior in both natural and artificial

systems we use the mathematics of chaos theory.

Chaos theory is a scientific discipline which is focused

on the study of nonlinear systems, which are

generally complex and unpredictable (Brian, 1993).

The cause of unpredictability in nonlinear systems is

extreme sensitivity to initial conditions-what is

referred to as the butterfly effect. The concept means

that with a complex non-linear system, very small

changes in the starting conditions of a system will

result in dramatically different and large changes in

the outputs for that system. Chaos theory describes

complex motion and the dynamics of sensitive

systems.

Chaotic systems are mathematically deterministic but

nearly impossible to predict. Chaos is more evident in

long-term systems than in short-term systems.

Behavior in chaotic systems is a periodic, meaning

that no variable describing the state of the system

undergoes a regular repetition of values. A chaotic

system can actually evolve in a way that appears to

be smooth and ordered, however. Chaos refers to the

issue of whether or not it is possible to make accurate

long-term predictions of any system if the initial

conditions are known to an accurate degree.

Source: Lorenz, (1963)

Fig 1: Chaotic systems, in this case a fractal, can appear

to be smooth and ordered.

As a result of sensitivity to initial conditions like

initial position and velocity the French

mathematician Henri Poincare concluded that he

could not predict the trajectories of planets in the

solar system including the earth (Hofbauer and Karl

1984). The uncertainty in the movement of the earth

in Poincare’s model contributes to unpredictability in


18

climate change. In the same way the American

meteorologist Edward Lorenz discovered that a

simple model of heat convection possesses intrinsic

unpredictability (Lorenz, 1993). The two models

showed that long term weather forecasting is

impossible. The foreign exchange model is extremely

sensitive to initial conditions and also possesses

intrinsic unpredictability and fluctuation.

Review of Chaos Theory and Areas of Applications

Chaos is an unpredictable behavior occurring in a

deterministic system (Alligood, Sauer and York,

1996). Chaos which is caused by extreme sensitivity

to initial conditions in the parameters of a system

explains the complexity, the dual unpredictability and

determinism in a lot of physical and social systems.

Chaos was described as an enigma encased in a

puzzle (Ajala, 2002) probably because the concept is

still an intriguing phenomenon in science. The

chaotic models that could be used to explain climate

change and global warming are the planetary model

of Henri Poincare for the solar system and the

weather convection currents model of Edward

Lorenz as explored in the exposition by (Cambel,

1993) and (Field and Martin, 1992). Poincare’s work

on the solar system studies the position and

trajectories of planets including the earth. Poincare

used geometrical methods to give better

understanding of the complexity and chaoticity of

nonlinear dynamical systems like the solar system.

The position, inclination and movement of the earth

with respect to the sun is unpredictable in the

Poincare chaotic model. This behavior affects the

amount of radiation the earth receives from the sun

and hence the climate and climate change on earth. In

a similar way Edward Lorenz work on convection

currents is a model for forecasting weather and

climatic conditions given initial data on temperatures

and positions. Lorenz model studied the behavior of a

gaseous system. He simplified the Navier-Stokes

equations of fluid dynamics and produced a system of

three non-linear differential equations given as

follows:

dx/dt =-ax +ay --------------------------------------------(1)

dy/dt = -xz + rx-y ----------------------------------------.(2)

dz/dt =xy – bz ----------------------------------------------(3)

The constants a, r and b determines the behavior of

the system. These three differential equations

exhibit chaotic behavior-they are extremely sensitive

to initial conditions. Both Poincare’s model and

Lorenz model are chaotic in nature and models

unpredictability in climate and climate change. An

early pioneer of the theory was Edward Lorenz

whose interest in chaos came about accidentally

through his work on weather prediction in 1961.

Lorenz was using a basic computer, a Royal McBee

LGP-30, to run his weather simulation. He wanted to

see a sequence of data again and to save time he

started the simulation in the middle of its course. He

was able to do this by entering a printout of the data

corresponding to conditions in the middle of his

simulation which he had earlier calculated.

Chaos theory is applied in many scientific disciplines,

including: geology, mathematics, microbiology,

biology, computer science, economics, engineering,

finance, meteorology, philosophy, physics, politics,

population dynamics, psychology, architecture,

cryptography and robotics. Chaotic behavior has

been observed in the laboratory in a variety of

systems, including electrical circuits, lasers,

oscillating chemical reactions, fluid dynamics, and

mechanical and magneto-mechanical devices, as well

as computer models of chaotic processes.

Observations of chaotic behavior in nature include

changes in weather, the dynamics of satellites in the

solar system, the time evolution of the magnetic field

of celestial bodies, population growth in ecology, the

dynamics of the action potentials in neurons, and

molecular vibrations. Chaos theory is currently being

applied to medical studies of epilepsy, specifically to

the prediction of seemingly random seizures by

observing initial conditions. In the real world, there

are three very good examples of instability: disease,

political unrest, and family and community

dysfunction. Disease is unstable because at any

moment there could be an outbreak of some deadly

disease for which there is no cure. This would cause

terror and chaos. Political unrest is very unstable

because people can revolt, throw over the

government and create a vast war. A war is another

type of a chaotic system.

Family and community dysfunction is also unstable

because if you have a very tiny problem with a few

people or a huge problem with many people, the

outcome will be huge with many people involved and

many people's lives in ruin. Chaos is also found in

systems as complex as electric circuits, measles

outbreaks, lasers, clashing gears, heart rhythms,


19

electrical brain activity, circadian rhythms, fluids,

animal populations, and chemical reactions, and in

systems as simple as the pendulum. It also has been

thought possibly to occur in the stock market.

Quantum chaos theory studies how the

correspondence between quantum mechanics and

classical mechanics works in the context of chaotic

systems. Relativistic chaos describes chaotic systems

under general relativity. The motion of a system of

three or more stars interacting gravitationally (the

gravitational N-body problem) is generically chaotic.

In electrical engineering, chaotic systems are used in

communications, random number generators, and

encryption systems. In numerical analysis, the

Newton-Raphson method of approximating the roots

of a function can lead to chaotic iterations. It has been

observed that weather is a chaotic system and hence

long term prediction is not possible (Lorenz,1963).

FIG 1, Lorenz Butterfly diagram (Ajala, 2002).

The Butterfly diagram in fig1 above is a diagrammatic

representation of the Butterfly effect and is referred

as the Lorenz attractor. The Butterfly Effect is a

phrase that encapsulates the more technical notion of

sensitive dependence on initial conditions in chaos

theory. The idea is that small variations in the initial

conditions of a dynamical system produce large

variations in the long term behavior of the system.

Edward Lorenz first analyzed the butterfly effect in a

1963 paper on weather simulation and prediction

(Lorenz, 1963). The practical consequence of the

butterfly effect is that complex systems such as the

weather are difficult to predict past a certain time

range - approximately a week, in the case of weather.

This is because any finite model that attempts to

simulate a system must necessarily truncate some

information about the initial conditions - for example,

when simulating the weather, one would not be able

to include the wind coming from every butterfly's

wings. In all practical cases, defects in the knowledge

of the initial conditions and deficiencies in the model

are equally important sources of error. In a chaotic

system, these errors are magnified as the simulation

progresses. Thus the predictions of the simulation

are useless after a certain finite amount of time.

Chaotic Dynamical Systems Models with Socio-

Economic Benefits

Poincare’s Climate Change Model

Chaos is an unpredictable behavior occurring in a

deterministic system (Alligood, Sauer and York.

1996). It is common knowledge in science that a

system consisting of two orbiting masses interacting

through gravitational force and acceleration can be

modeled as a differential equation. To interpret and

solve such equations we use Newton’s laws of motion

and gravitation as depicted in equation 10 where P is

momentum, M1 and M2 are masses, G is acceleration

due to gravity and r is distance between the masses.

dP/dt=GM1M2/r2

………………………….………………………….(4)

We call such a system analytically solvable and hence

deterministic. However a system consisting of three

or more masses interacting exclusively through

gravitational acceleration is not analytically solvable.

The system is a three body problem and the

differential equation that models it has no exact

solution. In fact any n-body problem (n ≥ 3) exhibits

such a behavior. The behavior of such systems is

irregular, wild, unpredictable and hence chaotic. The

dynamical systems that show such behavior was first

reported by Henri Poincare in connection with his

work on the solar system (Sussmann and Wisdom,

1992). Henri Poincare, a French mathematician and

Professor at the University of Paris initiated in 1889

the study of such systems which are now referred to

as Poincare systems. The differential equation that

models such systems has no exact solutions. We can

only use computational methods to find approximate

solutions. In his work, Poincare used the geometry of

special curves called manifolds. Manifolds are curves

in the plane or generally in Rn that are locally similar

to Rn. It was discovered that stable and unstable


20

manifolds can cross each other at points known as

monoclinic points and that in the neighborhood of

such points the behavior of the system is chaotic.

The trajectories are complex and have sensitive

dependence on initial conditions. Sensitivity to initial

condition implies that trajectories that are close

initially to each other separate at exponential rate as

parameters of time and space varies. The

transformation used in the Poincare system analysis

is the Poincare map. The Poincare map is the two

dimensional map G such that G (A)= B, where A

represent the kth downward piecing of the plane and

B the( k+1)th downward piecing. Given A, the

differential equation describing the system can be

solved with A as an initial value and the solution

followed until the next downward piecing. More

general surfaces Rn or manifolds can be used other

than the plane. The surface used is called the surface

of section. The surface of section is one dimension

less than the phase space. The Poincare map

transforms trajectories from the phase space to the

surface of section. The earth being a Poincare system

has chaotic trajectories which causes unpredictability

in climate and climate change.

Edward Lorenz Weather Prediction Model

Edward Lorenz an American meteorologist in 1961

proposed the following model of convection, similar

to the swirls of cream in a hot cup of coffee (Lorenz,

1993).The models are as specified in equations 5, 6

and 7.

dx/dt =-10x+10y……………………………….(5)

dy/dt =28x y+xz……………… ………………….(6)

dz/dt =-8/3x+xy……………………… …………..(7)

The points x, y, z correspond to the position of a point

in geometric space at time t. Lorenz system of

differential equations is unsolvable except by

numerical means. It was discovered that the solutions

are sensitive to initial conditions. The graph or

diagram of the solution is called the Lorenz attractor

or Lorenz butterfly. Lorenz and Poincare models are

historically regarded as the foundation of chaos

theory. The model revealed the unpredictability of

the weather and hence climate change. It is a model

of climate that is both stochastic and deterministic.

To illustrate the extreme sensitivity of the Lorenz

model to initial conditions consider the starting

points (1,1,10) and (1,1,10.01) . There is a difference

of 0.01 or 0.1% between the 3rd component of the

two points at t= 0. If we plot the butterfly diagram of

these two points from t=0 to t=7.5 we will observe

that the two curves fly apart. Edward Lorenz in

introducing chaos into science and mathematics

asked the question: can the flap of a butterfly’s wing

in Brazil cause a tornado in Texas, U.S.A? The

question can be rephrased into: can the flap of a

locust’s wing in Konduga Borno State Nigeria, cause

the water in the lake Chad Basin which covers five

countries in west and central Africa to diminish

(Gwary and Gwary; 2012)

Foreign Exchange Model in Economics

The model links the current exchange rate with

subsequent changes observed. The theory behind the

model states that an accurate a priori prediction of

the exchange rate evolution is impossible to be made

but the subsequent explanation of the changes is

possible (Sorin, Vled and Paul, 2010). To understand

the chaotic nature of the exchange rate model we

begin with the phenomenon of period doubling which

is the general feature of chaotic dynamical systems

trajectories. The period doubling evolves in 2, 4, 8, 16

and so on periods and the system evolution can

abruptly fall into chaotic regimes. For unimodal

functions there exists a symmetry in the parameter

values at which the period doubling occurs. Let A1 be

the value of the control parameter for which the first

period doubling occurs and An is the value for which

the nth period doubling occurs, then:

𝛿 = lim𝑛→∞

𝐴𝑛 − 𝐴𝑛−1

𝐴𝑛+1 − 𝐴𝑛 = 4.66920…………………..(8)

Where 𝛿 is the Feigenbaum number value for all

periodic unimodal functions. The chaotic model of

foreign currency demand is determined as

percentage of the deviation of current exchange rate

towards the expected one. The model is given by:

St = 𝛼(𝑒𝑒

𝑒𝑡 − 1), 𝛼 ≥ 0……………………………..(9)

Where

et is the current domestic price of the foreign

currency.

ee is the future estimated exchange rate.

𝛼 is the sensitivity parameter.

St is the currqent demand of foreign currency.

The trade balance (Ti) is a linear function depending

on the current exchange rates and the corresponding

exchange rate for the last period, written as deviation


21

from the expected values and is given by the

equation:

Tt = 𝛽(𝑒𝑡 − 𝑒𝑒) + 𝛾(𝑒𝑡−1 − 𝑒𝑒) 𝛽, 𝛾 >

0 … … … … … … … . . (10)

With the parameters 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 = 26 the

evolution of the model describing the system is

chaotic. The economic benefit of the model is that to a

large extent it can be used to predict foreign

exchange rates (Sorin Vlad, Paul Pascu and Nicolae

Morariu, 2010).

Bank Account Dynamical System

Consider a bank account opened with N1000 at 6%

interest compounded annually. The state of the

system is described by the following:

X(k+1) = 1.06x(k), X(0) = 1000 ……………….(11)

The state or balance of the bank account in all future

years can be computed. For example x(1) = 1.06x(0)

= 1.06x1000 = 1060. In general,

x(k) = (1.06)kx1000………………………………..(12)

is the model equation that is used to find the balance

after the kth year of deposit.

Conclusion

This paper presented and addresses the economic

benefits of some chaotic dynamical systems. The

models presented include Henri Poincare’s planetary

model, Edward Lorenz climatic model and foreign

exchange fluctuation model as well as model of bank

account time evolution system. It is apparent from

the review that chaotic dynamical systems behavior

is a revolutionary scientific idea that has a wide range

of applications for economic growth and

development. Chaotic dynamical system involves

both unpredictability and determinism caused by

extreme sensitivity to initial conditions. Chaotic

dynamical systems behavior can be observed in many

natural and artificial systems and shall always be a

mystery, a paradox, a puzzle, an enigma and a riddle

in nature that has tremendous economic benefits.

References

Ajala E.O (2002) Historical perspective of chaoticity,

Zuma Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, vol4,

No.1; P23-53

Alligood K.T, Sauer T.D and York J.A (1996) Chaos: An

introduction to dynamical systems,

Springer Verlag, New York, p23-53.

Brian, Kaye (1993). Choas and Complexity,

Discovering the Surprising Patterns of Science

and Technology, VCH Publishers.

Cambel, A.B. (1993). Applied Chaos Theory: A

paradigm for Complexity, Academic Press.

Field Michael and Martin Golubitsky (1992).

Symmetry in Chaos, Oxford University Press.

GwaryT. M & Gwary M. M (2012) Chaotic models as

applied to climate change impactin the Lake

Chad Basin Area, Proceedings of Alexander Von

Humboldt Kolleg

International Conference 2012, p438- 441,

University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria.

Hofbauer, Josef and Karl Sigmund (1984) The Theory

of Evolution and Dynamical Systems,

Cambridge University Press.

Lorenz E. (1993). The Essence of chaos. The

University of Washington press, Seattle.

Lorenz E.(1963) Deterministic non periodic flow. J.

Atmospheric Science 20, 130-141.

Sorin V, Paul P and Nicolae (2010) Chaos Models in

Economics, Journal of Computing, vol.2,

issue1, January 2010, p79- 83.

Sussmann G.J and Wisdom J. (1992) Chaotic evolution

of the solar system, Science 257, p56-62


22

AVAILABILITY AND UTILIZATION OF E-LEARNING TECHNOLOGY FOR THE EFFECTIVE ADMINISTRATION OF

PUBLIC SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN RIVERS STATE

Oloko, O. O. Department of Business Administration and Management,

Federal Polytechnic Ile-Oluji, Ondo State

Abstract

This study investigated the availability and utilization of e-Learning technology for the effective administration of public senior secondary schools in Rivers State. The study adopted a descriptive survey design. The sample size of 25 principals and 870 teachers, given a total of 895 staff representing 10% of the total staff in public senior secondary schools in Rivers State. Stratified sample technique was used to identify the sample size using the balloting method. The instrument titled “Availability and Utilization of e-Learning Technology Questionnaire” (AUe-LTQ) was designed by the researcher. Reliability index was determined using test-retest method (0.93). Mean and standard deviation were used as the statistical tools to answer the research questions, while z-test statistic was used to test the hypotheses. The finding revealed that lack of availability and improper utilization of e-learning technology affects the effective administration of public senior secondary schools in Rivers State, based on this finding, the following recommendations were made:for effective adoption of e-learning technology to prevail, all the staff in public senior secondary schools in Rivers State must change their mindset by viewing knowledge about e-technology as administrative tool that cannot be avoided if they must fit in and serve in the current e-technology race; the Rivers State senior secondary schools board should come up with a blue-print on methods of training and retraining all categories of staff on the competence in using e-learning technology; for e-learning facilities to be adequately available and utilized for effective administrative delivery in public senior secondary schools in Rivers State, the state government should give priority attention by funding technology.

Introduction

Information and communication technology (ICT)

has been adopted by all and sundries atall levels of

education as tool for education programmes because

it has generated a global village where one can access

information from any part of the universe within

second. The education section at utilizing ICT, creates

new and existing opportunities both for the school

and the students; thereby making teaching and

learning to be more effective and qualitative, Adyemi

(2014). Information and Communication Technology

is the combination of computer and

telecommunication equipment used mainly for the

processing, gathering, analyzing as well as storing of

information, and the acronym, ICT.information and

Communication Technology (Oloko, 2015). In a

rapidly changing global environment, information

and communication technology (ICT) is the bedrock

for national survival and development since, the

recognition of the significance of ICT on boosting the

educational standard. The federal government of

Nigeria, in its executive summary on the national

policy for information and communication

technology, challenges Nigeria, to devise bold and

courageous initiatives to address a host of vital socio-

economic issues such as reliable infrastructure,

skilled personnel, open government policies with

programmes on ICTs, and other essential issue of

capacity building.

Following the acceptance of this fact, obliged the

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004), to give mandate

to set standards to regulate framework for the

deployment of ICT infrastructure at all levels of

education in Nigeria, also mandated all the states

government in correlation with NGOs to adopt the

National Policy on computer education of 1998,

which has its objectives to encourage staff to develop

a close rapport with computer, and appreciate its

potentials for solving teaching and learning


23

challenges, and inculcate the use of ICTs in their day

to day smooth administration of the school system

(Adeosun, 2014). The emergence of ICT has become

so beneficial that one cannot imagine life without it in

the 19th century; for example, there were very few

channel of communication which had brought about

limitation in information dissemination, (Oloko,

2015), because it could take over six months or more

to communicate with one’s relatives across the

country, accompanied with much stress but with the

advent of ICTs, channel of communication is widened

and the speed of information dissemination also

increased since ICTs tools like video-conferencing,

group discussion are enabled. According to Adebayo

(2015), ICTs enable teachers to prepare lesson notes,

improved on their instructional materials, carry out

research on the subject assigned to them and do day

to day administration of the school system. For

Wikipedia (2014), e-learning is essentially the

computer and network enabled for transfer of skills

and knowledge, it is an instrument delivered via an

electronic media (Chitana, 2014). Tongsakul (2014),

referred to e-learning as comprising computer,

internet, multimedia projector, video tapes and CD

ROM. From these definition, Anowor (2014),

maintained that the concept of electronic learning

comprises;

i The use of technology to enable people to learn

anytime and anywhere,

ii The use of all form of electronically-supported

learning and teaching devices

iii The use of ICT in developing skills as well as

concept-based knowledge

iv The use of instructional media in form of texts,

images, animation, video and audio devices.

Therefore, the International form of Education

Technology and Society (IFETS, 2010), conceived e-

learning as the use of various technological tools that

are either web-based, web-distributed or web

capable for the purpose of improving educational

standard. Asynchronous e-learning as described by

Rosenberg (2014), is a learning that is “pre-coded” or

is available, prepared and kept and can be used when

needed at anything, but does not take place at the

same time, and learners are free to make their

schedule (Alu, 2014). This type is delivered on

demand and it enables the learner have control over

the learning process and content. According to Hall

(1997), asynchronous e-learning is of different types

ranging from less sophisticated power point slides

posted on the website to more sophisticated ones

which allow learners involvement (interactive).

These include electronic mail, one-line stimulation

with graphics, animation video and audio

components. Wellman (1997), in Zhang (2008),

itemized asynchronous variety as public electronic

bulletin boards/news groups or collaboration system

for discussions, downloading learning materials from

knowledge repositories by the help of internet,

example;

1. Company intranets that distributes training to

its employees

2. The use of online database and websites to

acquire information and pursue research.

Alu (2014), explained that by implication, e-learning

is not a straight-jacketed package. It leads itself to

various adaptations to suit specific needs and

interactions, and is capable of being used to teach any

subjects. The role of teachers as facilitators, coach,

and mentors according to Anderson (2015), requires

that all the teachers should be trained to be familiar

with e-learning experience as part of on-going

professional development. The reason according to

White (2013),isthat there are new ways of storing

and manipulating data/information that would

improve further development of teachers. Teachers

of secondary schools should be trained to acquire

skills that are foundational for e-learning application

such as skills in the setting up of computer, skill in

application of MS-word, application of MS-power

point, application of excel, the use of world wide web,

the use of Google search engine, skill on the use of

yahoo search, skill of mamma search, skill of

identification of web address, the use of email, skill of

downloading information, acquiring skill of power

point presentation, the use of operating window, the

skill of identifying computer peripherals. Ngwoke &

Numonde (2014), added that teachers should have

the ability of design education software to meet the

specific needs and choose the electronic text to match

with student’s need. The development of these are

important because, referring to the Organization of

Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD,

2006), e-learning is becoming paramount in

universities education and every university is

increasing the provision of e-learning packages. In

view of this, Ifeakor&Okoli (2014) agreed that

teachers have made effective use of e-learning in


24

assessment of the students; which means e-learning

in business education has become one of the most

important and potentially significant and efficient

instructional methods to improve teaching and

learning. The adoption of e-learning in teaching and

learning of education is an idea whose time has come,

for the effective delivery of knowledge, and it has

become the most acceptable method of effective

educational service delivery in present times. The

assessment will be based on whether secondary

schools educators use e-learning packages in

teaching their subjects. Do they have both computer

and web competences to apply the package and what

challenges do they encounter in utilizing these

devices. Before we answer those questions, let us

define what e-learning is all about. E-learning as a

product of internet has been defined at various

quarters and it comprises all forms of electronically-

supported learning and teaching. E-learning takes

place anywhere, anytime, without face-to-face

interaction. It involves the appropriate use of

network technologies to create, foster, deliver and

facilitate learning. Ugwuoke (2014), added that it

encompasses face-to-face distance, mixed and

blended delivery models that utilize electronic

means. Asah (2015), opined that e-learning is

essentially the computer and network-enabled

transfer of skills and knowledge. It is an instrument

delivered via an electronic media (Chitana, 2008).

Tongsakul and Meejaceu (2009), referred to e-

learning as comprising computer, internet,

multimedia projector, video tapes and CD

ROM.Therefore, the international form of education

technology and society (IFETS, 2015), conceived e-

learning as the use of various technological tools that

are either web-based, web-distributed or web

capable for the purpose of education. The above

definition shows that e-learning programmes can be

delivered using a variety of information and

communication technology (ICT) such as HTML

based on-line tutorial; which relies on web pages

accessed through browser, text and graphic on

mobile device like digital assistant interactive video

and audio images delivered through CD-ROM, and

video and audio conferences conducted over

telecommunication channels such as telephone lines,

local area networks and internet (Akubilo, 2014,

Islam (1997), clarified that the application and the

process of e-learning include web based learning,

computer-based learning, virtual classroom and

digital collaborations, where content is delivered via

the internet/intranet, audio and video tape satellite,

TV and CD-ROM. It can be self-administered or by an

instructor; which includes media in the form of text

message, image animation, streaming video and

audio. It can also be referred to as computer-based

training (CBT) or internet based training (IBT) or

web based training (WBT).

However, e-learning can be synchronous or

asynchronous. Synchronous e-learning is “live” and

requires simultaneous participations of all learners

and instructors at different locations. Every learner is

expected to be at the computer at the same time

receiving instructions. It can be regarded as

scheduled delivery of learning (Alu, 2014),

synchronous e-learning takes varieties of forms, for

example multi cast and real time interactive

conferencing using (MOO system or IRC). A more

complex type involves learners. This offers learners

from different locations opportunity to log into the

training. Consequently, it is believed that the

imperative of modern ICT resources for e-learning

and teaching of business education is further

bolstered by the fact that even the students

themselves are now digital natives born into the ICT

culture who can be best groomed using ICT. This

position was supported by Wokocha (2013) who

observed that a good number of students today are

familiar with the World Wide Web, the search

engines as well as many software and hardware.

They extensively use the social media e.gfacebook,

twitter, skype, yahoo messenger, LinkedIn, skills page

and you tube. In a single handset possessed by a

student there could be over 100 applications running

live for information and entertainment.

In order to respond to the actual need of the students,

there is need to examine whether these e-learning

platforms (hardware and software) are utilized for

teaching and learning of business education courses

in colleges of education in Enugu State; so that the

graduates can expect to simulate the real work place

environments; because according to Obi (2005),

instructional facilities should be relevant, reliable and

suitable. From this perspective, three components of

e-learning can be identified, namely: technology and

delivery; content; and service. Since e-learning

utilizes technology to deliver, interact and facilitate

instructional processes and skill acquisition, lack of

necessary technologies for e-learning reduces the

training process to what is called talk and chalk


25

method of delivery of business courses, and this is

not consistent with the 21st century learning

environment, (Okute & Agomuo, 2014). According to

Kaiser (2013), ICT covers any product or material

that will store, retrieve, manipulate, transit or receive

information electronically in a digital form. These can

be classified under traditional computer-based

technologies with the application and use of standard

office applications (such as word processing,

spreadsheets, database software, presentation

software, desktop publishing, graphic software and

special applications as computer -aided designs) and

digital communication -based technology via

electronic means through internal networks (local

area networks –LAN) and external networks (wide

area networks – WAN); which are linked to a satellite.

In Higher Education Institutions typified by

universities, Nwamarah (2012), noted that the

organization and processing of data on students, staff

and finance to generate valuable information for

dissemination to all who might need it has become a

serious issue in modern universities. Access to vital

information might need it has become a serious issue

in modern universities. Access to vital information

which is available outside university environment is

a nightmare in most developing economics. ICT

facilities are helping to provide means of solving

these problems. The need for information sharing is

more felt in the academia as they have become

engines for the development of knowledge economics

of the 21st century.

According to Chafe (2012), the role of ICT as a vital

tool for teaching, administration and research

activities continues to grow as evidenced from the

rapid growth of the population of the growing needs

by staff and students in secondary schools level. ICT

is a very capital intensive project most especially in

big organizations like universities where access will

be required by majority of the population. The state

of funding of Nigerian universities by government is

so inadequate that to sustain ICT projects at all hubs

of teaching/learning, research and administration; is

almost impossible at most Nigerian universities. The

Nigerian Universities Commission (NUC) saw the

wide gap created by the absence of ICT in most

Nigerian universities and decided to initiate the

Nigerian University Commission Network System

(NUNet) in every university to provide the backbone

for networking at the campuses and be able to have a

dial-up access to the NUC server for uploading/

downloading e-mail messages. As at the time of the

setting up of NUNet, few universities were able to

link-up but with the revolution in telephony in

Nigeria, by the introduction of the Global Satellite

Mobile System (GSM) in 2001, many were able to

link-up. Adedoyin, Akinnuwesi and Adegoke (2013);

Okerie, Agabi and Uche, (2005), noted that education

(teaching/learning and research) with its efficient

administration, is a prerequisite of today’s

knowledge-based society, with ICT being a powerful

tool for diffusing knowledge and could complement

the traditional practices of the education sector.

Higher education institutions have always been the

center for new discoveries and innovations brought

about by activities of teaching, learning and research.

Despite the potentials of ICT to enhance these

activities, a number of challenges are limiting the

adequate and proper utilization of ICT in the Nigerian

tertiary education system. These challenges are

classified into four areas according to Nwamarah

(2002);

- ICT infrastructure – This was virtually

nonexistent in all Nigerian universities till the

NuNet project was initiated. Presently, the new

private universities are being built with the ICT

infrastructure in mind.

- Technical Personnel-There is ample lack of

professionals in the ICT field of study and this is

worsened by the fact that universities cannot pay

competitive salaries to retain those they train so

most are employed in the booming oil industry

and banks in Nigeria.

- ICT Awareness – Even with the four walls of the

university, ICT awareness is so low for the NuNet

project to take-off. Awareness lectures and

training have to be organized for all categories of

staff as substantiated by Chafe (2012) and

Nwamarah (2012).

- Building structures – as a result of non- ICT

infrastructure, most universities face the

challenge of putting up new building with its

financial implication

In the world today, trend in pedagogy is ICT-oriented;

hence it is paramount to prepare the present

generation of Nigeria youths to have all round

development, which is compliant to this millennium

since our children cannot live in isolation because e-

learning technology will improve secondary

educational standard; for this purpose to be achieved,


26

e-learning system in our various secondary schools

should be made available, utilization and other

militating factors affecting the e-learning technology

for effective administration of public senior

secondary schools in Rivers State, should be well

addressed.


The main purpose of the study was to investigate the

availability and utilization of e-learning technologies


secondary schools in Rivers State. Categorically, the

study:

i. determinesthe extent which e-learning

technologies are available for effective

administration of public senior secondary

schools in Rivers State.

ii. finds out the extent which e-learning

technologies given are utilized for effective

administration of public senior secondary

schools in Rivers State.

iii. investigates the constraints facing e-learning

technologies for the effective administration of

public senior secondary schools in Rivers State.

Research Questions

The following three research questions were raised

to guide the study

i. To what extent are e-learning technologies

available for the effective administration of public

senior secondary schools in Rivers State?

ii. To what extent are e-learning technologies

utilized for the effective administration of public

senior secondary schools in Rivers State?

iii. What are the constraints facing e-learning

technology for the effective administration of

public senior secondary schools in Rivers State?

Hypotheses

The following three (3) null hypotheses were

formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance.

Ho1: There is no significant difference between the

mean rating of principals and teachers opinion

on the availability of e-learning technology for

the effective administration of public senior

secondary schools in Rivers State.

Ho2: There is no significant difference between mean

rating of principals and teachers opinion on the

utilization of e-learning technology for the

effective administration of public senior


Ho3: There is no significant difference between the

mean rating of principals and teachers opinion

on the constraints facing e-learning technology



Methodology

The study adopted a descriptive survey method. The

total population of the study consisted 247 principals

and 8,452 teachers, given a total population of 8,699

staff in the 247 public senior secondary schools in

Rivers State: Source: Rivers State senior secondary

Schools Board, Port Harcourt, 2015. The sample

size of 25 principals and 870 teachers given as total

of 895 staff representing ten percent of the total

population was used for the study. Astratified sample

technique was used for the study using balloting

method to identify and sub-set sample. The

questionnaire item titled “Availability and utilization

of e-Learning Technologies Questionnaire” (AUe-

LTQ) was designed and validated by the researchers

with the predetermined factors of four points Likerts

Scale model of Strongly Agree (SA) = 4 points,

Strongly (S) = 3 points; Disagreed (D) = 2 points and

Strongly Disagreed (SD) = 1 points. The items (AUe-

LTQ) were divided into two section; section A,

consists the demography variables of 8 items and

section B, consists of items that elicited information

relevant to the research questions. Under

investigation were 37 items, given a total of 45 items,

and reliability index was determined using the

coefficient (r) 0.93 for high reliability. The

researchers administered a total of 895

questionnaires but 860 were successful filled and

responded to representing 96.08% of high response

rate. The research questions were answered using

mean scores, standard deviation, rank order and

decision rule; while the hypotheses were tested with

z-test tool at 0.05 level of significance.

Results

The results were derived from the analysis of the

three (3) research questions and the tested null

hypotheses at 0.05 level of significant


27

Research Question One To what extent is e-learning technology available for

effective administration of public senior secondary

schools in Rivers State?

Table 1: Showing the mean rating scores, standard deviation, rank order and decision rule of the principals and

teachers on the availability of e-learning technology for the effective administration of public senior secondary

schools in River State.

S/N Questionnaire Items on availability of

e-learning technologies

Principal Teacher ∑𝒙𝟏𝒙𝟐

𝟐 Rank

Order

Decision

Rules

SD SD

1 Computer based teaching 2.51 1.58 2.53 1.59 2.52 4th Agreed

2 CD ROM 2.68 1.63 2.91 1.78 2.78 3rd Agreed

3 Mobile devices 1.95 1.39 2.01 1.38 1.98 12th Disagreed

4 Microphones 2.77 1.66 2.83 1.74 2.80 2nd Agreed

5 DVDs 2.17 1.47 2.19 1.47 2.18 8th Disagreed

6 Video conferencing 1.41 1.19 1.44 1.20 1.43 13th Disagreed

7 Teleconferencing 1.35 1.16 1.38 1.17 1.37 14th Disagreed

8 On-line reference libraries 1.95 1.39 2.08 1.20 2.02 11th Disagreed

9 e-mail 2.35 1.53 2.45 1.53 2.40 6th Disagreed

10 Live-chat 1.25 1.12 1.16 1.09 1.20 15th Disagreed

11 Surfing on internal and wed browsing 1.01 1.01 1.03 1.03 1.02 16th Disagreed

12 Video game style simulation 2.53 1.58 2.42 1.54 2.41 5th Disagreed

13 Customized e-learning courses 2.19 1.48 2.22 1.63 2.20 7th Disagreed

14 Laptops 2.53 1.59 3.09 1.91 2.81 1st Agree

15 Satellite television 2.19 1.48 1.93 1.42 2.06 10th Disagreed

16 Virtual classroom 2.09 1.41 2.14 1.47 2.12 9th Disagreed

Aggregate Mean Score ( �̅�), 2.04 2.11 2.08

Average Aggregate Mean Score ( �̅�) 2.08

The analysis in table 1 revealed that items 14, 4, 1

with mean score (𝒙) = 2.81, 2.80, 2.78 and 2.51 are all

scores above criterion mean score of 2.50. Thus

indicated that laptops, microphones, CD ROM and

computer-based teaching were available for effective

administration; and below the accepted criterion

mean of 2.49 are the following items, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,

10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, with the mean scores 1.98, 2.18,

1.43, 1.37, 2.02, 2.40, 1.20, 1.02, 2.41, 2.20, 2.06 &

2.12. Scores below the criterion mean score of 2.49,

thus, indicated that those e-learning technologies

were not available for effective administration in

most public senior secondary schools in Rivers State.

Conclusively, the average aggregate mean score

(2.08) is less than the criterion mean score (2.50).

Thus, this implies that e-learning technologies were

not generally available in most public senior


Hypothesis One

There is no significant difference between the mean


availability of e-learning technology for effective

administration of public senior secondary schools in

Rivers State.

Table 2: z-test of significant difference the mean response of principal and teachers on the e-learning available for

the effective administration of public senior secondary schools in Rivers State.

Source of variations N SD Df Level of

sign.

z-cal z-crit Remark

Principals 20 2.04

858

0.05

1.17

1.96

Not

rejected

Teachers 840 2.11

Total variations 860 4.15

The z-cal is 1.17 at 858 df and 0.05 level of

significance against z-crit of 1.96. This is an

indication that the responses of the principals and

teachers on e-learning technologies agreed that

inadequate availability of e-learning technologies


28

affect the effective administration of public senior


Research Question Two

To what extent is e-learning technology utilized for

the effective administration of public senior

secondary schools in Rivers State?


teachers on the utilizationof e-learning technology for effective administration of public senior secondary schools in

River State.

S/N Questionnaire Items on utilization of e-learning technologies


𝟐 Rank

Order Decision Rules

SD SD 17 Laptops 2.61 1.61 2.68 1.62 2.65 5th Agreed 18 e-mail 2.51 1.51 2.53 1.52 2.52 6th Agreed 19 CD ROMS 2.19 1.48 2.21 1.47 2.20 9th Disagreed 20 Mobile devices 2.31 1.52 2.29 1.47 2.30 7th Disagreed 21 On-line reference libraries 2.17 1.47 2.29 1.49 2.23 8th Disagreed 22 Microphone 3.07 1.90 3.09 1.89 3.08 1st Agreed 23 Electronic billboards 1.08 1.07 2.11 1.20 1.60 13th Disagreed 24 Smart Boards 1.20 1.11 1.38 1.17 1.29 16th Disagreed 25 Computer based administrations 2.91 1.83 2.83 1.70 2.87 3rd Agreed 26 Internet 2.73 1.65 2.81 1.69 2.77 4th Agreed 27 New groups 1.57 1.20 1.63 1.30 1.60 13th Disagreed 28 Chart room or message 1.32 1.15 1.34 1.16 1.33 15th Disagreed 29 Developing a classroom home page 1.98 1.38 2.03 1.18 2.01 12th Disagreed 30 Video conferencing in meeting 2.98 1.89 2.84 1.81 2.91 2nd Agree 31 Use of interactive training 2.07 1.20 2.09 1.20 2.08 11th Disagreed 32 Software in administration 1.98 1.38 2.22 1.50 2.10 10th Disagreed Aggregate Mean Score ( �̅�) 2.16 2.28 Average Aggregate Mean Score ( �̅�) 2.22

The analysis in table 3 revealed that items 17, 18, 22,

25, 26, 30, with the mean score ( 𝒙) = 2.65, 2.52, 3.08,

2.87 & 2.77, are all scored above criterion mean

score of 2.50.This indicated that laptops, e-mails,

microphone, computer-based administrations and

internet were being utilized for effective

administration; and below the accepted criterion

mean score of 2.49 are the following items, 19, 20, 21,

23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 31 & 32, with mean score 2.20,

2.30, 2.23, 1.60, 1.29, 1.60, 1.33, 2.01, 2.08, 2.10, as

score below the criterion mean score of 2.49. Thus,

this indicated that those e-learning technologies were

not utilized for effective administration in most

public senior secondary schools in Rivers State.

Conclusively, by the average criterion mean score of

2.50, it implies that e-learning technologies were not

generally utilized for the effective administration in


Hypothesis Two

There is no significant difference between mean


utilization of e-learning technology for affective


Rivers State

Table 4: z-test of significant difference the mean response of principal and teachers on the e-learning utilizationfor the effective administration of public senior secondary schools in Rivers State. Source of variations N SD df Level of

sign. z-cal z-crit Remark

Principals 20 2.16 858

0.05

1.31

1.96

Not rejected Teachers 840 2.28

Total variations 860 4.44


29

The z-cal is 1.31 of 858 df and 0.05 level of

significance against z-crit of 1.96. Thus, it is an

indication that the responses of the principals and

teachers agreed that improper utilization of e-

learning technologies affects effective administration

of public senior secondary schools in Rivers State.

Research Question Three

What are the constraints facing e-learning technology

effective administration of public senior secondary

schools in Rivers State?


teachers on the constraints facing e-learning technology for the effective administration of public senior secondary

schools in River State.

S/N

Questionnaire Items on constraints of e-learning technologies


𝟐 Rank

Order Decision Rules

SD SD 33 Irregular electricity supply hampering the

utilization of e-learning technologies 1.97 1.39 1.83 1.37 1.90 3rd Disagreed

34 Lack of administrative support in providing e-learning materials

2.53 1.57 2.67 1.63 2.60 2nd Agreed

35 Unwilling to change to the new method of e-learning operations

2.63 1.62 2.83 1.72 2.37 1st Agreed

36 The high cost of e-learning technologies facilities

1.18 1.18 1.24 1.12 1.21 6th Disagreed

37 High expensive cost of maintenance and repair of e-learning technologies

1.34 1.16 1.38 1.17 1.36 5th Disagreed

38 Inadequate fund to purchase modern e-learning equipment1

1.38 1.17 1.42 1.18 1.40 4th

39 Lack of adequate training to staff on how to integrate e-learning gadgets

1.20 1.11 1.22 1.12 1.21 6th Disagreed

Aggregate Mean Score ( �̅�) 1.74 1.80 Average Aggregate Mean Score ( �̅�) 1.77

The analysis in table 5 revealed ( �̅�) that items = 2.73

and 2.60 are all score above criterion mean score of

2.50; this indicated that: lack of administrative

support in providing e-learning materials and

unwilling to change to the new method of e-learning

operations were not the constraints facing e-learning

in most schools. The major constraints were items

33, 36, 37, 38 and 39 with mean score of 1.90, 1.21,

1.36, 1.40, and 1.21 as score below the criterion mean

score of 2.50. Thus, the average aggregate mean score

1.77 is less than criterion mean score of 2.50; this

implies that there were constraints affecting e-

learning technologies for effective administrative in


Hypothesis Three

There is no significance between the mean rating of

principals and teachers opinion on the constraints

facing e-learning technology for effective


Rivers State.

Table 2: z-test of significant difference in mean on response of principal and teachers on e-learning constraints for

effective administration of public senior secondary schools in Rivers State.

Source of variations N SD df Level of sign.

z-cal z-crit Remark

Principals 20 1.74 858

0.05

1.09

1.96

Not rejected

Teachers 840 1.80 Total variations 860 3.54

The z-cal is 1.09 at df and 0.05 level of significance

against z-crit of 1.96. Thus is an indication that the

response of the principals and teachers agreed that

there are numerous constraints facing e-learning

technology for effective administration in public

senior secondary schools in Rivers State.

Discussion of the Findings


30

The results in table 1 and 2 revealed generally that e-

learning technologies were not available for effective

administration in public senior secondary schools in

Rivers State. This is a clear indication that as Rivers

State is in the information age which requires

qualified skilled manpower in workforce, the only

way towards such attainment is to produce quality

educational products through e-learning. These

findings agreed with the opinion of Johnson (2015),

that e-learning is generally used as part of

administration in most universities in Nigeria. The

finding fulfills the desire of the Federal Republic of

Nigeria (2008), that ICT must be made available to

empower youths, with skills; and prepare them for

global competition and it must be integrated into the

mainstream of education and training via e-learning

in education. The study revealed in table 3 and 4 that

the respondents rate from the principals and

teachers agreed that, e-mail, lap-tops, microphone,

computer-based administrations, internal and video

conferencing in meeting, were well utilized in

effective administration. Asogwa (2014), reported in

a research work that staff that do not posses requisite

ICTs states for effective and efficient administration

should be bud-off from the system. They need to be

trained and retrained because according to Oloko

(2013), any reform within the educational system

will not have desired effect without quality staff to

implement it because, it is only when e-learning

technologies are available and transmitters are

equipped, that they will be able to utilize them in

educational service delivery. This is contrary to the

views of many researchers and writers including

Tinio (2014), who strongly emphasized the need for

adequate utilization of modern hardware platforms

for e-learning in order to be current with the work

place skills in this 21st century. Finally, the results in

table 5 and 6 indicated that all the respondents

agreed that some of the listed items like,

administration support in providing e-learning

materials and unwilling to change to the new method

of e-earning operations, mean score above 2.50, thus

the other items score below the criterion mean score

of 2.50 which proved that those items were

constraints to effective usage of e-learning in the


Rivers State. The finding agreed with the opinion of

Asogwa (2013), that challenges of e-learning in

secondary schools in Edo State includes; power,

funds; skills and corruptions. He explained that

power supply had always failed; e-learning is capital

intensive. Today, affordable laptop like Hp note

books costs at least N80,000, which many cannot

afford. E-learning software are not only scarce but

when available are too expensive. To get good anti-

virus software for instance, could cost as much as

N40,000per annum (Asogwa, 2013). Asogwa (2013)

further supported these findings that another major

challenges facing optimization of e-learning is lacking

requisite skills, the teachers are not as skilled and

thorough in the understanding, operation and

application of the packages as they supposed to be.

Conclusion

Education system around the world are being

redesigned to rely more on electronic delivery

methods. No conventional senior secondary schools

can successfully cope with the ever growing demand

to prepare secondary students for self-reliance and

furthering in education. Based on the findings, it was

concluded that availability and utilization of e-

learning technology for ineffective administration in

public senior secondary schoolsin Rivers State is

grossly inadequate in line with global practice.

Recommendations

Based on the findings, the following,

recommendations were made:

- For effective adoption of e-learning technology to

prevail, all the staff in public senior secondary

schools in Rivers State, must change their

mindset by viewing knowledge about e-

technology as administrative tool that cannot be

avoided if they must fit in and in the current e-

technology race.

- The Rivers State senior secondary schools board

should come up with a blue-print on methods of

training and retraining all categories of staff on

the competence in usage of e-learning

technology.

- For e-learning facilities to be adequately

available and utilized for effective administrative

delivery in public senior secondary schools in

Rivers State, the state government should give

priority attention by funding the technology.

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34

TEACHER FACTORS AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ IN EKITI STATE

1Haastrup, T. EKUNDAYO, 2M.A YUSUF and O. I. BAMIKOLE 1&3Department of Educational Management,

Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti. 2Department of Educational Management,

Faculty of Education, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State

Abstract

This study examined teacher factors and academic performance of secondary schools students’ in Ekiti State. It investigated the relationship between each of the teacher factors (teacher time management, teacher mastery of subject and classroom reward) and students’ academic performance. The study adopted the descriptive research design of the survey type. The population of the study comprised all the 87, 336 secondary school students and 7,538 teachers in 203 secondary schools in Ekiti State. The sample for this study consisted 720 students selected from 24 public secondary schools in Ekiti State using multi-stage sampling procedure which involved simple random, stratified and purposive sampling techniques. Two set of instruments tagged “Teacher Factors Questionnaire (TFQ)” and an Inventory on Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination results were used for the study. The TFQ was validated by research experts in educational management and Tests and Measurement to determine its appropriateness in order to meet the face and content validity. The test-retest method of reliability was used to ascertain the reliability of the instrument with a co-efficient of 0.81. This was considered high for reliability. All the hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. The findings revealed that there was significant relationship between teacher factors and students’ academic performance. It was found that there was significant positive relationship between teacher time management and students’ academic performance (r=0.694), p<0.05. There was significant relationship between teacher mastery of subject matter and students’ academic performance (r=0.857), p< 0.05. Also there was significant relationship between classroom reward and students’ academic performance (r=0,509,) p<0.05. It was recommended that teachers should ensure strict adherence to and effective utilization of time allocated to their subjects through adequate coverage of lesson objectives within a given period. Periodic seminars and conferences should be organized for secondary school teachers on core teaching areas in order to enhance their knowledge of the subjects and enhance quality instructional delivery for better students’ academic performance.

Keywords: Time management, Mastery of subject matter, Classroom reward, Academic performance.

Introduction

The quality of education depends largely on the

quality of the teachers as reflected in the

performance of their duties. Over time, students’

academic performance in both internal and external

examinations had been a yardstick for measuring

teachers’ performance. Secondary education is

known to occupy a strategic position in Nigerian

education system (Tenibiaje, 2009). It serves as a link

between primary and higher education by absorbing

the products of the former and supplying entrants

into the latter. This suggests that a poor performance

from the secondary school level may spell doom for

that higher level.

In recent years, the performances of secondary

school students in external examinations conducted

by the West African Examination Council seems not

encouraging (Ashibi 2005, Ikoh 2007, Tenibiaje 2009,

Ayodele and Ige 2012). Hence, the investigation of

the teacher factors that influence academic

performance of secondary school students in Ekiti

State had attracted the attention of relevant

stakeholders including parents, guidance, teachers,

counsellors, psychologists, school administrators,

governments and researchers.

The story in Ekiti State is not different from what

happens generally regarding the performance of


35

students in the examinations. Observation shows that

Ekiti state which used to be noted for academic

excellence in West African Examination Council

(WAEC) in the past had declined from 1st -10th

position to 34th position in 2013/2014 session.

Results showed that between 2001 and 2010, only

17% of the students who sat for the examination had

credit pass in English language 36% in Yoruba

language, 20% in Biology,31% in Mathematics and

26% in Economics in SSCE (Ministry of Education,

Ekiti State 2015).

In addition to this, the results of students who sat for

West African Examination Council (WAEC) within

2012 to 2016 also showed clearly the decline in

secondary school students’ academic performance in

Ekiti State. In 2012, 2013 and 2014, the number of

students who registered for West African

Examination Council were 11,956, 11,011, 13,639

respectively. Only 23%, 29%, 25% had 5 credits and

above including English and Mathematics while

others failed. In 2015, the percentage of candidates

that obtained five credits and above including English

language and Mathematics were 38.68% (Punch

Newspaper, 2016). While in 2016, candidates

recorded 50% with five credits in English language

and Mathematics which is still not encouraging. (Ekiti

State Ministry of Education, 2016).

Teachers have been known to have an important

influence on students’ academic performance as they

play a crucial role in their educational attainment.

The teacher is ultimately responsible for translating

policy into action and principles based on practice

during interaction with the students. Both teaching

and learning depend on teachers, no wonder an

effective teacher has been conceptualised as one who

produces desired results in the course of his duty.

Teachers are managers in the classroom and ought to

be in control from the beginning of the lesson to the

end so as to ensure that the students benefit from the

interactive business that transpires in the classroom

situation. This, to a greater extent, would enhance

smooth coordination and responses on the part of

both the teacher and the learners. Also, the actions

taken by the teacher to facilitate learning among the

students as well as the strategies used to create a

safe, orderly and conducive learning environment

must be upheld so as to improve student behaviours

and outcomes in the classroom.

Students’ academic performance refers to how

students deal with their studies and how they cope

with or accomplish different tasks given to them by

their teachers. It is the ability to study and remember

facts and being able to communicate the knowledge

verbally or written down on paper. Thus, academic

performance is the outcome of education, that is, the

extent to which a student, teacher or institution has

achieved their educational goals. Students’

performance according to Adeyemi (2008) can

simply be viewed as an outcome of all academic tasks

or rigours of a person which could be poorly or

successfully stated. As noted by Alonge (1998),

performance cannot be gingered in students if they

are discouraged. Teachers are expected to

meaningfully contribute to students’ academic

performance. A weighty performance of a student is

sometimes attributed to higher teacher factors.

Considering the importance of teacher factors and its

practical implications on students’ academic

performance in schools, this study intend to

specifically investigate teachers’ time management,

teachers’ mastery of the subject matter, classroom

reward and their relationship with students’

academic performance.

Time management skill of the teachers has proved to

have direct correlation with performance level of

students. However, the teachers who perceive to

have good time management are those that have the

desire to achieve result in higher level of academic

performance. Kayode and Ayodele (2015) opined

that, success can only be achieved in school when

teachers show good example of time management.

Though the practice in most of the secondary schools

is that school activities seem not to respect the

designed time table. Observations shows that most

teachers’ in secondary schools in Ekiti State spend 5-

10 minutes immediately after the morning assembly

for briefing and later go to the staff room to get

his/her materials heading straight to the classroom

coupled with the time students take to settle down .

This implies that about 5-10 minutes have been

wasted out of the 45 minutes for a period. The same

scenarios always play out immediately after the long

break. Observation also shows that some students

seem to deliberately ask questions to waste time. All

these appear to steal precious time that should be

meant for serious academic work thereby leading to

poor academic performance of students. Docking


36

(2000) argued that, a law abiding teacher is the one

expected to arrive on time to teach and to respect all

the time allocated to him or her on the time table so

as to enhance better academic performance of

students.

Time is a resource that affects all aspects of human

endeavours. It is a resource that is extremely limited

in supply and it is a factor that affects all stakeholders

in educational sector - students, teachers,

administrators, supervisors among others. According

to Ekundayo, Konwea and Yusuf (2010), instances

now abound where teachers complain of lack of time

to do certain things which they would have done. A

good teacher must make effective use of time for

everything he plans to do. Kayode and Ayodele

(2015) opined that the most important asset a

teacher should possess is the skill in managing his

time. Such skill will enable the teacher to devote a

balanced attention to interpersonal relations and

teaching. It appears that maximization of the use of

time for academic activities is required to enhance

students’ academic performance. Kelly and Johnson

(2005) argued that efficient use of time on the part of

the teachers and school administrator directly

associated with increased academic performance. A

teacher that has not planned his activities very well

before coming to class may find it difficult to

effectively manage his time very well in the class. If

time is not well managed, nothing may be achieved

during the teaching learning process. The resultant

effect of this may be poor job performance and

consequently poor academic performance of the

students.

Teachers’ mastery of subject matter (competence)

may be a strong variable influencing students’

performance. Kimberly (2009) stated that teachers

must be knowledgeable in their area of study. In

truth, if a teacher is not competent in his/her subject,

then any hope of effectiveness goes right out the

window. Hence, effective teaching and students’

performance could be measured by the level of a

teachers’ subject matter competence. Kimberly

(2009) regarded this as a prime predictor of

students’ learning. It appears that there is a high

correlation between what teachers know and what

they teach. Thompson and Goe (2009) noted that

regularity in mastery of subject matter even helps

students relax in class because it gives them a sense

that the teacher knows what he or she is doing. Thus,

the ability to teach effectively depends on the

teachers’ knowledge of the subject matter. Teachers

are handicapped if they are unfamiliar with the body

of knowledge taught and teachers’ characteristics.

Adediwura and Bada (2007) stated in their study that

nobody could teach what he does not know. They

went further to state that teachers must thoroughly

understand the content of what they teach. A teacher,

whose understanding of topic is thorough, uses

clearer language, their discourse is more connected,

and they provide better explanations than those

whose background is weaker.

The way the students perceive teaching in terms of

teacher’s knowledge of content of subject matter may

significantly affect the students’ academic

performance. It appears some teachers go into

teaching without knowing what to teach. Stoop

(2011) submitted that teachers who have mastery of

subject matter are considered to be more able to

concentrate on the most appropriate way to teach

particular topics to students who differ in their

abilities, prior knowledge and backgrounds.

It is to be noted that pedagogical knowledge are not

exactly the same thing as knowledge of subject

matter, they nevertheless intimately linked with each

other, because teachers’ mastery of subject matter

and use of pedagogical knowledge in the classroom

may influence high level of students’ academic

performance.

A teacher can reward the learner in the classroom in

order to increase the probability of reporting the

desired behaviour. According to Fadipe (2009),

reward is the process of influencing or stimulating a

student to take action that will accomplish desired

goals. Also Mallum and Haggai (2000) opined that

reward has greater influence on students’ academic

performance in the classroom. They maintained that

the work of the teacher is made easier when his

students are motivated with rewards. As a result of

the rewards given out by a teacher, students are

eager to learn, willing to undertake learning activities

and attend classroom regularly and punctually.

Students are aroused either by inner or external

stimulus. There are those whose interests are

aroused only by rewards. It appears that when

students are rewarded that quality teaching –

learning interaction is enhanced which may

eventually lead to better academic performance of


37

the students. It has been observed by the researcher

that most teachers in Ekiti State secondary schools

reward students negatively especially when they

answer questions wrongly, come late to class,

untidiness, sleeping in the and so on. They do all

these by calling them all manners of names such as

dullard, failure, empty headed, no future ambition

(NFA) among others. All these seem to kill the morale

and interest of the students psychologically and

emotionally which may affect their academic

performance negatively. Likewise, observation shows

that when a student is applauded, recognized, praised

by the teacher for answering a question correctly,

write notes, neat, punctual and so on, such comments

appear to encourage the students to do more to

achieve better academic performance.

It is against this backdrop that this study intends to

investigate the relationship between the

aforementioned teacher factors and secondary school

students academic performance in Ekiti State,

Nigeria.

Research Hypotheses

Based on the purpose of the study, the following

research hypotheses were formulated to guide the

study and tested at 0.05 level of significance.


teachers’ time management and students’



teachers’ mastery of subject matter and students’



classroom reward and students’ academic

performance.

Methodology

The descriptive research design of the survey type

was adopted for this study. The population for this

study consisted 87, 336 secondary school students

and 7, 538 teachers in the 203 secondary schools in

Ekiti State, Nigeria as at the time of this study in

2016/2017 academic session. The sample for the

study comprised 720 students using multi stage

sampling procedure. The subjects were drawn from

24 public secondary schools in Ekiti State.

In stage one, two Local Government Areas were

randomly selected from each of the three senatorial

districts by balloting method. In stage two, four

public secondary schools were selected from each of

the six local governments chosen using stratified

random sampling technique. In the last stage, 30

students from senior secondary three were selected

from each of the 24 public secondary schools earlier

selected using purposive sampling technique. In this

study, two instruments were used to collect data for

the study.

The first one is tagged Teacher Factors Questionnaire

(TFQ) and second one is an Inventory on Senior

Secondary School Certificate Examination results in

the May/June, of 2013/2014, 2014/2015 and

2015/2016 sessions. The face and content validity

procedures of the instruments were ensured by

research experts to ascertain the appropriateness

and representation of contents in measuring what it

supposed to measure. Test- retest method of

reliability was used, the two results were correlated

using Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC)

to determine the reliability of the instruments and

0.81 co-efficient was obtained which is considered

high enough to make the instruments reliable and

useful for the study. All the hypotheses were tested at

0.05 level of significance.

Results

The data obtained through the research instrument were analyzed and all hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.

Hypothesis 1: There is no significant relationship between teachers’ time management and students’ academic performance.

Scores on teachers’ time management and students’ academic performance were computed using items 1-8 in Section B of “Teacher Factors Questionnaire ((TFQ)” and Inventory on Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination results respectively. These scores were subjected to statistical analysis involving Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistics at 0.05 level of significance. The result was presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Teachers’ Time Management and Students’

Academic Performance

Variables N Mean SD r-cal r-tab

Teachers’ time

management

24 15.82 1.60

0.694*

0.388

Academic

Performance

24

2.45 0.81

*p<0.05(significant result)


38

Table 1 showed that rcal(0.694) is greater than

rtable(0.388) at 0.05 level of significance. The null


significant positive relationship between teachers’

time management and students’ academic

performance.


between teachers’ mastery of subject matter and

students’ academic performance.

In order to test the hypothesis, scores relating to

teachers’ mastery of subject matter and students’

academic performance were computed using items 9-

16 in Section B of “Teacher Factors Questionnaire

(TFQ)” and Inventory on Senior Secondary School

Certificate Examination results respectively. These

scores were subjected to statistical analysis involving

Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistics at

0.05 level of significance. The result was presented in

Table 2.

Table 2: Teachers’ Mastery of Subject Matter and

Students’ Academic Performance


Teachers’

Mastery of

Subject Matter

24

16.22 1.48

0.857*

0.388

Students’

Academic

Performance

24

2.45 0.81

*p<0.05(significance result)




significant positive relationship between teachers’

mastery of subject matter and students’ academic

performance.


between classroom reward and students’ academic

performance.


classroom reward and students’ academic

performance were computed using items 17-24 in

Section B of “Teacher Factors Questionnaire (TFQ)”

and Inventory on Senior Secondary School Certificate

Examination results respectively. These scores were

subjected to statistical analysis involving Pearsons

Product Moment Correlation statistics at 0.05 level of

significance. The result was presented in Table 3.

Table 3: Classroom Reward and Students’ Academic

Performance


Classroom

Reward

24 16.62 3.57

0.509*

0.388 Students’

Academic

Performance

24 2.45 0.81

*p<0.05(significant result)




significant positive relationship between classroom

reward and students’ academic performance.


It was found that there was significant relationship

between teachers’ time management and students’

academic performance. It implies that teachers’ time

management influence the academic performance of

students. It equally means that for any better

academic performance of students to be enhanced,

effective teachers’ time management is of great

importance. This finding could be as a result of the

fact that the government and school principal has

realized that if teachers manage time effectively it

will enhance performance both for teachers and

students as well. The finding supports the research

work of Docking (2000) and Kelly and Johnson

(2005) who argued that efficient use of time on the

part of the teachers and school administrator directly

associated with increased academic performance of

students.


relationship between teachers’ mastery of subject

matter and students’ academic performance. It

implies that teachers’ mastery of subject matter has

great influence on students’ academic performance.

To this end, it is certain that if teachers have mastery

of subject matter it will enhance better students’

academic performance. The finding is in accordance

with the findings of Thompson and Goe (2009) and

Stoop, (2011) who asserted that teachers who have

mastery of subject matter are considered to

concentrate on the most appropriate way to teach


39

particular topics to students who differ in their

abilities, prior knowledge and backgrounds.

It was again revealed that there was significant

relationship between classroom reward and

students’ academic performance. As a result, the idea

began to emerge that extrinsic motivators may have a

negative effect on a person's internal motivation,

since many of the rewards given in school are

extrinsic motivators, school became the setting for a

large body of research. The finding agrees with the

finding of Pretorius (2012) that the payment of

money to college students to lie about enjoying a dull

learning task did little to change the student's

opinion of the task. However, the finding contradicts

the submission of Grosser (2007) who argued that a

reward of food distracted the subjects from the

learning task, and resulted in less learning; the

subjects, nursery school students, were given pieces

of candy for correct answers in learning tasks dealing

with building blocks, while a control group was not

given anything for correct answers.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, it was concluded

that teacher factors such as teacher’s time

management, teacher’s mastery of subject matter and

classroom reward were important predictors of

academic performance of secondary school students.

Based on the findings of this study, it was

recommended that:

1. Teachers should ensure strict adherence to and

effective utilization of time allocated to their

subjects by adequately covering their lesson

objectives within a given period.

2. Periodic seminars and conferences should be

organized for secondary school teachers on core

teaching areas in order to enhance their

knowledge of the subjects and enhance quality

instructional delivery for better students’


3. Teachers should adopt appropriate classroom

rewards such as encouragement, punishment

for erring students, praise etc in order to

enhance students’ participation in classroom

activities and overall academic performance of

students.

References

Adediwura, A. A. & Bada, T. (2007). Perception of

teachers’ knowledge, attitude and teaching skills

as predictor of academic performance in

Nigerian secondary schools. Ile-Ife, Nigeria.

Academic Journals, 7(2), 165-171.

Adeyemi, T. O. (2008). Predicting students’

performance in Senior Secondary Certificate

Examinations from Junior Secondary Certificate

Examinations in Ondo State, Nigeria. Humanity

and Social Science Journal, 3(1), 26 - 36.

Alonge, M. F. (1998). Implications of probabilistic

models of item analysis to educational

evaluation. Journal of Educational Research, 2,

50-56.

Ashibi, N. I. (2005). Assessment of the application of

testing skills among secondary schools teachers in

Northern Cross River State, Nigeria. Unpublished

M. Ed Thesis, University of Calabar, Calabar,

Nigeria.

Ayodele, J. B. & Ige, M. A. (2012). Teachers’ utilisation

as correlate of students’ academic performance

in senior secondary schools in Ondo State,

Nigeria. European Journal of Educational Studies.

4(2): 282-287.

Docking, J .W. (2000). Control and discipline in schools.

London: Harper and Row publishers.

Ekundayo, H.T., Konwea, P.E. & Yusuf, M. A. (2010).

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Nigeria: An overview. In E. O. Fagbamiye & D. O.

Durosaro (Eds), Education and Productivity in

Nigeria. Ilorin: Hartee Press and Publishing Ltd.

Grosser, M. (2007). Effective teaching: Linking

teaching to learning functions. South African

Journal of Education, 27(1), 37-52.

Ikoh, M. (2007). Classroom variables and senior

secondary school students’ performance in

accessing in Calabar metropolis. Unpublished

PGD thesis, University of Calabar, Calabar.

Kayode, G.M. & Ayodele, J.B. (2015). Impacts of

Teachers’ Time Management on Secondary

School Students’ Academic Performance in Ekiti

State, Nigeria. International Journal of Secondary

Education. 3(1), 1-7.

Kelly, W. E. & Johnson, J. L. (2005). Time use

efficiency and the five-factor model of


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personality. Questia Academic Journal, 125(3), 1-

11.

Kimberly, B. (2009). Characteristics of effective

teachers. Edu books. USA. Retrieved July 6, 2011.

http://www.edubooks.com/author/kaback. 10

Mallum, J. & Haggai, M. (2000). Educational

Psychology Classroom Practice. Jos, Deka

Publications Nigeria Ltd.

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effectiveness requirements for initial teacher

education reform. College of Education,

University of South Africa. Journal of Social

Sciences, 8(3), 310-317.

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best results in 10 year: By Adebayo, F., and

Ajaja, T.

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reviews. Education review office, New Zealand.

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Tenibiaje, D. J. (2009). Influence of family size and

family birth order on academic performance of

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http://www.ets.org/research/contact.htm


41

IMPACT OF EXTERNAL INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISIONAND SUPERVISORY ATTITUDE ON PRIMARY SCHOOL

TEACHERS’ PRODUCTIVITY IN SOUTH WEST NIGERIA

Faremi, M. F.

Osun State University Osogbo, College of Education, Ipetu Ijesa

Abstract

Researchers are of the opinion that there should be relationship between external Instructional Supervision and Primary schools Teachers’ Productivity in South West Nigeria. This research concern itself with the relationship between external Instructional Supervision and Primary schools Teachers’ Productivity in South West Nigeria. It also examined the contributions of supervisory attitude to teachers’ productivity. The population for the study comprises of all the primary schools in South West Nigeria. The study used expo-facto and the descriptive research of the survey type. The sample for this study was 1,500 respondents comprising of 300 Head teachers and 1,200 teachers selected using multistage stratified and simple random techniques. Self designed instruments tagged Instructional Supervision Questionnaire (ISQ) and Teachers’ Productivity Inventory (TPI) were used to collect data for the Study. The TPI was a proforma of three years of primary six placement examination results which had already existed in the schools. It was used to measure teachers' productivity. The reliability coefficient of 0.85 was obtained for ISQ. Data collected were analyzed using Pearson product moment correlation. All hypotheses generated were tested at 0.05 level of significance. The study revealed that the level of external Instructional Supervision and Primary Schools Teachers’ Productivity were at high levels during the period under investigation. It was also revealed that Teachers’ Productivity was significantly related to external instructional supervision and supervisory attitude. Based on the findings, it was recommended that Head teachers and supervisors from Ministry of education and teachers should be encouraged to improve on the high levels of supervisory attitude and teachers’ productivity.

Keywords: Primary School Teachers’ Productivity, External Instructional Supervision, Superv isory Attitude and

South West Nigeria

Introduction

Productivity as a concept can be regarded as a

measure of how well resources are combined and

utilized to accomplish specific and desirable goals. It

is a measure of what is received in return for what is

giving. Productivity generally is the relationship

between output of goods and services and the

resource inputs, both human and material, which are

utilized in production process. Its simplest definition

is given in Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary by

Hornby (1998) as; efficiency (especially in industry).

Productivity, therefore is a measure of efficiency in

the use of the factors of production namely; money,

man, methods and material including machinery

(Adibe 1999).

It appears the primary school teachers in South West

Nigeria are not performing their duties as expected.

Many teachers do not write their lesson notes on

daily basis while Head teachers seem not to be

checking these notes as and when due. Some teachers

tend to teach out of the scheme of work. Teachers

have been accused of abandoning their classrooms

for other things or not being as dedicated and

committed to duty as they used to be in the past.

Productivity measurement is the most difficult in

most service industries and education is certain by

no exception. In education, administrators need to be

wary of simple measures such as the number of

students' per teacher. Some observers assume that

quality must be higher when student - teachers' ratio

is lower; a class of 25 students is likely to be better

than a class of 50 students. Oluyede (2007)

submitted that there is a great reliance on somebody,

usually a superior officer, to rate an employee under

him/her along a set of performance dimension. She

added that rating is more or less an opinion or


42

judgment of the superior officer on how he/she

perceives the subordinate on how he/she carried out

the responsibilities assigned to individual so far she

added that supervisors are in the vantage point to

determine what is required of an employee job vis- a-

vis organizational objectives.

External instructional supervisors on the other hand

come from outside into school to perform

supervisory duties; usually on the personnel aspect

for example Staff of Local Government Education

Authority (LGEA) who are designated as district

supervisors of school or (DSS) and other supervisory

staff so assigned by state education laws, are external

supervisors who go out from their office to perform

supervisory tasks on their visits to schools within

their jurisdiction, Nwankwo (1981).

The external instructional supervisors are the

government officials from the ministry of education.

According to Ogunsaju (1988), the external

supervisors should see teachers as human being

rather than tools to get work done. The supervisors

should define the teachers' responsibility, concerning

teachers' task, discuss relevant issues affecting

teaching and learning and have confidence in

teachers when carrying out the teaching tasks. The

external supervisor should cooperate with the

teachers, make themselves always accessible to

teachers, and encourage free discussion with respect

to teachers. The external supervisors are to be very

current with relevant information given to teachers.

These mutual relationships seem to influence high

productivity of teachers.

At the primary education level, several local

government primary education boards have been

established to supervise teaching and learning

activities in the primary schools at the local level

(Akinwumiju 2003). The Local Inspectors of

Education supervise the strategies and methods of

teaching in the primary schools. They give

professional advice, identify resources necessary for

learning and perform overall evaluation of teachers

at this level. They hold conferences with the teachers

and discuss the failures and shortcomings of the

teachers with them and suggest useful solutions to

the problems (Knezevich, 1975).

By the same token, official manning of the primary

and secondary school desks at the various ministries

of education, Teaching Service Commission (T S C)

and State Primary Education Board (S P E B) pay

occasional visits to primary and secondary schools

under their control to perform supervisory tasks

from time to time as may be necessary. However,

external supervisors should not be confused with

school inspectors whose notions are distinct form,

but closely related to those of supervisors. External

supervisors are officers from the states ministry of

education and education parastatals such as TSC,

SPEB who are to visit the schools as scheduled to

supervise the teachers in the classrooms with the lay

down standards of education. Unlike the inspectors,

external instructional supervisors are not to find

faults or intimidate the teachers but to demonstrate

to them and correct them in love. The inspectors,

most of the times are fault finders.

According to Akubue (2001), the instructional

supervisors should understand the meaning of and

issues in supervision, he is to help teachers to plan,

present and evaluate instruction, he assesses

teachers in the classroom management, he is to help

teachers in curriculum development and evaluation.

He should study and understand the teachers he

supervises knowing their strengths and weaknesses.

The external instructional supervisor takes active

interest in improving the teaching- learning process

and constantly offers useful advice to teachers on its

improvement. He is consistent, humble, friendly,

modest and fair in dealing with the teachers under

his supervision. He is approachable, humorous and

open to suggestions from teachers. He is firm and

open in handling complaints from the teachers he

supervises.

The external supervisor recognizes good

performance and expresses appreciation. He also

develops objectives and standards of performance

expected of those he supervises. However Federal

Ministry of Education (FME / UNIC / UNESCO)

(2000) conducted a recent study on the learning

achievement of primary four pupils in the country

identified the following five salient issues as the main

sources of teachers' discouragement / discontent: No

regards for teachers by the society, poor condition of

service, irregular payment of teachers' salaries, poor

salaries and lack of teaching facilities/ materials.

The study also found out that all the teaching

resources required by any school worth its salt, only


43

the chalkboard and chalk were reported to be readily

and adequately available in the 960 primary schools

sampled for the study. This ample empirical evidence

is to support the assertion that the condition for

effective school instruction had always only been

partially met in this country. The study highlights

some factors that hinder effective instructional

delivery of the supervisors and the teachers; such as

teachers' attitude to work, teachers' lack of interest

in teaching, lack of basic knowledge or formal

training in teaching, presence of many untrained and

unqualified teachers, poor remuneration of teachers

which reduces their commitment to teaching. Others

are poor status accorded to teachers which dampen

their morale, inadequate provision of instructional

materials and teaching aids to schools, lack of

transportation facilities for supervisors to reach the

teachers, and supervisors' lack of training in

supervisory competences and so on.

Contrary to the reports of UBEP (2002) and others,

Beach and Reinhartz (2000) research stated that self-

direction supervision enables the individual teacher

to work independently and achieve the stated

objective without being supervised by the

instructional supervisors. In this research, the

supervisor can relax more on supervisory role. In this

case, the teacher would develop and carry out

individualized plans for professional growth with the

supervisor serving as a resource person. This

technique specifically is for the teacher who prefers

to work alone, yet seeks the aid of supervisor as a

mentor.

Beach and Reinhartz (2000) stated that the teacher

would self-evaluate his/her teaching using videotape,

inventories, reflective journals, or portfolios to

criticize the teaching procedure. The supervisor does

not need to evaluate the lesson, but through

individual conferences the supervisor could provide

feedback on improving the instruction if the teacher

so desires.

It has been pointed out by Akubue (2001) that the

problem on ground is not only that of having the right

quality and quantity of teachers but also that of not

having the right quality and quantity of supervisor.

This is because Government in Nigeria have through

their policy makers, continue to appoint supervisors

such as school heads and their assistants chiefly on

the basis of seniority and length of service without

due regard for appropriate training and qualification.

This approach cannot produce the calibre of

supervisors who have both knowledge and ability to

perform the behaviour as well as tasks required for

effective classroom supervision.

Based on the contradictory opinions, this study will

therefore investigate if there is any relationship

between external instructional supervision and

primary schools teachers' productivity in south west

Nigeria.

Garrett and Poole (2005) maintained that it is

important to measure output directly and not make

assumptions about what must be the case when

studying productivity. According to them, measuring

productivity in schools reassures a measure of both

efficiency and effectiveness. Thus efficiency and

effectiveness of teachers in this study would be

measured using rating of teachers by their head

masters and pupils final academic performance.

Teachers in Nigerian primary schools appear less

effective and efficient. There had been an

unprecedented controversy on the poor performance

of pupils\students at both primary and secondary

schools in Nigeria for some time now, which is an

indicator of teacher's poor productivity in the school

system Pupils appear not to be serious at their

studies while the government seems not to do

anything to save the situation.

Teachers' impart positive knowledge, skills and

attitude required for effective functioning of the

society to the people. To this end, the quality of

education, which a nation enjoys, cannot be isolated

from the efforts of the teachers. A teacher is the key

man in the entire education programme and the

quality of his training makes or mars the end result of

his job as a teacher.

Emunemu (2006) viewed instructional supervision

as to help teachers on the activities to facilitate career

exploration and development, the use of continuous

assessment and records to prepare and distribute

some publications relevant to school work. It

provides professional information and assistance to

teachers when they needed it. Adeyemo and Aremu

(2008) and Ibukun (1990) stated that instructional

supervision aimed to develop good report between

those involved in the school system that is; teachers,

pupils and community


44

In view of this, the place of the instructional

supervision and teachers’ productivity in the

attainment of educational goals and objectives cannot

be over emphasized; therefore, the perceived poor

academic performance in primary schools in Nigeria

could be linked with poor instructional supervision.


Common observation shows there has been public

outcry on mass failure of pupils in their various

examinations in recent times. Teachers have been

accused of abandoning their classrooms for other

duties or not being as dedicated and committed to

duty as they used to do in the past. There is no

wonder why very little productive work seems to be

done in the public primary schools.

It appears teachers are derailing from their teaching

tasks in the schools because of inadequate

supervision. There are instances where some

teachers do not plan their lessons, some of them do

not have time for regular teaching, in some cases

teachers' use poor instructional methods of teaching,

pupils are not well disciplined by teachers and the

instructional supervisory visits to schools seem to be

grossly inadequate. The head teachers who serve as

internal instructional supervisors appear not to be

performing their duties adequately; some head

teachers have little or no time to assist the teachers

on new techniques of teaching. Some do not visit the

teachers in the classrooms regularly; some do not

have cordial relationship with the teachers while

some have not been given leadership in instructional

delivery.

All these indices are pointers to the fact that

instructional supervision are not well carried out in

the primary schools which seems to take its

unpleasant toll in the academic performance of the

pupils. It is against this backdrop that this study

investigated the impact of external instructional

supervision and supervisory attitude on primary

school teachers' productivity.

Research Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were formulated to

pilot the study:


external instructional supervision and teachers'

productivity


instructional supervisory attitude and teachers'

productivity.

Methodology

The research is descriptive as the study describes the

existing situation regarding external instructional

supervision and attitude as predictors of teachers’

productivity in South West Nigerian primary schools

without manipulating any of the variables.

The population of the study consisted of Head

teachers and teachers from all the primary schools in

South West Nigeria. The South West Nigeria consists

of 6 States namely: Ekiti state, Lagos state, Ogun

State, Ondo State, Osun State and Oyo State. As at the

time of the study, there were 1,125 primary schools

in Ekiti State, Ondo state had 1,166 primary schools,

Ogun state had 1,336 primary schools, Oyo State had

1576 primary schools, and Osun state had 1,152

primary schools while Lagos state had a total number

of 2,237 primary schools making a total number of

8,592 primary schools in the six states. The schools

were both private and public.

The sample for this study would be 1500

respondents comprising of 300 head teachers and

1200 teachers from 300 schools. Multistage sampling

technique was used to select the sample. The first

stage was a random selection of three states out of

the six states and 300 primary schools from the three

states; it was a proportional random selection of 100

schools per state in South West Nigeria.

At the second stage, five local government areas

were selected from each state using simple random

technique. The third stage involved the use of

proportionate stratified sampling technique to select

public and private schools in each of the three states

selected.

At the fourth stage, simple and purposive random

sampling techniques were used to select 4 teachers

and 1 head teacher per school respectively. Teachers

who had spent at least five years in the school were

purposely sampled to ensure that they must have

contributed to pupils' academic performance being

measured.


45

Research Instruments

Two sets of instruments were used for the study. The

first instrument lagged Instructional Supervision

Questionnaire (ISQ)' contains two sections. Section A

is for bio data of the respondents. Section B consists

of 29 items on external instructional supervision.

The second instrument is teacher's productivity

inventory; it indicates the three years of academic

performance of the pupils. The head teachers would

provide the information on pupils' academic

performance with regards to total number of pupils

who sat for the examination, number of pupils who

scored less than 40%, number of pupils who scored

40 - 49%,-and number of pupils who 50% and above.

Validity of the Instruments

The instruments for the study (ISQ and TPI) were

subjected to screening by the experts in the areas of

tests and Measurement and Educational

Management. The experts determined at face level

the appropriateness of the instruments in measuring

what they intended to Measure. Moreover, the

experts reviewed the items in terms of clarity such

that all words that could confuse the respondents

were removed. Based on their comments,

recommendations and modification, the instruments

were restructured and corrected.

Experts' judgments were also used to determine the

construct and content validity. Moreover, the experts

took time to check the extent to which the items of

the instruments were representative of the content,

construct behaviour and suitability specified by the

theoretical concept being measured.

Reliability of the instruments

The reliability of the ISQ was established through

test-retest method. This involves the administration

of the instruments in some Primary Schools in Osun

state. The questionnaire was administered twice

within an interval of two weeks on 80 teachers and

20 head teachers in twenty primary schools who

were not included in the sample. TPI was the results

of primary six placement examinations taken for the

past three years, it was used to measure teachers'

productivity.TPI needs no reliability because the data

had already existed in the schools.

The scores from the sets of responses were

correlated using Pearson product moment

correlation analysis in order to obtain the reliability

coefficient. A reliability co-efficient of 0.85 was

obtained for the ISQ. The coefficient was considered

high enough for the reliability. The Teacher

Productivity inventory (TPI) needs no reliability as

the data already existed in the schools. The results of

three years primary six placement examinations

which already existed in the schools were used to

measure Teachers' Productivity.

Administration of the Instruments

The instruments for the study were administered by

the researcher with the help of research assistants.

The researcher trained the research assistants to be

used in the administration of the instruments. Where

necessary, follow up visits were made by the

researcher to the schools to ensure that the

instruments were promptly completed and returned.

Data Analysis

Data collected for the study were analyzed using both

descriptive and inferential statistics. The descriptive

statistics that were used are frequency counts,

percentages, means, and standard deviation. The two

hypotheses formulated were tested using Pearson

Product Moment Correlation analysis. The

hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.

Results



teachers' productivity.

The hypothesis was tested using the responses to

items 30-58 of ISQ and TPI. The results are presented

in table 1.


46

Table 1: Test of Relationship between External Instructional Supervision and Teachers’ Productivity.

V a r i a b l e s N M e a n S D r - c a l r-table

E x t e r n a l I n s t r u c t i o n a l 3 0 0 6 4 . 1 1 1 1 . 1 0

S u p e r v i s i o n 0 . 5 7 2 0 . 1 9 5

T e a c h e r s ' 3 0 0 6 4 . 7 0 1 1 . 3 9

P r o d u c t i v i t y

P<0.05

Table 1 reveals the relationship between external

instructional supervision and teachers' productivity.

The result from the analysis reveals that the value of

r-calculated is 0.572 is greater that the r-table of

0.195 at 0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis

is therefore rejected. This means that there is a

relationship between external instructional

supervision and teachers' productivity.


between instructional supervisory attitude and


The hypothesis was tested using the responses to

items 10-18 of section B and items 39-47 of section C

of ISQ and the inventory (TPI). The results are

presented in table 3.

Table 2: Test of Relationship between Instructional Supervisory Attitude and Teachers' Productivity.

V a r i a b l e s N M e a n S D r - c a l r - t a b l e

I n s t r u c t i o n a l S u p e r v i s o r y 3 0 0 6 5 . 2 1 1 0 . 0 7

A t t i t u d e

0 . 5 3 2 0 . 1 9 5

T e a c h e r s ' P r o d u c t i v i t y 3 0 0 6 4 . 7 0 1 1 . 3 9

P < 0.05

Table 2 shows the relationship between instructional

supervisory attitude and teachers' productivity. The

result obtained from the analysis shows that the

value of r-calculated of 0.532 is greater than r-table

value of 0.195. Therefore, the null hypothesis is

rejected at 0.05 level of significant. This means there

is significant relationship between instructional

supervisory attitude and teachers' productivity.

Discussion

It was found that there was significant relationship


teachers' productivity. It could be inferred from the

tested hypothesis that better instructional

supervisors from the Ministry of Education both at

local and state levels enhance better productivity and

vice versa. The finding of this study supports

Knezevich (1975), Ogunsaju (1988), Beach and

Reinhartz (2000). The result of this study contradicts

Akubue (2001) and Akinwumiju (2003,

The study revealed that there was significant

relationship between instructional supervisory

attitude and teachers' productivity. This means that

the behaviour of instructional supervision is

important to teachers' productivity. It is expected

that supervisor should not see the teachers as

servants but see them as a professional colleagues

and partners in progress in achieving the goals of the

school system. It is expected also that the supervisors

are sensitive to the needs, feeling and aspiration of

teachers. Supervisors are not to be seniority

conscious but display maturity in performing their

duties, they are expected to show experience in

teaching and learning situation, encourage new ideas

of teaching and learning. They are expected to give

advice to inexperienced teachers and discuss the

outcome of supervision with the teachers. Where all

these are done, teachers' productivity will be

facilitated. The findings of the study may be as a

result of good instructional supervisory attitude on

the part of the external instructional supervision and

the teachers. These findings support those of UPEP

(2002) and Ogunsaju (1988) who were of the opinion

that supervisors should work in harmony with

teachers so as to achieve maximum productivity.


Based on the findings of the study, external

Instructional supervision and supervisory attitude

were important factors in teachers' productivity.

Based on the findings of this study, the following

recommendations were made: Since external

instructional supervision significantly related to


47

teachers' productivity, Government should continue

to lay more emphasis on these aspects of supervision

in order to improve teachers' productivity. Teachers

should continue to be more productive to show to the

society that they are actually working. Also, parents

should try as much as possible to buy necessary

textbooks for their wards so as to enhance better


References

Adeyemo D. A. & Aremu A. O (2008): Career commitment among secondary school teachers in Oyo State: The role of biographical mediators Nigerian Journal of Applied Psychology, 5(1 & 2); 185- 195.

Adibe, P. (1999): Productivity and the rewards of labour in which way Nigeria. Selected speeches of Jerome, Udoji. Ibadan: Spectrum books.

Akinwumiju J. A. (2003): Impact of Motivation and Supervision on Teachers' Productivity in secondary schools in Oyo State: Unpublished Ph. D Thesis, University of Ibadan.

Akubue, E. A. (2001): In 28th Annual National

Agriculture Education Research Conference,

December 12, 2001, page 330.

Beach, D. M. and Reinhartz, J. (2000): Supervision: Focus on instruction. New York: Harper and Row.

Durosaro, D. O. (2004): Motivation Concept and Issues in Durosaro & Ogunsaju (Eds.) The Craft of Educational Management Ibadan: Reginason Book Publishers.

Emunemu, P. O. (2006): Modern Supervisory Approaches in primary schools. A lecture delivered to Primary School Head Teachers. Ekiti S UP E B.

Federal Government of Nigeria, (20000):

Universal Basic Education Scheme:

implementation blueprint. Abuja: Government

press.

Federal Ministry of Education (2000): Inspection

standards Format Inspectorate Division, Abuja.

Galton, N. Simon, B. & Grolls, S. (1980): Inside the

primary school classroom. London: Routiledge

and Kegan Paul.

Garret, T. A. & Poole, W. (2005): Stop paying more

for less: Ways to boost productivity in higher

education. U.S.A.: Federal Reserve Bank.

Glanz, J. Shulmna, V. & Sullivan, S. (2007): Impact

of Instructional Supervision on student

achievement; can we make the connection?

Retrieved June 26 (2007) from ERIC via first

research.

Hornby, A. S. (1998): Oxford Advanced Learners’

Dictionary of Current English. London: Oxford

University Press.

Ibukun, W. O. (1990): Educational supervision:

Concepts and practice with reference to

Ondo State Nigeria. Ilorin: Journal of

Educational Foundation. 1(1); 143-153

Knezevich: J. S. (1975): Administration of Public

Education. New York: Harper and Row.

Nwakwo, J. N. (1981): Education administration and

supervision. Associateship Certificate in

Education Series. Ibadan. Heinemann Books ltd.

Oluyede, S. (2007): Enhancing managerial

competence for public officers: introduction. A

paper delivered during a workshop organized

by University of Ibadan Consultancy unit, April,

16th -20th.

Ogunsaju, (1998): Education Supervision,

perspective, and practices in Nigeria, Ile Ife:

University of Ife press Ltd.

Universal Basic Education Programme (U. B. E. P.)

(2002): A training handbook for Nigerian

primary school inspectors and supervisors.

Ibadan: Sterling Horden publishers (Nig) Ltd.


48

EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION FACILITIES AND TRANSITION INTO PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN KWARA, KOGI

AND NIGER STATES OF NIGERIA

Fasasi Y. A. and Yisa M. H.

Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education,

University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.

Abstract

Provision of adequate facilities in educational institutions is the hallmark of effective teaching, learning and transition to the next level of education. Government’s objective on Early Childhood Education (ECE) is to effect a smooth transition from home to school and the extent to which this has been achieved needs to be determined.This study investigated provision of ECE facilities and its influence on transition of pupils into primary schools in Kwara, Kogi and Niger States in Nigeria. Stratified proprotional random sampling technique was used to select 1,531 head teachers as participants in the study. Researcher-designed instruments ‘ECE Facility Checklist’ and ‘Smooth Transition Achievement Questionnaire’(STAQ) were used for data collection. The instruments were validated. Test-retest method was used to determine the reliability co-efficient of STAQ at 0.68. Two research questions were answered and two hypotheses were tested. The study found a significant difference in the level of provision of ECE facilities in public and private schools with p-value .000. Also, there was a significant difference in the level of achievement of smooth transition in public and private schools with p-value .012. It was concluded that inadequacy of ECE facilities could negatively affect the level of smooth transition of children in public schools. It was recommended among others that, the government should ensure that ECE schools are provided with adequate and relevant facilities to ensure smooth transition and that only primary schools with adequate facilities should be accredited to provide ECE in their schools.

Key words: Early Childhood Education Facilities, Smooth Transition, Public and Private Schools

Introduction

In recent years, provision of Early Childhood

Education (ECE) has received an increasing priority

in many countries. This could be due to the UNESCO

education policy of ‘catch them young’ which the

countries have adopted. In Nigeria, ECE is provided in

public and private primary educational institutions

with a view to giving children a foundation for

acquisition of further knowledge and skills.

ECE, also refered to as Early Childhood Care,

Development and Education, is the care, protection,

stimulation and learning given to children aged 0-6 in

creche, nursery and kindergarten. Administration of

creche and nursery is in the hands of private sectors

and social development officers while kindergarten

is in government and private primary school system

(Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2013). The Government

encourages children to enrol in ECE schools in order

to acquire basic education and stay in the system to

further develop themselves in primary, secondary

and higher education. This is in realisation of the fact

that a nation cannot develop beyond the quality of its

human resources and that education is an

instrument for production of high level workforce

who will in turn tranform the nation into a developed

one.

An objective of ECE is to effect a smooth transition

from home to school.This could be seen as a very vital

objective. Other objectives such as preparation of

children for primary level, inculcation of social and

moral values, and teaching of learning skills as

contained in the education policy are likely to be

accomplished when a solid educational foundation

must have been laid through a smooth transition

from home to school. In order to achieve this, the

Government has encouraged private school

proprietors to produce and utilise teaching and

learning materials. It also required the public schools

to equip their ECE classes with relevant and adequate

materials (Ogunyemi, 2013, Awoyemi, 2013).


49

The importance of teaching and lerning facilities in

the achievement of educational objectives cannot be

over emphasised. Children are naturally explorers of

the environment. They react and adjust according to

the conduciveness and friendliness of the

environment (OECD, 2011, Bibi, 2013). When ECE

classrooms are equipped with necessary facilities for

reading, resting, drawing, painting and enough space

for recreation, the children will not only achieve easy

and smooth transition from home to school but will

also achieve total development. According to

Abdulkareem and Fasasi (2012), educational facilities

constitute essential inputs which could generate

favourable learning environment and interaction.

Adequate provision of the facilities at appropriate

time could make school curriculum meaningful and

functional, they concluded, The Government has

spelt out the facilities expected in the sschools. They

include piece of land which is spacious enough to

accommodate future development, administrative

blocks, toilet and health facilities, classroom

furniture, play ground and equipment, electricity,

pottable water, educative wallcharts, pictures and

toys, among others (Federal Ministry of Education,

2005). This study is therefore set to investigate

provision of teaching and learning facilities and the

extent to which it has influhenced smooth transition

in ECE schools.

Purpose of the study

Smooth and easy transition from home to school is

very crucial to the children, parents and the school.

Achieving this important goal could prepare the

children for skills which are needed to achieve all

other early childhood education goals. The purposes

of this study therefore, were to

1. find out the of level provision of ECE facilities in

public and private schools in Kwara, Kogi and

Niger States of Nigeria,

2. determine the level of achievement of smooth

transition in public and private early childhood

education schools in Kwara, Kogi and Niger

States of Nigeria,

3. investigate whether there is significant

difference in the of provision of early childhood

education facilities in public and private schools

in Kwara, Kogi and Niger States of Nigeria, and

4. ascertain whether there is significant difference

in the of achievement of smooth transition in

public and private early childhood education

schools in Kwara, Kogi and Niger States of

Nigeria.

Research Questions

1. What is the level of provision of early childhood

education facilities in public and private

schools in Kwara, Kogi and Niger States of

Nigeria?

2. What is the level of achievement of smooth

transition in public and private early

childhood education schools in Kwara, Kogi

and Niger States of Nigeria?

Research Hypotheses

Ho1: There is no significant difference in the

provision of early childhood education facilities in

public and private schools in Kwara, Kogi and Niger

States of Nigeria

Ho2: There is no significant difference in the

achievement of smooth transition in public and

private early childhood education schools in Kwara,

Kogi and Niger States of Nigeria

Methodology

Descriptive survey design was in the study. Stratified

proportional random sampling technique was used to

obtain a sample of 1,531, representing 35% of total

population of 4,378 early childhood education

schools. The sample consist 684 and 847 ECE public

and private schools respectively. Head teachers in all

the schools (684 public and 847 private) were

involved in the study.

Two research instruments were used for data

gathering. These were ECE Facility Checklist and

Smooth Transition Achievement Questionnaire

(STAQ). Validity of the instruments were determined

by experts in the field of Educational Management

and Educational Measurement and Evaluation from

University of Ilorin. Reliability test of STAQ was done

using test-retest method which yielded 0.68

coefficient. The instruments were administered by

the researchers and six trained reseach assistants.

Usable returns from the respondents in public and

private schools were 676 (98.8%) and 835 (98.6%)

respectively and these were used for data analyses.

Mean and percentage were used to answer research

questions while research hypotheses were tested

using t-test statisitc at 0.05 level of significance


50

Results and Discussions

Research Question 1: What is the level of provision of

early childhood education facilities in public and

private schools in Kwara, Kogi and Niger Sates of

Nigeria?

Table 1: Provision of Early Childhood Education Facilities in Public and Private Schools in Kwara, Kogi and Niger

States of Nigeria

Facilities Public Private

No. of No % No. of No %

Schools Available Schools Available

Play ground 676 518 76.6 835 835 100

Toilets 676 345 51.0 835 569 68.1

Water supply 676 352 52.0 835 494 59.1

Electronic 676 618 91.4 835 786 94.1

Instructional materials 676 618 91.4 835 791 94.1

Security 676 525 77.6 835 609 73.0

Musical instruments 676 358 52.9 835 616 73.7

Toys 676 445 65.8 835 627 75.0

Offices 676 676 100 835 835 100

Beds/mattress 676 255 37.7 835 632 75.6

TOTAL 6760 4710 69.7 8350 6704 80.3

Source: Fieldwork

Table 1 shows that out of all the facilities

investigated, beds and mattresses, water supply,

toilets, and musical instruments were the least

provided by public schools. All the sampled private

schools had one form of play-ground facility or the

other. However, provision of offices recorded 100%

in both public and private schools. Although, facilities

such as toys,classrooms, instructional materials,

electronics and security were found in most of the

sampled public and private schools, the percentages

for their provision were higher in private ECE

schools. It was observed that some facilities in public

and private schools were not functional. The high

population of children in private schools make the

available facilities inadequate. The facilities do not

meet the ratio of number of children per facility use

especially playing ground, beds/mattresses and toys.

Research Question 2: What is the level of smooth

transition achievement in public and private early

childhood education schools in Kwara, Kogi and

Niger Sates of Nigeria?


51

Table 2: Level of Smooth Transition in Public and Private Early Childhood Education Schools in Kwara, Kogi and Niger States of Nigeria

Items Public Private

No sampled No Agreed % Agreed No sampled No Agreed % Agreed

My school has conducive 676 493 73 835 802 96 environment for children easy transition from home to school. My school has attractive environ- 676 460 68 835 710 85 ment for children easy adjustment to the school environment. My school has homely environ- 676 439 65 835 760 91 mentfor easy adjustment of children to school Children in my school adjust easily 676 480 71 835 805 95 to school environment on their first few weeks Children interact freely with one 676 546 76 835 835 100 another in my school Children do care for one another 676 392 58 835 626 75 in my school Children in my school participate 676 575 85 835 835 100 actively in class activities Childern in my school do not find 676 480 71 835 685 82 it diffucult letting their parents go when drooping them in school in the first few weeks of enrolment Children in my school are always 676 501 75 835 835 100 happily engaged in class activites through the school hours The children in my school are 676 548 81 835 835 100 fimiliar with the class settings Children in my school listen 676 546 76 835 701 84 to stories, learn songs and rhymes Children in my school react to 676 453 67 835 651 78 stories, songs and rhymes learnt in the class Children in my school are 676 392 58 835 676 81 adequately protected from environment hazards

TOTAL 8788 6341 72% 10855 9756 90% Source: Field work

The result in Table 2 demonstrates that level

of smooth transition in both public and private

schools is high. Children are always happily engaged

in class activities throughout the school hours, they

are familiar with the classroom settings and interact

freely with one another in the school as this items

recorded 100% agreed for both public and private

schools.

The rate of resistance of young children when taken

to school by parent or guardian was higher in public

schools than in private schools. This means that


52

children in private schools do not find it difficult

letting their parents go when dropping them in

school in the first few weeks of enrolment with 95%

for private schools and 71% for public schools. This

implies that the schools provide conducive, homely

and attractive environment for easy adjustment of

the children. Also, private schools had better,

conducive and attractive environment for children

easy transition from home to school and easy

adjustment to the school environment than the public

schools. As shown in Table 2, public schools had 73%

and 68% for conducive and attractive environments

respectively while private had 96% and 85%

respectively. It also implies that the children

emotional, psychological and physical needs

naturally provided by their mothers at home are

taken care of by the teachers in the schools using the

necessary available facilities for the convenience of

the children. The result also shows that more

children in private schools do not find it difficult to

let their parents go after dropping them at school

especially at the early stage of enrolment. This is

indicated by 82% positive for private schools and

71% positive for public schools. Responses in the

Table2 show that public schools had 72% smooth

transition while private schools had 90% smooth

transition.

Research Hypotheses

Ho1: There is no significant difference in the level of

provision of facilities in public and private early


Niger Sates of Nigeria.

Table 3. Significant Difference in the Levels of Provision of ECE Facilities by Public and Private Schools in Kwara,

Kogi and Niger States of Nigeria

Variables N Mean SD cal. t value p value Remark

Public 676 24.25 12.80 Ho

3.66 .000 Rejected

Private 835 26.45 9.92 Significant level: 0.05

The result in Table 3 shows that the p-value (.000) is

less than the calculated t value at 0.05 level of

significance. Hence the null hypothesis which stated

that there is no significant difference in the level of

provision of facilities in public and private early


Niger States of Nigeria is rejected. This shows that

there were more facilities such as classrooms, offices,

toilets, instructional materials, outdoor facilities

among others in private ECE schools (x=26.45) than

those of the public schools (x=24.25).

Ho2: There is no significant difference in the level of

achievement of smooth transition in public and

private schools in Kwara, Kogi and Niger Sates of

Nigeria.

Table 4: The Levels of Smooth Transition Achievement in Public and Private Schools in Kwara, Kogi and Niger

States of Nigeria

Variables N Mean SD cal. t value p value Remark

Public 676 50.21 6.76 Ho

942 .012 rejected

Private 835 58.55 7.30

Significance level: (0.05)

The result in Table 4 revealed that the p-value (.012)

is less than the calculated t value at 0.05 level of

significance. This indicates that there was significant

difference in the levels of achievement of smooth

transition from home to schools in public and private

early childhood education schools in Kwara, Kogi and


53

Niger States of Nigeria. Hence, the null hypothesis

was rejected. The finding has shown that there was

significant difference in the levels of smooth

transition in public and private schools with

(x=50.21) for public and (x=58.55)for private

schools.


The study reveaveled that public schools has low percentage in the provision of beds/mattresses, water supply, toilets, and musical instruments. The private schools however recorded above 50 % provision in all the facilities under study. This is in line with Amakiev (2013)’s assertion that provision and maintenance of infrastructure such as buildings, equipment and instructional materials are problems hindering the provision of ECE especially in public schools. The finding in Table 2 has shown more than 50% achivement of smooth transition in all the items under study in both private and public schools.Okoro (2006) opined that the pre-primary schools should be a happy place that provide easy transition from home to school. However, most of the ECE classroom activities are more of academic than home like setting that is to provide friendly, comfortable and exploring environment.In testing the hypotheses,

Table 3 revealed that, there exists a significant

difference in the provision of ECE facilities by public

and private schools. Myers (2000) stated that private

sector involvement in education is as a result of

common complain of inefficient administration of

public schools and the poor use of available scarce

resources. Therefore, it is presumed that privately

operated ECE schools are more equipped with

necessary facilities, conducive environment and

qualified teachers as they are operating within a

competitive environment and would need to be

accountable to users. Availability of more facilities in

the private ECE schools could be due to most private

schools starting as ECE schools before the

introduction of primary and secondary schools. As

the private schools progresses, they undergo

expansion and have ECE, primary and secondary

linkages.

Lack of adequate facilities in the public ECE schools

could be due to the establishment of ECE within the

existing public primary schools. The introduction of

free ECE is a welcome development. However the

existing primary schools where ECE was introduced

were already battling with inadequate and

dilapidated facilities. Hence, releasing some of their

facilities for provision of ECE could result in shortage

of the facilities in the primary school section. Thus,

available facilities for public school early childhood

education have to be managed as the government is

yet to make sufficient provision.

Table 4 shows that there exists a signicant difference

in ECE achievement of smooth transition by public

and private schools. This finding is in line with

Ogundele, Sambo and Bwoi (2014) finding which

revealed that the pre-primary pupils are prepared for

effective transition into primary level of education in

ECE schools. However, the present finding has

revealed that significant difference existed in the

achievement of smooth transition by public and

private schools. The smooth transition of child from

home to school as one of the goals of early childhood

education cannot be achieved without adequate

facilities in public and private schools.

Achievement of smooth transition could be as a result

of the private schools having conducive and

comfortable environment for children get their needs

met through the use of available facilities. The toilets,

beds and mattresses are readily and easily accessible

for use to meet the children nature needs. Also

children soon forget their worries of leaving their

parents as they interact with their peers using the

available facilities such as toys, outdoor facilities and

listening to stories read to them from story books

available in the school.

Conclusions

Based on the findings, it was concluded that both

public and private schools are providing early

childhood education facilities for the achievement of

smooth transition of the child from home to school.

However, there is significant difference in the level of

provision. The private schools were found to have

more facilities in place than in the public schools.

Recommendations

Based on the conclusions, it is recommended that, the

government as the proprietor of public schools,

should ensure that the schools are upgraded with

adequate and relevant facilities to ensure the

achievement of smooth transition. It is also

recommended that only public primary schools with

adequate facilities should be mandated to provide

early childhood education. Facilities such as toilets,

classrooms, toys are very important for children’s

comfort and easy transition in the schools. Therefore,

schools should source for facilities from non-


54

governmental organizations and parents in form of

donations and fund raising among other means.

The public schools need to imbibe maintenance

culture to maximize the use of available facilities to

increase their levels of smooth transition. To achieve

high level retention and subsequent transition,

parents especially mothers should be encouraged for

the first few weeks to either pick up the children

immediately the school closes or they should visit the

school during break time if possible to reduce the

loneliness and crying in children. Likewise, private

schools should be mandated to update ECE facilities

in their schools. Also, admission of ECE children into

their schools should not be more than their facilities

can handle.

References

Abdulkareem, A. Y. & Fasasi, Y. A. (2012).

Management of educational facilities in Nigerian

secondary schools: The roles of administrators

and inspectors. East African Researchers.

Published by Kisubi Brothers, University

College, Uganda 2(2), 99-107. Available online

http://www.kbuc.ac.ug

Amakiev, O. I. (2013). Historical analysis of Federal

Government innovations in early childhood

education in Nigeria,1977 - 2008. International

journal of accademic research in business and

social sciences, 63.

Awoyemi, O. A. (2013). Resolving the challenges of

private primary schools in Nigeria. In P. K.

Ojedele, M. Arikewuyo, & A. Njoku (Eds),

Challenges of Educational Development in

Nigeria (pp. 390-427). Ondo: NIEPA.

Bibi, M. (2013). Challenges of quality education in

Nigerian education system. In P. K. Ojedele, M.

Arikewuyo, & A. Njoku (Eds), Challenges of

Educational Development in Nigeria (pp. 563-

578). Ondo: NIEPA.

Federal Ministry of Education (2005). Minimum

standard for establishing schools. Abuja: Federal

Ministry of Education

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013). National policy on

education. Lagos: NERDC.

Myers, G. R. (2000). The role of the private sector in

early childhood care and development. World

Bank. Washinton DC: A paper presented at

conference on the early childhood development

investing in our children 's future.

OECD. (2011). Lessons from PISA for United States,

strong performers in education. OECD

Publishing.

Ogundele, M.O., Sambo, M.A. & Bwoi, G. M. (2O14).

Supervisory practices and goal achievement of

early childhood educational programme in

Kwara State. Asia Pacific Journal of a

multidisciplinary Research, 6-13.

Ogunyemi, T. F. (2013). Mushroom private

nursery/primary schools: The bane of

qualitative early childhood education in Nigeria.

In P. K. Ojedele, M. Arikewuyo, & A. Njoku (Eds),

Challenges of Educational Development in

Nigeria (pp. 809-826). Ondo: NIEPA.

Okoro, O. (2006). Philosophy of pre-primary

education. Onitsha: Ballin publishers Nigeria

limited.


55

PRINCIPALS’ MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES AND TEACHERS’ TASK PERFORMANCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

IN EKITI STATE

1Ajayi I.A., 2Olawolu O.E and 3Olojuola O.M

1&3Dept. of Educational Management, Faculty of Education Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti

2Dept. of Educational Foundations School of Education,

Federal College of Education (Tech), Omoku, Rivers State.

Abstract

This study examined principals’ motivational strategies and teachers’ task performance in secondary schools in Ekiti state. The study investigated the extent to which teachers’ working conditions, and authority-staff relationship, relate to teachers’ task performance in secondary schools in Ekiti state. The study adopted descriptive research design of survey type. The population of this study consisted of all the 7538 teachers and 179 principals in public secondary schools in Ekiti state. The sample consisted of 315 respondents selected through multistage sampling procedure, which include stratified random sampling and simple random sampling techniques. The instruments used were Principals’ Motivational Strategies Questionnaire (PMSQ), and Teachers’ Task Performance Questionnaire (TTPQ). The face and content validity were used. Test-re-test method was adopted to establish the reliability of the instruments, reliability coefficients of 0.88 and 0.89 were obtained for PMSQ and TTPQ respectively. The study showed that there was significant relationship between principals’ motivational strategies and teachers’ task performance. Moreover, working conditions, authority-staff relationship were significantly related to teachers’ task performance. Based on the findings of this study, it was recommended that good working conditions, authority-staff relationship could be guaranteed to ensure high teachers’ task performance.

Key words: Principals, Motivational strategies, Authority-staff, Task Performance

Introduction

In the recent years, there has been a high concern by

the education stakeholders about the performance of

secondary school students in their internal and

external examinations. Public opinions have often

been expressed that the teachers are no longer

dedicated and committed to their task performance.

The principals who are the heads of the institutions

seem not to adequately motivate the teachers to

perform their task towards the attainment of the

secondary schools’ goals as specified in the national

policy on education.

Observation has shown that teachers’ task appears

difficult and complex in recent times. There are

instances when secondary school students engaged

their teachers in fighting while performing their

lawful duties; the students indulge in stealing,

cultism, drug abuse and absenteeism. The parents

who are supposed to give moral training to their

children appear to have abandoned their

responsibility for some other things. The above

scenario shows that there are lapses somewhere. The

teachers are expected to curb indiscipline among the

students, teach their various lessons and carryout

other duties as may be assigned to them by the

principals. If the teachers who are trained and

expected to produce a host of cherished societal

virtues such as honesty, humanity, fairness, integrity,

punctuality, dedication and patriotism are not

dedicated and committed to these tasks, then there is

problem.

According to Ocho (1998) and Aghenta (1998),

through discharge of teachers’ task, a new era of

purity and progress is expected in the classroom and

the society at large. Also, Afe (1995) pointed out that

teaching task is done through conscious and

deliberate efforts. But for a teacher to carry out these,

he/she needs to be adequately motivated by his/her

principal. The principal organizes the efforts of

teachers who are the channel of instructions in the

school system to achieve the school goals.

In Ekiti state, public opinion have often been

expressed that the teachers lack proper motivation.

The teachers’ remuneration is not enough to tackle

high cost of living, salaries are not regularly paid, and


56

the authority-staff relationship is adjudged not

cordial. Teachers seem not to adequately enjoy their

fringe benefits and allowances like their counterparts

in the health sectors and some other sectors of the

economy. The fringe benefits include: hazard

allowance, overtime allowance, marking allowance,

disturbances allowance. This could motivate teachers

to work beyond predetermined level, if given

attention. The seemingly lack of commitment and

dedication to teaching such as inadequate coverage of

the syllabus, lateness to work, no feedback for

assignments, not participating in disciplining

students among others, has been attributed to lack of

motivation or drive. In realization of educational

goals and objectives, teachers’ contributions to

economical and socio-cultural development of any

society are very important.

Ibukun (1997) perceived motivation as a general

term that describes the needs, wishes, desires and

other internal forces that push individuals towards

organizational goals. While Metler (1992), Hall

(1996), Frelberg (1998), Akanbi (2003), and

described motivation as instigation to action. Ibukun

(1997) opined that the primary task of management

is to co-ordinate co-workers in an organization so

that the goal of the group can be achieved. He further

stated that one strategy for ensuring the achievement

of group goals is through the creation of conducive

mental and physical environment for work and this

could be attained through conscious motivation of

workers. Herzberg, betemson, & Synder-man, (1956)

studied various factors relating to the job

performance and their relation to employee

motivation and concluded that they can be divided

into hygiene factors and motivational factors (Tyner,

2007; Mahmood & Mahmood, 2010). Hygiene factors,

which relate to the work setting and not the content

of the work, include adequate wages, comfortable

and safe working conditions, fair company policies,

and job security (Van Herpen, 2003; Tyner, 2007).

These factors do not necessarily motivate employees

to excel but will definitely have an effect on the

employees performance and their absence may be a

potential source of employee dissatisfaction.

Many people viewed good salary as one of the most

important job factors, even more important than job

security and the chance to use one's abilities (Tyner,

2007; Mahmood & Mahmood, 2010). Salary and

security, two of the hygiene factors identified by

Herzberg, make it possible for employees to satisfy

the physiological and security needs as identified by

Abraham Maslow in his theory of needs. However,

the presence of hygiene factors is unlikely to

motivate employees to work harder. Motivational

factors, which relate to the content of the work itself,

include achievement, recognition, involvement,

responsibility, and advancement (Tyner, 2007). The

absence of motivational factors may not result in

dissatisfaction, but their presence is likely to

motivate employees to excel.

Today government cannot rely solely on the payment

of salaries and fringe, benefits or working conditions

to encourage teachers to perform effectively and

efficiently, it is the duty of the principal to create and

develop a conducive environment in which teachers

will be motivated to become productive members of

the school by striving for what will bring them

reward. It is against this background that this study

intends to investigate the influence of principals’

motivational strategies on teachers’ task

performance in secondary schools in Ekiti State.

When workers lack motivation they tend to resort to

anti-work behaviours such as absenteeism,

negligence of duty, late-coming, failure to meet

deadlines, display of open frustration and all these

factors work negatively to the performance and

credibility of an organization. Organizations need to

place all efforts to ensure that incentives such as

intrinsic and extrinsic motivator and Performance

management approaches are used in order to retain

and attract workers efforts, satisfaction and

commitment.

A good authority-staff relation motivational strategy

is essential to keep teachers motivated. This will

result in increased productivity. Teachers should feel

comfortable walking into the principal’s office at

virtually any time to express thoughts and concerns,

make suggestions, and ask questions. Principa.ls

should feel equally comfortable in walking into a

teacher’s classroom for the same reasons. A good

authority staff relationship is important for building

trust and confidentiality, and is a valuable resource

when building morale in the school (Lloyd, 2001). A

crucial aspect of the good authority-staff relationship

is communication, which promotes team

cohesiveness (Zoglio, 2002). Poor communication

results in low productivity, morale problems, and

lack of commitment among employees (Lloyd, 2001).


57

While teachers may not always listen to what their

administrators say, they always watch what their

administrators do. An easy low-cost way to keep

teachers motivated and to build high morale is to

celebrate, making the spirit of the organization

visible (Frelberg & Fredberg, 1998). Teachers need

formal and informal parties throughout the year to

celebrate teachers’ accomplishment and the positive

events that occur in the school. Frequent receptions

can help teachers to remain focused on the good

positive aspects of their profession.

“When there is an organizational event or

celebration, the character changes

somewhat. It gives people time to pull back,

relax, celebrate what has been

accomplished, and look at each other as

fellow humans bound together by a common

purpose” (Grazier, 1998).

It is not enough to achieve the goals and objectives of

institution, it is equally important to maintain the

group of workers. Some principals’ could force

workers to get work done quickly, but the workers

are hardly satisfied and sometimes they develop

hostile attitudes among themselves and towards the

principal which would normally lead to reduction in

teachers’ task performance when the principal is

absent. The low academic performance of students

especially in the secondary school system in the

country could be attributed to frustration caused by

non-challant attitudes of some principals to the needs

and welfare of the teachers in their schools.

Teachers spend most of their working days on the

school premises and the physical working conditions

of a school depend on the school’s financial state.

Although not every teacher has the opportunity to

work in a new school building, Vail (2005) pointed

out that the state of a school’s physical facilities

affects teacher morale. Lethoko, M.x, Heystek, J. &

Maree, J. G. (2001) maintain that people are more

likely to value attractive, new, and properly

maintained facilities and infrastructure. When

teachers constantly lack such facilities, they become

demotivated. The teachers indicated that they

appreciate a spacious staffroom and a comfortable

staffroom is a sign that they are appreciated as

professionals.

When teachers welfare is taken care of and they are

allowed to realize that their wholesome suggestions

are welcome, that they are definite part of the

educational programmes and are free at all times to

initiate and develop new ideas and experiment to

ascertain their value, there will usually be greater

friendliness among the workers and between the

authority and the workers. The work usually

continues in the absence of the principal and the

teachers are generally satisfied.

In essence, through good authority staff relationship,

teachers would feel satisfied and would be willing to

extend same to the students through high task

performance.


The problem of this study arose from the background

information that teachers who are the channel of

instruction in the secondary school system appeared

not to be dedicated and committed to their task, the

principals as head of the school also seemed not to

be using adequate motivational methods to motivate

the teachers, leading to teachers’ poor working

condition, Authority-staff relationship appeared not

be cordial, which were believed to have contributed

to the perceived poor task performance of teachers

in our secondary schools today. It is against this

background that this study intends to investigate the

influence of principals’ motivational strategies on

teachers’ task performance in secondary schools in

Ekiti state.

Research Hypotheses

Based on the problem of this study, the following

hypotheses were formulated:


principal’s motivational strategies and teachers’

task performance.


teachers working condition and teachers task

performance.


authority-staff relationship and teachers’ task

performance.

Methodology

This study was a descriptive research design of

survey type. The sample consisted of 15 principals

and 300 teachers selected through multistage

sampling technique. The first stage involved the

selection of 5 secondary schools from each of the 3

senatorial districts in Ekiti State on local government

basis, using stratified random sampling technique.


58

The second stage involved the use of simple random

sampling technique to select 20 teachers from each of

the selected schools making a total of 300 teachers

and 15 principals which made up 315 respondents.

The research instruments used were self-designed

questionnaire titled, Principals’ Motivational

Strategies Questionnaire (PMSQ) and Teachers’ Task

Performance Questionnaire (TTPQ). Face and content

validity of the instruments were done by experts in

the area of Educational Management in Ekiti State

University. The reliability of the instrument was

ensured, through test-re-test method in two selected

secondary schools which were not included in the

sample. The two scores were correlated using the

Pearson Product Moment Correlation co-efficient.

Reliability co-efficient of 0.88 and 0.89 were obtained

for Principals’ Motivational Strategies Questionnaire

(PMSQ) and Teachers’ Tasks Performance Question-

naire (TTPQ) respectively. The researcher

administered the instruments personally to the

respondents and they were given enough time to

reflect over the items. The data were analyzed using

descriptive and inferential statistics and all the


Results

The following were the results based on the

hypotheses generated:

Hypothesis 1

There is no significant relationship between

principal’s motivational strategies and teachers’ task

performance.

In order to test this hypothesis, scores on principal

motivational strategies and teachers’ task

performance were computed using Pearson Product

Moment Correlation at 0.05 level of significance. The

result is presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Principals’ Motivational Strategies and

Teachers’ Task Performance

Variables N Mean SD rcal rtable

Principals’Motivational

Strategies

300 64.11 13.98

0.581*

0.195

Teachers Task

Performance

300 80.45 7.35

*P<0.05

Table 1 showed that rcal (0.581) was greater than rtable


hypothesis was rejected. This implies that there was

significant relationship between principal’s motiva-

tional strategies and teachers’ task performance.

Hypothesis 2

There is no significant relationship between teachers

working condition and teachers task performance,

In order to test this hypothesis, scores relating to

working condition and teachers’ task performance

were obtained and subsequently subjected to

statistical analysis involving Pearson’s Product



Table 2: Working Conditions and Teachers’ Task

Performance


Working

condition

300 10.70 3.71

0.333*

0.195

Teachers Task

Performance

300 80.45 7.35

*P<0.05

The result in Table 2 revealed that rcal (0.333) was

greater than rtable (0.195) at 0.05 level of significance.

The null hypothesis was rejected. This implies that

there was significant relationship between working

condition and teachers’ task performance.

Hypothesis 3


authority staff relationship and teachers’ task

performance.

In testing the hypothesis, scores on authority staff

relationship and teachers’ task performance were

computed and subjected to Pearson’s Product



Table 3: Authority-Staff Relationship and Teachers’

Task Performance


authority staff

relationship

300 13.11 2.93

0.432*

0.195

Teachers Task

Performance

300 80.45 7.35


59

*P<0.05

Table 3 revealed that rcal (0.432) was greater than

rtable (0.195) at 0.05 level of significance. The null


significant relationship between authority staff

relationship and teachers’ task performance.

Discussion

The finding of the study showed that there was

significant relationship between principals’

motivational strategies and teachers’ task

performance. This implies that, the achievement of

the goal which teachers are motivated to attain, such

as obtaining a higher qualification, which could

results in teacher earning a better earning a better

salary which could restore the teacher’s

psychological balance. The teacher will thus strive to

do his/her best to attain the best task performance.

Hence, if motivation of employees is increased, their

motivation to work will also improve, as well as their

accomplishments and the organizational

performance. The finding is in line with Afe (1995)

who pointed out that teaching task is done through

conscious and deliberate efforts. But for a teacher to

carry out these, he/she needs to be adequately

motivated by his/her principal.

The study also showed that there is significant

relationship between working conditions and

teachers’ task performance in public secondary

schools in Ekiti state. This implies that a healthy

organizational climate is desirable for better

commitment and productivity. Hence, if good

working condition is absent in school system, it could

pose danger to teachers’ task performance and

consequently affects the students’ academic

achievement in school environment. The finding is

consistent with the assertion of Ocho (1998) and

Aghenta (1998), through discharge of teachers’ task,

a new era of purity and progress is expected in the

classroom and the society at large.

The finding of the study revealed that there was

significant relationship between authority-staff

relationship and teachers’ task performance. This

implies that a good authority-staff relation

motivational strategy is essential to keep teachers

motivated, this will result to increase productivity.

Hence, poor authority-staff relationship results in low

productivity, morale problems and lack of

commitment among employees. The finding agrees

with Lloyd, (2001) who stated that a good authority

staff relationship is vital for a successful school and

begins with the administration. While teachers may

not always listen to what their administrators say,

they always watch what their administrators do.



that good working condition and authority-staff

relationship were good motivational strategies that

could be employed by the principals to bring about

better teachers task performance in secondary school

in Ekiti State. On the basis of the findings, the

following recommendations are made:

1. There should be improved working conditions

in terms of prompt payment of salary and fringe

benefits, allocation of office accommodation, and

creating conducive working environment.

2. School principals should ensure cordial

relationship with staff members and effective

supervision of teachers for optimum

performance.

References

Akanbi, D.Y. (2003). Relationship between Job

Satisfaction and Productivity Among Academics

Staff of Kwara Sztate College of Education.

Ilorin: Unpublished PGDE thesis, University of

Ilorin.

Afe, J.O. (1995): Teacher education in Nigeria Trends,

Issue and Changes. Publication of Nigerian

education research Association. University o

Benin, Benin City

Ekiti State Teaching Service Commission (2015):

Number of Teachers and Secondary School in

Ekiti State.

Frelberg.E. (1998): Incentives for Teachers: What

Motivates What Matters: Educational

Administration Quarterly Vol.22. No. 3 (Summer

1998)54-79.

Frelberg.E. & Fredberg .C. (1998): Incentives for

Teachers: What Motivates What

Matters: Educational Administration Quarterly Vol.22.

No. 3 (Summer 1998)54-79.

Grazier .C. (1998): Practices that Support Teacher

Development, Journal of Education Research.

Ph.D. Delta Kappan. Vol.76.No.8; 591-596

Hall, M.I (1996): Motivation and Leadership

Management Practices: Developing and


60

Motivating Teamwork. Projects Management

Process Manual. Falls Church, V.A: Educational

Formulation of NAPHCC.

Herzberg, F. Betemson, M. & Synder-man, B.B.

(1956): The Motivation to Work (21st Ed.) New

York: Willey and Sons. Pg 59-83.

Ibukun, W.O. (1997). Educational Management:

Theory and Practice. Greenland Publishers,

Lagos: Pg 42-57

Lethoko, M.x, Heystek, J. & Maree, J. G. (2001). The

role of the Principal And Students in Restoring

the culture of Learning, Teaching and Service in

Black Secondary Schools in the Pretoria Region.

South African Journal of Education, 21(4): 311-

317.

Lloyd. B. (2001): Work Orientation and Job

Performance toward a Cultural Theory of Work

Motivation Albany, NY State University of New

York Press.

Mahmood, M., Mahmood, M. (2010). Effect of Work

Motivation on Job Satisfaction in Mobile

Telecommunication Service Organizations of

Pakistan, International Journal of Business and

Management, 5 (11): 213-222.

Mertler .C.A. (1992): Teacher Motivation and Job

Satisfaction of Public School Teachers.

Unpublished Master’s Thesis. The Ohio State

University.

Ocho, L.O. (1998): The History of the Teaching

Profession in Nigeria: Teachers and Teaching in

Nigeria Issues, Challenges and Prospect. The

Nigeria Academy of Education Year Book No.2.

Tyner C. (2007). Theory of Employee Motivation:

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory Retrieved

http://voices.yahoo.com/theory-employee-

motivation-herzbergs-two-factor

647900.html?cat=3 on 6/11/2012 at 7:23 AM.

Vail, K. (2005). Climate Control. American School

Board Journal, 192 (6): 16-19.

Van Herpen, M. (2003). The Effects of Performance

Measurement and Compensation on Motivation:

An empirical Study, Tinbergen Institute

Discussion Paper 03, pp. 2-30. Global Journal of

Human Resource ManagementVol.3, No.6,

pp.30-43, November 2015_Published by

European Centre for Research Training and

Development UK (www.eajournals.org) 43ISSN

2053-5686(Print), ISSN 2053-5694(Online)

Zoglio, S.W. (2002): 7 Keys to Building Great

Workers. Journal of School Research and

Information. 13(1): 32-50

http://voices.yahoo.com/theory-employee-motivation-herzbergs-two-factor

http://voices.yahoo.com/theory-employee-motivation-herzbergs-two-factor

http://www.eajournals.org/


61

INSTITUTIONAL COMMUNICATION FLOWS AND LECTURERS’ JOB PERFORMANCE IN KWARA STATE

POLYTECHNIC, ILORIN, NIGERIA

1Ojo, O. J. and 2Illo,C. O.

Department of Educational Management University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara State

Department of Educational Foundations and Management School of Education

Michael Otedola College of Primary Education, NoforijaEpe, Lagos State.

Abstract

It is often said that communication is a very crucial component of organization activity.It is based on this assertion that this study examined institutional communication flow and lecturers’ job performance in Kwara State Polytechnic, Nigeria. The descriptive survey research design was adopted for the study.The population of this study comprised of 320 lecturers and 6560 students.A total of 200 participants were randomly selected for this study. Two researcher-designed questionnaires were used in data collection from the respondents.In other to ascertain the validity of the instruments used CFQ and LJPQ were given to experts in Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin for both the face and the content validity. The reliability of the instruments was carried out using test re-test method and the co-efficient obtained were 0.79 and 0.82 for the Communication Flow Questionnaire and Lecturers’ Job Performance Questionnaires respectively.Three hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The findings of this study revealed that there was a significant relationship between institutional upward communication flow and lecturers' job performance in Kwara State Polytechnic because the (p-value 0.00< 0.05); there was a significant relationship between horizontal communication flow and lecturers' job performance in Kwara State polytechnic because the (p-value 0.00 < 0.05); the study also revealed that there was a significant relationship between downward communication flow and lecturers' job performance in Kwara State Polytechnic because the (p-value 0.00 < 0.05).

The study recommended that, management of Kwara State Polytechnic should utilize the three communication flows to the fullest in order to enhance lecturers job performance.

Keywords: Communication Flows, Lecturers’ Job Performance, Upward, Downward and Horizontal

Introduction

Communication is an essential component of any

organization and it is needed for the effective

functioning of an organization. No wonder that many

communication theorists opined that the growth and

survival of an organization depends on the

communication flows that is put in place by the

management.In most organizations including the

polytechnics, it is expected that superordinates (the

management team, directors of institutes and Head of

Departments) pass information to their subordinates

in anticipation for effective performance of duties

assigned to them for the goals of the institutions as

stipulated in the National Policy on Education (2013)

to be achieved.

Communication flow is an essential element in all

aspects of an institution. It is a well-known fact that

not many institutional leaders know the effect of

their communication flow on the performance of

their subordinates. It is in line with this statement

that the researcher opined that job performance of

lecturers in the polytechnic in Kwara State is

dependent on the communication channel and flow

that is put in place by the school

administrators.Suffice to say that there a lot of

variables apart from communication flows that

determine lecturers job performance in polytechnics,

it is in line with this assertion that Fashiku (2016),

submitted that the consequences of leaders’

communication pattern should be borne in mind and

not to be underestimated or swept under the carpet.

Based on globalization and advancement in

communication technology all over the world, many

institutional leaders in organizations including


62

polytechnics discovered that an important aspect of

their job is to communicate their organization’s

policies, programmes, mission and vision statements

to all and sundry in the organization which will

eventually translates to effective job performance.

Managers of polytechnics are paid to communicate

the programmes of the school to the academic and

the non-academic staff alike.According to Asamu

(2014), the basic functions of management (Planning,

Organizing, Staffing, Directing and Controlling) will

not be carried out successfully without proper

communication. Different units and departments

exist in the polytechnic and it is through the flow of

communication put in place that interaction takes

place for the attainment of organizational goals.

The structure of the polytechnic provides for

communication in three major directions i.e upward,

downward and horizontal. The downward

communication occurs when information and

messages emanatefrom a higher level inside an

organization to a lower one. With regards to the

polytechnic, it is a communication flow that involves

giving of instructions about the programmes and

policies of the institution by the administrators at the

top to the lecturers.In the words of Zaremba (2011),

downward communication is used to bring into the

notice of lecturers in the polytechnics the directives

and regulations of management so as to ensure

effective compliance.School administrators, most of

the times make use of downward communication

flow as a means of providing prompt feedback to

lecturers regarding their performance.

The upward communication flow is the involves the

passing of information from the workers at the

bottom of an organizationalhierarchy to the people at

the top. Based on the submission of Fashiku (2016),

upward communication flow is seen as a medium

through which the surbordinates relay their

disaffection, likes and dislikes to the management in

an organization with regards their job

performance.Furthermore, the use of upward

communication flow acts as a motivator to lecturers

because they see it as a means of contributing their

own quota to the management and administration of

the institution. It is based on this premise that Kalla

(2015), considered upward communication as a good

labour-management strategy of managing conflict

and ensuring crisis free organization.

Horizontal communication flow take place between

and across departments and among ordinates on the

same level in the managerial hierarchy. It is also

called lateral communication flow. Communications

where information flows horizontally from

colleagues at the same level in the organization to

other colleagues at the same level (Wilcox &

Cameron, 2011).Horizontal communication is also

referred to as peer to peer or lateral communication

(Gollwitzer, 2015). This is the type of communication

among ordinates in the departments, divisions or

units which are at the same level of organizational

chain of command. In line with the above statement,

colleagues, employees and teammembers share

information, collaborate and solve problems and this

eventually improve job performance in an

organization.

Performance could be described in various ways. It

could be an act of accomplishing or executing a given

task by a job holder. It could also be described as the

ability to combine skillfully the right behaviour

towards the achievement of organizational goals and

objectives (Olaniyan, 1999). Lecturers job

Performance referred to the way and manner with

which lecturers in polytechnics are able to carry out

assigned duties. Effective job performance can be

achieved only when there is a reasonable level of

expectation-fit and when the social exchange

between managers and employees is fair and equal

(Wang, 2005). Effective institutional communication

flow between polytechnics administrators and

lecturers is very important for effective job

performance. It is worthy to note that communication

covers all activities that the polytechnic

administrator does to bring about effective lecturers’

job performance.


Lecturers’ job performance in Kwara State

polytechnic is affected by communication log jams

some of which includes: Distortion of information

which is occasioned when information is not passed

through the right flow, misinterpretation of

information, delay of information, manipulation and

diluting of information along the flow of

communication. It is based on the aforementioned

problem that this study examined institutional

communication flow and lecturers' job performance

in Kwara State polytechnic, Nigeria.

Purposes of the Study


63

The major purpose of this study was to examine the

relationship that exists between institutional

communication flow and lecturers’ job performance

in Kwara State polytechnic. Specifically, downward,

upward and horizontal communication flow were

examined as components of institutional

communication flow. The extent to which each of

these components relates to lecturers’ job

performance was determined in this study.

Research Hypotheses

The following hypotheses have been formulated to

pilot this study.

Ho1: There is no significant relationship between

institutional upward communication flow and

lecturers’ job performance in Kwara State

Polytechnic.


institutional downward communication flow and

lecturers’ job performance.


institutional horizontal communication flow and

lecturers’ job performance.

Methodology

The research design for this study was descriptive of

the survey type.The target population of this study

was made up of both the lecturers and students of

Kwara State Polytechnic, Nigeria. Preliminary

investigation shows that the institution has 6

institutes and 320 lecturers and 6560

students.However, for the purpose of this study,

random sampling techniques was used to select three

institutes from the six and the respondents were

drawn from the lecturers and students. The

instrument used for this study was questionnaire

developed by the researcher. This questionnaire was

divided into two parts, one for the lecturers which

was tagged Communication Flow Questionnaire

(CFQ) and the other for the students was tagged

Lecturers’ Job Performance Questionnaire (LPQ). The

questionnaires were rated on a four-point response

format ranging from Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A),

Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD).In order to

ascertain the validity of the instruments used CFQ

and LJPQ were given to experts in Faculty of

Education, University of Ilorin for both the face and

the content validity. The reliability of the

instrumentswas carried out using test re-test method

and the co-efficient obtained were 0.79 and 0.82 for

the Communication Flow Questionnaire and

Lecturers’ Job Performance Questionnaires

respectively.The questionnaire was distributed to the

respondents in the selected departments of the

institutionby the researcher while Pearson product-

moment correlation co-efficient was used to test the

hypotheses generated at 0.05 level of significance.

Results and Discussions

Testing of Hypotheses


institutional upward communication flow and


Polytechnic.

Table 1: Upward communication flow and Lecturers’

job performance Variable N X SD Cal r-

value P-value

Decision

Upward Communication Flow

200 1.58 .62

.405 .000 Ho Rejected

Lecturers’ Job Performance

200 12.48 5.64

*Significant P< .05

Table 1 shows that the calculated p-value of 0.000

was less than the significance value of 0.05.

Therefore, the hypothesis is hereby rejected. The

implication of this finding is that when upward

communication is encouraged by polytechnic

administrators it helps to facilitate as well as enhance

effective participation and good relationships

between lecturers’ and management. The finding of

this study is in agreement with that of Fashiku (2007)

who found that upward communication flow is seen

as a medium through which the low rating staffs

relay their disaffection, likes and dislikes to the

management in an organization with regards their

job performance. The finding also corroborates that

of Kalla (2015) who found that upward

communication is a good labor-management strategy

of managing conflict and ensuring crisis free

organization.


downward communication and lecturers’ job

performance.


64

Table 2: Downward communication flow and

Lecturers’ job performance Variable N X SD Cal r-

value

P-

value

Decision

Downward

Communication

Flow

200 1.76 .53

.579 .000 Ho

Rejected

Lecturers’ Job

Performance

200 12.48 5.64

*Significant P< .05

Table 2 shows that the calculated p-value of .000 is

less than the significant value of 0.05. Therefore, the

hypothesis is rejected. This means that there exists a

relationship between downward communication and

lecturers’ job performance. The finding of this study

agrees with that of Zaremba (2011) who found that

downward communication is used to bring into the

notice of lecturers in the polytechnics the directives

and regulations of management so as to ensure

effective compliance. It was revealed from the

findings of this study that poor downward

communication constitutes or serve as hindrance to


Polytechnic. The findings also show that downward

communication flow was used to give report to

lecturers with respect to their job performance.


horizontal communication flow and lecturers’ job

performance.

Table 3: Horizontal communication flow and

Lecturers’ job performance Variable N X SD Cal r-

value

P-

value

Decision

Horizontal

Communication

Flow

200 1.70 .61

.692 .000 Ho

Rejected

Lecturers’ Job

Performance

200 12.48 5.64

*Significant P< .05

Table 3 shows that the calculated p-value of .000 is

less than the significant value of 0.05. This shows that

the hypothesis was rejected. The finding is in

consonance with earlier researchers such as Wilcox &

Cameron (2011) and Gollwitzer (2015) who

submitted that colleagues, employees and

teammembers that share information collaborate and

solve problems and this eventually improve job

performance in an organization.

Conclusion


that the communication flow is a crucial and very

important variable as regards lecturers’ job

performance in Kwara State Polytechnic, Nigeria. In is

clear from the analysis of this study that

communication flows, downward, upward and

horizontal are connected to lecturers’ job

performance.It was evident from the findings of this

study that all the three flow of communication has

significant relationship with lecturers’ job

performance in Kwara state polytechnic, Nigeria.

Recommendations

Based on the result of the study, the following


i. The management of Kwara state polytechnic

should encourage the use of upward

communication flow in order to enhance

lecturers job performance as it will serve as a

motivator when a lecturer knows that his

voice is being heard or his suggestions are

being welcomed.

ii. The school management should try as much

as possible to give room for lecturers to be

heard, to be part of decision making so as to

get the best of the lecturers’ performance.

iii. Management should try as much as possible

to encourage feedbacks when communication

is passed downward and also to make any

information to be passed to be void of

ambiguity and that it should be thoroughly

supervised to avoid manipulation of

information.

References

Asamu, F. (2014). Impact of Communication on

Workers' Performance in selected Organisation

in Lagos State, Nigeria. Journal of Humanities and

Social Sciences, 19 (8); 75-82.

Fashiku, C. O. (2016). Leaders’ communication

pattern: a predictor of lecturers’ job

performance in Nigeria. International Journal of

Educational Leadership and Management, 4(2),

103-126.

Gollwitzer, P. (2015). Action phases and mindsets. In

E. Higgins, & R. Sorrentino, Handbook of

motivation and cognition (pp. 53-92). New York:

Guilford Press.

Kalla, H. K. (2015). Integrated internal

communications: A multidisciplinary


65

perspective. Corporate Communications: An

International Journal, 10(4), 302-314.

Olaniyan, A. O. (1999). Principal Preparation,

Selection and Leadership Roles” Teachers and

Teaching in Nigeria. Festa Press Ltd, Benin.73-

88.

Wang, D. (2005). “Procedural justice, participation

and power distance Information sharing in

Chinese firms”, Management Research Review

33(1), 66-78.

Wilcox, D., & Cameron, G. T. (2011). Public relations

strategies and tactics. Boston: Pearson

education.

Zaremba, A. (2011). Organizational Communication:

Foundations for Business & Collaboration.

Mason: Thomson South-Western.


66

TEACHING PERFORMANCE EXPECTATIONS AND SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL

DEVELOPMENT IN OGUN STATE

Obadara, O. E. Department of Educational Management,

Tai Solarin University of Education, Ogun State, Nigeria.

Abstract

The study examined the relationship between teaching performance expectations and secondary school teachers’ professional development in Ogun State. Descriptive survey design was used for the study. A sample of 120 public secondary schools out of 474 in Ogun State and 1532 teachers out of 15320 teachers in the state was drawn for the study using proportionate stratified random sampling technique. The study developed and used a questionnaire tagged “Teaching Performance Expectations and Teachers’ Professional Development Questionnaire (TPETPDQ)” with a reliability coefficient of 0.89. Inferential statistic of Pearson’sProduct Moment Correlation was employed to analyse the data and the null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.The findings revealed that there wassignificant relationship between professional knowledge; instructional planning;instructional delivery and teachers’ professional development. Alsothere was significantrelationship between assessment of learning;learning environment; professionalism and teachers’ professional development.It is therefore recommended among others thatthe educational administrators should develop individual teacher professional development plans to ensure that teachers take the necessary coursework and receive the necessary professional development to teach the subject which they are assigned.

Keywords: Education; Teaching; Performance; Professionalism; Learning environment; School improvement.

Introduction

Education today is rapidly changing day by day.

Education systems need to emphasize on

development of lifelong learners, and individuals that

will be able to think straight and develop

multifaceted ways of solving problems. Students need

to be capable not only of constantly adapting but also

of continuously learning and growing, and

repositioning themselves in a fast changing world.

Therefore, teachers are expected to embrace

diversity with differentiated pedagogical

practices.They should become creative in problem

solving, in the production of teaching and learning

materials, preparation of lesson plans and classroom

management.

Teachers are a critical factor in qualitative education delivery, thus, for any educational reform to be successful, teachers’ professional development must be given utmost priority. The initiatives or changes that are brought by any education reform must be reflected in the training of the teachers therefore,

the need for teachers’ professional development. Teaching today requires teachers to be high-level knowledge workers who constantly advance their own professional knowledge as well as that of their profession. In the past it was curriculum-centered, the present is learner centered. Teachers are being asked to personalize learning experiences to ensure that every student has a chance to succeed and to deal with increasing cultural diversity in their classrooms and differences in learning styles in such ways that allow individual effective learning achievement.

The teachers interpret the aims and goals of education and educate the students in accordance with them. No wonder Darling-Hammond (2000) asserts that the states interested in improving student academic performance should look at the preparation and qualification of the teachers they hire and retain in the profession. According to Sanders (1999) cited by Obadara (2014):

The single biggest factor affecting academic

growth of any population of youngsters is


67

the effectiveness of the individual classroom

teacher… The teacher’s effect on academic

growth dwarfs and nearly renders trivial all

other factors that people have historically

worried about.

Professional development refers to many types of

educational experiences related to an individual’s

work. It may be in form of workshops or short-term

courses that would offer teachers new information on

a particular aspect of their work. People in a wide

variety of professions and businesses participate in

professional development to learn and apply new

knowledge and skills that will improve their

performance on the job. People often use other

names, including staff development, in-service

training, professional learning, or continuing

education in place of professional development.

Whatever the term used, the purpose is the same,

that is, to improve learning of educators and

students. Professional development is ‘the process

which improves the knowledge, skills or attitudes of

teachers’ (Sparks and Hirsh, 1997).

The teaching performance expectations are the

professional responsibilities required of professional

teachers for the accomplishment of educational goals

and objectives. This can be derived from Teacher

Performance Evaluation System. A fair and

comprehensive evaluation system provides accurate

and sufficient details of teachers’ job expectations.

For the purpose of this study, a two-tiered approach,

consisting of six standards and multiple performance

indicators, to define the expectations for teacher

performance (performance appraisal rubrics)

developed by Stronge (2013) is adapted for the

assessment of teaching performance expectations.

The performance appraisal rubric according to

Stronge (2013) is a behavioural summary scale that

guides evaluators in assessing how well a standard is

performed. It states the measure of performance

expected of teachers and provides a qualitative

description of performance at each level. The

performance indicators provide examples of

observable and tangible behaviours for each

standard. The performance appraisal rubric includes

the following:

Professional Knowledge: The teacher demonstrates an

understanding of the curriculum, subject content, and

diverse needs of students by providing meaningful

learning experiences.

Instructional Planning: The teacher needs to plan

using the approved curriculum, instructional

strategies, resources, and data to meet the needs of

all students.

Instructional Delivery: The teacher effectively engages

students in learning by using a variety of

instructional strategies in order to meet individual

learning needs.

Assessment of Learning: The teacher uses effective

and relevant evaluation contents and methods to

measure student progress. He equally guides

instructional content and delivery methods, and

provides timely feedback to students, parents, and

stakeholders.

Learning Environment: The teacher uses resources,

routines, and procedures to provide a respectful, safe,

positive, student-centered environment that is

conducive for learning.

Professionalism:The teacher demonstrates

behaviours that are consistent with legal, ethical, and

professional standards, contributes to the profession,

and engages in professional growth that results in

improved student learning.


The purpose of this study is to examinethe

relationship betweenteaching performance expec-

tations and secondary school teachers’ professional

development in Ogun State. It is therefore intended

that the findings of this study would provide the

government and the stakeholders in education useful

information on how to strengthen the teaching

profession and the enhancement of teachers’ job

performance towards achievement of educational

goals.

Research Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were developed and

tested in the study.


professional knowledge and teachers’ professional

development.


instructional planning and teachers’ professional

development.


68


instructional deliveryand teachers’ professional

development.


assessment of learningand teachers’ professional

development.


learning environment andteachers’ professional

development.

Ho6: There is no significant relationship

betweenprofessionalism and teachers’ professional

development.

Methodology

Descriptive survey design was used for the study.A

sample of 120 public secondary schools out of 474 in

Ogun State and 1532 teachers out of 15320 teachers

in the state was drawnfor the study using

proportionate stratified random sampling technique.

The study developed and used a questionnaire tagged

“Teaching Performance Expectations and Teachers’

Professional Development Questionnaire

(TPETPDQ)” with a reliability coefficient of 0.89. The

questionnaire has two sections. The first section

elicits information on the respondents’ demographic

data while the second section contains 30 items that

measure the variables of the study.It was constructed

on a 4-point Likert format ranging from ‘strongly

disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’.Pearson’sProduct

Moment Correlation coefficient was employed to

analyse the data, and the null hypotheses developed

for the study were tested at 0.05 level of significance.

Results

The results of the study are presented below according to the hypotheses developed for the study.


professional knowledge and teachers’ professional

development.

Table 1: Relationship between Professional

Knowledge and Teachers’ Professional Development

Variables N Mean Std.

Dev. df r-cal.

r-

tab. P Remark

Professional

Knowledge 1532 342.5 237.3 1530 0.215 0.030 0.05 Sig.

Teachers’

Professional

Development

1532 321.4 255.1

The result in table 1 above shows that the calculated

r - value (0.215)is greater than tabulated r - value

(0.030)at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore, the

null hypothesis, which states that, there is no

significant relationship between professional

knowledge and teachers’ professional development,

is rejected. This implies that there is a significant

relationship between professional knowledge and

teachers’ professional development.


instructional planning and teachers’ professional

development.

Table 2: Relationship between Instructional

Planning and Teachers’ Professional Development

Variables N Mean Std.

Dev. df r-cal.

r-

tab. P Remark

Instructional

Planning 1532 377.1 222.2

1530 0.221 0.030 0.05 Sig. Teachers’

Professional

Development

1532 311.5 232.4


r - value (0.221) is greater than the tabulated r - value



significant relationship between instructional

planning and teachers’ professional development, is

rejected. This shows that there is a significant

relationship between instructional planning and



instructional deliveryand teachers’ professional

development.


69

Table 3: Relationship between Instructional Delivery

and Teachers’ Professional Development

Variables N Mean Std. Dev.

df r-cal. r-tab.

P Remark

Instructional Delivery

1532 432.1 282.5

1530 0.275 0.030 0.05 Sig. Teachers’ Professional Development

1532 412.1 210.3





significant relationship between instructional

delivery and teachers’ professional development, is

rejected. This implies that there is a significant

relationship between instructional delivery and



assessment of learningand teachers’ professional

development.

Table 4: Relationship between Assessment of

Learning and Teachers’ Professional Development


df r-cal. r-tab.

P Remark

Assessment for and of Learning

1532 492.3 299.8


1532 447.4 291.1





significant relationship between assessment of

learning and teachers’ professional development, is

rejected. This indicates that there is a significant

relationship between assessment of learning and



learning environment andteachers’ professional

development.

Table 5: Relationship between Learning

Environment and Teachers’ Professional Dev-

elopment


df r-cal. r-tab.

P Remark

Learning Environment

1532 387.4 248.4


1532 322.9 242.4


r - value (0.213)is greater than the tabulated r - value



significant relationship between learning

environment and teachers’ professional

development, is rejected. Thus, there is a significant

relationship between learning environment and


Ho6: There is no significant relationship

betweenprofessionalism and teachers’ professional

development.

Table 6: Relationship between Professionalism and

Teachers’ Professional Development


df r-cal. r-tab.

P Remark

Professionalism 1532 401.1 299.3


1532 369.5 233.1





significant relationship between professionalism and

teachers’ professional development, is rejected. This

shows that there is a significant relationship between

professionalism and teachers’ professional

development.


The study recorded significant relationship between

professional knowledge; instructional planning;

instructional delivery; assessment of learning;

learning environment; professionalism and teachers’

professional development. This implies that teaching

performance expectationsinfluence teachers’

professional development. These results might not be

unconnected with the fact that once a committed

teacher is exposed to the responsibilities expected of

him the more he prepares to discharge or exhibit

professional competence.The finding of this present

study upholdsthe finding of Okafor (1998) who

observed that the outcome of teachers


70

professionaldevelopment which was usually

classified in terms of teachers competenceinclude

knowledge of goal of teaching and its

implementation, knowledgeof subject matter and

skills to be taught and their influence on learning

andteaching.Also, Knapp (2003) pointed out that

professional development is a critical link to

improved teaching. Similarly, Hanushek (1996)

pointed out that the areas that form the core of in-

servicetraining ofteachers are as follows: lesson

preparations; use of instructionalmaterials, using

different methods of teaching, knowledge of

specializedsubject matter, classroom discipline and

their physical appearance.

Looking at teaching performance expectations or

performance indicators, a competent and effective

teacher must among others effectively address

appropriate and required curriculum standards;

integratekey content elements and higher-level

thinking skills in instruction;demonstrate ability to

link present content with past and future learning

experiences, other subject areas, and real-world

experiences and applications. He must also

demonstrateaccurate knowledge of the subject

matter;skills relevant to the subject area(s)

taught;demonstrates appropriate accommodations

and modifications for diverse learners; he must

equally base instruction on goals that reflect high

expectations and understanding of the

subject;understands intellectual, social, emotional,

and physical development of the age group of

students;uses precise language, correct vocabulary

and grammar, and acceptable forms of

communication as it relates to a specific discipline

and/or grade level; and has knowledge and

understanding of school, family, and community

resources to help meet all students’ learning needs

(Stronge, 2013).

Conclusion

This study used comprehensive measures of

performance expected of teachers, which capture the

essence of good teaching to ascertain their

importance to teachers’ professional development. It

is thus inferred that both professional knowledge;

instructional planning; instructional delivery;

assessment of learning; learning environment; and

professionalism contribute immensely to the

professional development of the secondary school

teachers.As it is aptly believed that no education

system can rise above the quality of its teachers since

teachers are instrumental in translating content

standards into teachable classrooms lessons. The

teacher remains a constant factor in the successful

implementation of educational programmes.As the

teacher is the key person to make the educational

system a success, therefore it is necessary that he

should be provided with adequateprofessional

knowledge and development required to deliver in

the career. He must be qualified and competent, both

academically and professionally.

Recommendations

It should be noted that improved schools’

performance depends importantly on improved

classroom teachers and their teaching qualities.

Therefore, the school administrators should develop

and implement high quality professional

development to reduce the number of teachers

without pedagogical/teaching knowledge and those

teaching outside their fields.

The educational administrators should develop

individual teacher professional development plans to

ensure that teachers take the necessary coursework

and receive the necessary professional development

to teach the subject which they are assigned.

Lastly, there is no doubt that the teaching

performance expectations are the reflections of

teachers’ initial preparation. Therefore the teachers

need to be fully trained academically and

professionally.

References

Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Teacher quality and

student achievement: A review of state policy

evidence. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 8

(1). Retrieved from http://olam.ed.asu.edu/

epaa/v8n1/

Hanushek, E.A. (1996). A more complete picture of

school resource policies. Review of Educational

Research, 66(3), 397-409.

Knapp, M. (2003). Professional development as a

policy pathway. Review of Research in Education,

27, 109–157.

Obadara, O.E. (2014). Influence of teacher factors on

academic performance of secondary school

http://olam.ed.asu.edu/


71

Students in Ogun State, Nigeria.Academic Journal

of Research and Development,2(1), 50 - 65.

Okafor, C.F. (1998). Nigeria teacher education: A

search for newdirection. Enugu: Fourth

Dimension Publishers Co. Ltd.

Sanders, W. L. (1999). Teachers, teachers, teachers!

Blueprint Magazine, 4.

Sparks, D. & Hirsh, S. (1997).A new vision for staff

development.Alexandria, Virginia: Association

for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Stronge, J.H. (2013). Principal evaluation: A

framework for effective performance. Alexandria,

Virginia: Association for Supervision and

Curriculum Development.


72

PRIVATE COST AND EFFICIENCY OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS IN NIGERIAN UNIVERSITIES

Oyetakin, A. I. Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education

AdekunleAjasinUniversity, Akungba, Ondo State, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

This paper examined the private cost of public university education and efficiency of undergraduate students in the Nigerian universities. This study was carried out to examine the challenges of funding the education of undergraduates by parents and how it affected their academic performance. As a survey method of descriptive research design, it made use of cost indicators for measuring the state of private cost of university education and academic output of university students in Nigeria. The study covered five public universities in South West geo-political zone of Nigeria selected through a purposive random sampling technique. The participants cut across 1500 different categories of students. Data were collected through the use of a validated“Private Cost and University Students’ Efficiency Questionnaire” (PCUSEQ) with a reliability of r =0.79), validated self-developed tuition check list (r =0.91), and academic records of the classes of degree obtained by graduated students from 2010 to 2014. Data analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics revealed that there was no significant difference in the direct private cost of university education across the public universities (F(4,20)=1.081; p>.05),and that the relationship between direct private cost of public university education and the efficiency of undergraduate students in these public universities was not statistically significant (r =.000, .678, -.582, -.710, and -.781;N=6, p>.05).The implication of these findings proved that undergraduate students’ efficiency was not tied in any way to their direct private costs of university education. The study therefore proffered that the increased direct private cost in forms of increased tuition fees and other institutional expenses should translate to providing adequate learning environment and equipment by the universities to enhance students’ efficiency.

Keywords: Real income, Human capital, Private cost, Efficiency, Undergraduate students, and Nigerian universities

Introduction

Nigeria is the largest single geographic unit along the

west coast of Africa,bounded on the west, north, east,

and south, respectively by Dahomey, Niger-Chad,

Cameroon’s, and the Atlantic Ocean. The land mass

covers approximately 972000 square kilometers. At

the time of independence in 1960, there were three

regions-the northern, western, and eastern regions.

In 1963, the mid west region was carved out of

western Nigeria, and in 1967 the entire country was

divided into twelve states. In February 1976, the

administration of the country was regrouped into 19

states with a federal capital. Today, there are now 36

states plus the federal capital territory. According to

the 1963 National population census, Nigeria was

having 55,670 million people. In 1974 it was 79

million and over 80 million in 1991.With the

population census of 2006, Nigeria is by far the most

populous African country, having a total population

of 140million people. At present, Nigeria has been

grouped into six geo-political zones, namely North

Central, North East, North West, South West, South

East, and South-South.

Since Nigerian independence in October 1st 1960,

there has been a wide spread concern of project

abandonment, and cost overruns. Cost of university

education is at an alarming rate and at such, access to

university education is being threatened.

Governments, both state and federal, are no longer

adequately funding universities. The annual

budgetary allocation to education is highly ridiculous

and frustrating compared to that of some countries.

The World Bank’s report (2012) shows budgetary

allocation by some selected countries as indicated in

the table 1:

Table 1: Annual budgetary allocation to education by

some selected countries. S/N Country % Budget

Allocation to Education

Position

1 2

Ghana Cote d’Ivoire

31.0 30.0

1st 2nd

mailto:[email protected]


73

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Uganda Morocco South Africa Swaziland Kenya United Arab Emirate Botswana Iran USA Tunisia Lesotho Burkina Faso Norway Columbia Nicaragua India Nigeria

27.0 26.4 25.8 24.6 23.0 22.5 19.0 17.7 17.1 17.0 17.0 16.8 16.2 15.6 15.0 12.7 8.4

3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th

16th

17th

18th

19th

Source: World Bank (2012)

The table 1 shows that Nigeria’s budgetary allocation

to education is the lowest (8.4%). In the same Vein,

the Federal Government allocated N426.53bn to the

education sector in the 2013 budget, and this

represents 8.7 percent, out of which 3 percent goes to

tertiary institutions (Federal Government of Nigeria)

These have had serious consequences on actualizing

developmental objectives in various sectors of the

economy. University education from a global

perspective is fundamental to the construction of a

knowledge economy and society in all nations (World

Bank, 2008). Yet the potential of educational system

in developing countries like Nigeria is frequently

thwarted by long-standing problems of policy

changes or reform programmes and cost.

Furthermore, this development explains why the

nation’s universities continue to suffer the problem

of very low rating in the world ranking of

universities.According to Odiaka (2013), the nation’s

first university, the University of Ibadan was rated

3216th position in the Webometrics Word ranking of

universities in July, 2012. In the Africa, where Nigeria

calls herself the giant, university of Ibadan was rated

45th position behind South African and Ghanaian

universities.

This scenario of inadequate funding has made the

Nigerian universities to look elsewhere for funding to

survive, hence high tuition fees. Mincer (1974) has

argued that the persistent pressure on resources and

ever increasing unsatisfied demand for education

have made it imperative for the government and

higher institutions to seek alternative avenues in

educational financing. This position is corroborated

by Akpotu (2008) when he submits that though the

government seems to put in a lot of money into the

education sector, this is not enough to acquire,

maintain, and sustain the needed human, physical

and material resources in the education sector.

The high tuition fees and some other school expenses

have culminated into high private cost of university

education. In some state universities, students are

paying as high as N348,750.00(US$2179.69) while in

private universities, the tuition fees range from

N250,000.00 (US$1562.5) to N1,590,000.00

(US$9937.5) (Ofem and Akinyemi, 2012). In spite of

this high private cost, there is an increasing demand

for university education in Nigeria. A policy question

then arises: does the increased private cost of

university education reflect in the efficiency of

undergraduate students? In an attempt to answer

this question, this study therefore was conducted to

investigate the influence of private cost on the

efficiency of undergraduate students in the Nigerian

universities.

Theoretical Framework

The fundamental concept of this study centres on the

theory of investment plan in education and the

market votes as the basis for the utility function of

the cost of university education and the efficiency of

human capital development in Nigeria. On the issue

of cost for any product consumed by an individual,

Achumba (2000) opines that consumers are value

maximizers. They form an expectation of value and

act on it.Thus, the value of education is the ratio of

benefits to costs hence consumer delivered value is

the difference between total consumer’s benefits and

total consumer’s costs. Therefore, total customer

value is the bundle of benefit customers expect from

a given product or service. “So if you are going to

spend millions, you want to make sure they are going

to work” (Andrea, 2003). Thus, it can be deduced that

the success of any University undergraduate depends

upon the resources available to him/her. Money is

very important in education because by it, all other

vital elements in the school can be obtained such as

school buildings, purchases, allowances, as well as

running expense (Mehran, 2000).

According to Oyetakin (2010), Market voting system

has ethical value; each individual is paid according to

his marginal social product. The higher the incomes

of an individual, the higher the market vote to

education and the lower the income, the lower the

market vote for education consumption.


74

Figure 1: Graphical Illustration of Market Votes

Figure 1 shows that an increase in income from Y1 to

Y2 will increase the market vote of an individual from

MV1 to MV2.Also a rise in income from Y2 to Y3

makes a rational consumer to increase his market

vote for a product from MV2 to MV3.As a corollary to

the above, one should expect that equality in

educational opportunities is a function of political

vote while the market voting system is a function of

inequality.According to Hammer (1996), human

beings are differently talented. Hence no one

assumes that human beings are equal when they

come to school. Some come from better than average

homes, others come from what might be described as

average homes while yet others come from the

lowest stratum of the society.

Education utility is seen simultaneously as

consumption and investment because the two are

inseparable. Oguntoye and Alani (1998) also noted

that utility derived from education depends on

education for current consumption, long period

future consumption skills and knowledge useful in

economic activities, which enhance future earnings.

The above assertion is in support of Psacharopoulos’

(1995) submission that there is a positive correlation

between educational investment and earnings of an

individual or society. However, social and private

returns at all levels of education generally decline by

the level of a country’s per capita income.

The costs of education refer to resources utilized in

the education production process; they include not

only government expenditure on education, but also

household spending on education and the foregone

opportunities of schooling (e.g., gainful employment).

Costs of education are also regarded as the monetary

and non-monetary values used up in the process of

educating an individual or a group of individuals and

government agencies directly associated with the

development and operation of a project. Education

cost studies range from microanalysis of national

educational expenditures across nations to

microanalysis of educational decision-making by

individuals and households. Coombs and Hallak

(1987) differentiate between public costs and private

costs. Public costs are those financed by government,

generally on the basis of taxes, loans and other public

revenue while private costs are those borne by

individual students and their families.

Private Costs of Education and efficiency

Private costs are the costs borne by the parents,

guardians and individuals. They are the monetary

value of all what individuals, households, families, or

private institutions invest in education (Akinyemi,

2010). Campbell and Brown (2002) regard them as

costs borne by the beneficiaries. They include fees,

levies, school uniform, textbooks and stationery, cost

of transportation to and from school, boarding and

feeding among others.It is pertinent to note that

Babalola (2011) in his word lamented on the

financial dependence on the government by most

universities in Africa which gave room to persistent

cases of financial insecurity and instability owing to

unsustainable government’s resourcing of several

Y = Income Level

MV = Market Vote

R = Rationality

R

R

*

*

* Y3

Y1

Y2

MV1 MV2 MV3

0


75

universities. This lack of sustainable financing

continues to limit enrolment growth and tilt higher

education in developing countries toward low-cost

and low-quality programmes. This leads to the

argument for less public support for and more

private involvement in higher education. Thus, the

financing of the university education by the

parents/individuals also varies which could also have

effect on the academic performance of

undergraduates. Analysis of efficiency of education

has generally been based on the cost at which the

output is optimized.

According to Barrow (1991), stochastic cost frontier

models for local educational authorities in England,

maintained that the socioeconomic background

variables appear to be more important statistically

than variables relating to input quantities such as the

pupil-teacher ratio. He used the average cost per

pupil in schools as dependent variable, and the

number of students as a scale factor, performance in

ordinary level examination as output, and

proportions of pupils receiving free meals, from low

socioeconomic background, with additional

educational needs as socioeconomic variables. He

argued that socioeconomic variables could be

thought of as "correcting the examination

performance variables to give a measure of value

added rather than gross output." It is interesting to

recall that Jimnez (1986), on the contrary, used test

scores to purge out the differential effects of

socioeconomic background of students. Barrow’s

socioeconomic variables appear to have been

conceived as environmental factors. To the best of

the researcher’s knowledge, Barrow’s piece was the

first published article of this type where a stochastic

cost frontier was used to assess efficiency of schools.

However, he did not elaborate on how the estimated

cost frontier of schools could be used to guide policy

analysis of fiscal issues so important for the

operation of local educational authorities.

In a study conducted by Anderson and Kabir (2000)

on cost and efficiency, the results indicate that

stochastic frontier models can contribute a great deal

of insight regarding school district cost and sources

of inefficiency. First, the usual ordinary least squares

(OLS) method of estimation is clearly rejected with a

stochastic frontier model being clearly superior.

Based on both the cross section and panel data

estimations, there are scale economies apparent in

school district cost. The cost frontier declines with

school district membership and is concave.

Furthermore, teachers’ educational experience

appears to exert a positive effect on cost efficiency of

school districts. A large part of the estimated

inefficiency across school districts is explained by

differences in teacher experience.

Objectives of Study

Considering the acute shortage of funds facing our

tertiary institution system in Nigeria which has

resulted in serious setbacks to the industrial

development amidstcost of providing university

education in Nigeria, this study examined the

1. Trends of the average direct private cost of public

university education of undergraduates from

2007 to 2011.

2. Relationship between private cost of university education and the efficiency of undergraduates in the period under study.

Research Questions

The following questions were raised: 1. Is there any significant difference in the direct

private costs of university education across the

public universities in Nigeria?

2. What is the relationship between private cost of university education and the efficiency of public university students in Nigeria?

Method

Research Design

The study employed a survey method of descriptive research design to unravel the influence of private cost on the efficiency of undergraduate students in the Nigerian universities.

Sample

The participants in this study involved 1500 different categories of undergraduate students selected through a purposive random sampling method from five public universities in the South West geo-political Zone of Nigeria.

Instruments

The study used three research instruments:

(a) A self developed validated questionnaire tagged Private Cost and University Students’ Efficiency Questionnaire (PCUSEQ) to collect relevant data from the 1500 participants (r = .79).

(b) A self developed Tuition Check List to garner information on the tuitions paid by students on


76

different courses from the Bursary Departments of the sampled universities (r = .91).

(c) Academic records of the classes of degrees

obtained by graduated students from 2010 to

2014 in the sampled universities.

Data Analysis

Data were analyzed through descriptive and

inferential statistics tools (SPSS- Analysis of Variance

and Correlation Statistics) to test the research

questions for the study. The data obtained from 1,500

students were grouped on the basis of the schools

attended. These were later regrouped on the basis of

the discipline/course of study to which each student

belongs.Mean and other measures of descriptions

were used to illustrate the average direct private cost

after adjusting for alpha coefficient of 0.67. Further

analysis was made to determine how much was

expended from the average private cost on student

tuition and needs such as: (1) Books and Stationeries

(2), Meals at School (3), Clothing (4), Transportation

(5), Accommodation (6), Sport, and (7) Social

activities.In order to obtain the direct private cost,

the amount spent by parents/students on each of the

money-requiring items of schooling per annum were

added up to provide the private cost for the

respective years.

The amount listed by sampled students in each

school/faculty as it was done with the universities

was summed up and the mean was obtained. The

means became the index of private cost for the

universities.Similarly, the index of private cost in

each university was added up to obtain the index of

private unit cost (PUC) for the particular year as

separate independent units.

Furthermore, in answering the research questions,

existing academic records from students’

departments were used. The summary of the

performance for students from 2007 to 2011 were

also used in scoring the undergraduate efficiency as

compared to their direct private unit cost for each

year.

PUCu= AFu

PUCu = Direct private unit cost ofuniversity

education for undergraduate

n = Total cost of materials incurred by parents

t = The year involved (2007-2011)

AFu = Annual direct private cost ofuniversity for

undergraduate.

= Summation

Class of Certificates (Measure of Efficiency)

First Class-Distinction (1st) = 70 + (A)

Second Class Upper (21) = 60-69 (B)

Second Class Lower (22) = 50 -59 (C)

Third Class = 49 – 45 (D)

Pass = 40 – 44 (E)

Results

Table 2: Average direct Private Cost of Public

University education of Students in Nigeria from

2010 to 2014 Sampled Universities Period I II III IV V Average

N ( $ ) N ( $ ) N ($) N ($) N ($) N

2010 117,900.24 (736.88)119,277.19 (745.48) 210,654.13

(1316.59) 117,900.24 (736.88) 116,523.30 (728.27) 136,451.02

2011117,242.47 (732.77)118,568.82 (741.06)119,895.16

(749.35)117,242.47 (732.77) 115,916.30 (724.48) 117,773.04

2012118,641.50 (741.51)210,075.40 (1312.97)211,509.43

(1321.93) 118,641.50 (741.51) 117,207.54 (722.55)155,215.07

2013210,428.05(1315.18)211,999.44 (1325.00)213,570.83

(1334.82) 210,428.05 (1315.18) 118,856.66 (742.85) 193,056.61

2014213,138.68 (1332.12) 214,918.57 (1343.24) 216,698.47

(1354.37) 213,138.68 (1332.12) 211,358.78 (1320.99)

213,850.64

Source: FieldworkN 160 = US$1 (As at study period)

Table 2 shows the trends of average direct private cost of public university education of students in the five sampled public universities in Nigeria from 2010 to 2014.

Average direct private costs of N136,451.02(US$852.82),N117,773.04(US$736.08), N155,215.07(US$970.09),N193,056.61(US$1206.60), and N213,850.64(US$1336.57) were spent by parents in universities I, II, III, IV, and V respectively from 2010 to 2014. This trend shows an increasing average private direct cost for the years under study. However, a continuous rising direct private cost from 2010 to 2014 was recorded in all the universities.

Research Question 1

Is there any significant difference in the direct private costs of university education across the public universities in Nigeria?

t=1

n


77

Table 3: Direct Private Cost of Public University education and Efficiency of undergraduates in Nigeria from

200710 to 2014

PUC N (A)1st Class (B) 21 (C) 22 (D) 3rd (E) Pass 100,000 - 120,000

1 (0.07%) 32 (2.13%) 112 (7.47%) 51(3.4%) 53 (3.53%)

120,001 - 140,000

5 (0.33%) 57 (3.8%) 178 (11.87%) 23 (1.53%) 21 (1.4%)

140,001 - 160,000

9 (0.6%) 79 (5.27%) 242 (16.13%) 33 (2.2%) 17 (1.13%)

160,001 - 180,000

3 (0.2%) 34 (2.27%) 111 (7.4%) 19 (1.27%) 23 (1.53%)

180,001 - 200,000

2 (0.13%) 114 (7.6%) 70 (4.67%) 26 (1.73%) 17 (1.13%)

200,001 + 4 (0.27%) 89 (5.93%) 45 (3%) 20 (1.33%) 10 (0.67%) T Total 24 (1.6%) 405 (27%) 758 (50.53%) 172 (11.47%) 141 (9.4%) Source: Fieldwork

A cursory look at students who spend highest PUC N 200,000 (US$1250) and above in the table 3 reveals a negative impact of this cost on their classes of degree compared to those with PUCs ranging from N120,001 to N160,000. In the class of 1st class degrees, students with PUC range of N 120,001 andN 160,000 outperformed with 5(0.33%) and 9(0.6%) respectively while 2 (0.13%) and 4(0.27%) were

recorded for students with the PUC of N180,001 and N200,001 upward respectively.

The mix of undergraduate students’ efficiency and private cost is also depicted in figure 2 to show at a glance how efficiency is been influenced by the private cost of public university education.

Figure 2: Graph Showing Private Unit Cost and Academic Efficiency of University Students from 2010 to 2014

Source: Derived from table 3

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

1 2 3 4 5 6 PUC: 1=100,000-120,000;2=120,001-140,000; 3=140,001-160,000;4=160,001-180,000;5=180,001-200,000;200,001-220,000

Series 1=1st Class; Series 2= 2nd Class Upper; Series 3= 2nd

Class Lower; Series 4=3rd Class; Series 5=Pass

Class of Degree

Series1 Series2 Series3 Series4 Series5


78

In answering the research question, the academic

performance of undergraduate students (result) and

private cost of the sampled students were subjected

to Pearson product correlation coefficient in order to

establish if any significant relationship exists

between the private cost of university education and

undergraduate students’ academic performance

Research Question 2

What is the relationship between private cost of

university education and the efficiency of public

university students in Nigeria?

Table 4: Correlations of Private Cost and Efficiency of Undergraduates in Nigerian Universities (2007 to 2011)

PUC Distinction

Second

class upper

Second

class lower Third class Pass

PUC Pearson

Correlation 1 .000 .678 -.582 -.710 -.781

Sig. (2-tailed) 1.000 .139 .225 .114 .067

N 6 6 6 6 6 6

Distinction (A) Pearson

Correlation .000 1 .205 .781 -.211 -.514

Sig. (2-tailed) 1.000 .697 .067 .688 .297

N 6 6 6 6 6 6

Second Class

Upper(B)

Pearson

Correlation .678 .205 1 -.218 -.343 -.682

Sig. (2-tailed) .139 .697 .678 .505 .135

N 6 6 6 6 6 6

Second Class

Lower(C)

Pearson

Correlation -.582 .781 -.218 1 .204 .031

Sig. (2-tailed) .225 .067 .678 .698 .954

N 6 6 6 6 6 6

Third Class (D) Pearson

Correlation -.710 -.211 -.343 .204 1 .861(*)

Sig. (2-tailed) .114 .688 .505 .698 .028

N 6 6 6 6 6 6

Pass (E) Pearson

Correlation -.781 -.514 -.682 .031 .861(*) 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .067 .297 .135 .954 .028

N 6 6 6 6 6 6

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Table 4 shows the correlation analysis of private cost

and efficiency of undergraduates reflected in the

different classes of degree obtained in the sampled

universities. The correlation analysis for the data

revealed that PUC and distinction (first class), second

class upper, second class lower, third class, and pass

degrees were not significantly related. Distinction(r

=.000; n= 6 ,p>.05), Second Class Upper( r = .678; n=

6 , p>.05), Second Class Lower (r =-.582; n= 6 , p>.05),

Third Class( r =-.710; n=6 , p> .05) and Pass (r = -

.781; n= 6 ,p> .05). This shows that private cost of

university education has nothing to do with the

efficiency of public university students in Nigeria.

Discussion of Result

The study revealed that private cost of university

education ranged between N116,523.30 (US$728.27)

and N216,698.47(US$1343.24) from 2007 to 2011

which shows a continuous rising among universities

in Nigeria. This finding confirms with what Adenegan,

Yusuf, and Sodipo (2002); Samuel (2003); and

Borthwick (1999) found in their studies of

expenditure on education. They discovered that the

level of private expenditure, which originated from

individuals and enterprises, was more than what the

government expended. This finding corroborates the

principle of fiscal justice postulated by Samuel (2003)

that he who receives the largest benefits of education

should bear the greatest burden of its cost. It is

assumed that private returns to investment in

education are more than social returns; hence

households should be made to pay heavily for

education.


79

The study further revealed that a significant

difference did not exist in the private costs of

university education across the Nigerian public

universities. This trend corroborates the Federal

Government of Nigeria’s directive through National

Universities Commission (NUC) that all universities

should generate 10 percent of their total yearly fund

internally through various revenue diversification

means (Odebiyi and Aina, 1999). With the level of

underfunding in tertiary institutions in Nigeria, there

is the need to evolve worthwhile strategies that will

make it possible for the universities to achieve

qualitative education, hence increased tuition fees

among others which have jacked up private cost.

Furthermore, this study had also found that private

cost of university education did not in any way

influence the efficiency of undergraduate students in

public universities in Nigeria. Thus, the students who

incurred low private cost of university education

performed better than those who incurred high

private cost of university education.

Efficiency of undergraduate students in the Nigeria’s

public universities is not tied to their private costs.

There are other factors that influence students’

efficiency. They are learning environment,

government funding policy and students’ innate

ability among others. Thus, if the increased private

cost does not translate into providing adequate

learning infrastructure on campus, it will affect the

students’ efficiency. If the government funding policy

is not adequate, it will affect the students’ efficiency.

According to Akinyemi and Ayo- shobowale (2013),

the issue of university underfunding in developing

economies especially in Nigeria is prime cause of

other problems that have undermined quality in

university education, and it has manifestation in

problems such as academic staff shortage, dearth of

library books and journals, decline of reading culture

among students, dilapidated buildings, obsolete

equipment, abandoned capital projects, poor

electricity and water supply, hostile working

environment, incessant strikes and mass exodus of

Africa’s best brains in academics. All these

aforementioned variables influence the students’

efficiency negatively. The study also discovered that

the state of Nigerian economy had a significant effect

on private cost of university education across the

universities in Nigeria.

Conclusion

In this study, the relationship between the private

cost of public university education and efficiency of

undergraduate students in the Nigeria’s universities

was investigated and established. The challenges of

funding the education of undergraduates and how

they affect their academic performance were also

examined. On the whole, it was found that a

significant relationship did not exist between private

cost of public university education and the efficiency

of university students in Nigeria. Efforts should

therefore be made by the governments and the

university authorities in Nigeria to enhance students’

efficiency in spite of continuous increased private

cost of university education

Recommendations

1. Inefficiency of undergraduate students in spite of

increased private cost should be blamed largely on

government due to her reluctance to funding the

universities adequately. The government should take

clue from other African countries and increase her

annual budgetary allocation to education from less

than 10 percent to at least 26 percent recommended

by UNESCO.

2. Students should be made to study those courses

commensurate with their latent abilities. Parents

should desist from forcing their wards to study those

courses not interesting to them (students) and which

they do not have flair for. “I studied Medicine and

performed excellently in the university as a parent

does not mean my child will be good at Medicine and

must be compelled to read the same”. Students’

innate abilities should rather be discovered and

encouraged to be developed through formal

education.

3. Increased tuition fees should translate into providing

adequate leaning environment for students. Well

stocked library and modern equipment should be

provided for conducive learning environment. Also

academic staff should be remunerated to avert low

commitment and brain drain. Furthermore, learners’

environment should be properly harnessed with

learning environment to enhance students’ efficiency.

4. Finally, government should provide targeted

scholarship and bursaries to students from low and

middle households.


80

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82

AGE AND TEST ANXIETY AS CORRELATES OF ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

1Olatunji O. A., 2Okunade H. F. and 3Awogbami, O.V. 1Department of Psychology, Faculty of the Social Sciences

Federal University OyeEkiti, EkitiState, Nigeria. 2Department of Social Science Education, Faculty of Education,

Ekiti State University, Ado – Ekiti, EkitiState, Nigeria. 3Centre for Gender and Development Studies, Ekiti State University,

Ado Ekiti, Nigeria.

Abstract

This study examined age and test anxiety as correlates of academic performance among University students using a

correlational design. Two hundred (200) undergraduates of Federal University Oye -Ekiti (FUOYE) were sampled using

convenience sampling method. The participants were categorized into two age groups: older (23 – 30 years) and

younger (18 – 22 years). Self-report instruments comprising of Test Anxiety Inventory (TAT) was used for data

collection while the test scores of the students on a Faculty general course (FSS 001) was used to measure the academic

performance of the students. Three hypotheses were tested usingPearson correlation and t-test. The findings revealed

that age did not correlate with academic performance (r= -.03, p>.05), while test anxiety gives a negative relationship

with academic performance (r= -.144, p<.05), that is, the higher the test anxiety the lower the academic performance.

The results also revealed that there was no significant gender difference in academic performance among university

students (t = -0.51, df = 198, p>.05).It was recommended that all helping professionals working in the schoolsystem

especially in the university such as counselors, clinical -psychologists, educationists and social personnel should use

appropriate methods toidentify students suffering from test anxiety and help them out of theproblem.

Keywords: Age, Test anxiety, Gender, Academic performance, Undergraduates, Education

Introduction

Academic performance is frequently defined in

terms of examination performance. It is the outcome

of education; it is the extent to which a student,

teacher or institution has achieved their educational

goals (Abubakar&Oguguo, 2011). It is observed that

academic performance is an issue to investigate

because the rate at which students are failing

nowadays is worrisome and that has become an

issueof concern to education stakeholders. Educators

are beginning to recognize that anxiety has an impact

on the overall academic performance of an individual

student. Testing of students has become an

increasingly important component in the educational

world, this is important to know the ability of such

students to succeed (Anthony, Shyngle&Chidi, 2017).

Speilberger and Vagg (1995) regarded test anxiety as

a situation specific which is a temporary emotional

state. To these authors, test anxiety is different from

trait anxiety which is a constant personality

characteristic, test anxious individuals are more

prone to react with excessive anxiety such as worry,

negative thoughts, nervousness and physiological

arousal across testing situations. This proneness

predisposes them to experiencing more intense

levels of anxiety which is considered as the emotional

component of test anxiety in evaluative situations.

The high level of anxiety among people activates

worry conditions stored up in memory and these

conditions interfere with test performance (Wigfield,

1994). A positive relationship between trait and test

anxiety is therefore expected.

All school children and many adults are tested at

various times in their lives. School teachers identify

students with the characteristics needed for

promotion or placement in various classes. Likewise,

theemployers constantly confront the problemof

identifying individuals with the characteristics

needed for specific jobs within their organization

(Walsh, Engreton and O’Brier, 1988). All these can

only be achieved through tests. The term "test"


83

therefore is used loosely to include such things from

brief school examination to complex inventories of

personality traits(Walter, 2002). Some of these tests

yield numerical grades whereas others result in a

report of the examinee's impressions (Barbara &

Davis, 1999).Walter (2002) defined test as a

deliberate tendency to find out the level of interest,

knowledge, skill and achievement on a given task.

A test is a systematic procedure for comparing the

behavior of two or more persons (Cronbach, 1980).

According to him, intelligence cannot be visualized or

measured as one can see and measure a sheet of

paper. He stated that tests are constructed in such a

manner that the evidence of an individual's behavior

or performance is compared to the behavior or

performance of other individuals to whom the test

has been administered. The testperformance is

evaluated and an interpretation derived is given.

There are varieties of tests which include the

following: Achievement tests, Mental ability tests,

Aptitude tests, Tests of developed abilities,

Schoolreadiness tests, Interest inventories,

Personality measures.

Test anxiety is a psychological condition in which

people especially students experience extreme

distress and anxiety in testing situations (Tobias,

1985). While many of these students experience

some degree of stress and anxiety before and during

examinations, test anxiety usually impair their

learning and also hurt their test performance. Test

anxiety is thus an overwhelming feeling of

disturbance and distress among students globally

and can be a devastating problem for these class of

age groups as they grow and develop which may later

impair their performance and their well-being in life

in the long run (Farooqi, Ghani, &Spielberger, 2012)

Statement of problem

It has been observed that the attitude of the students

towards learning and their overall academic

performance is declining every day as students are

no longer interested in studying but looking for

shortcut in making it in life. Nigerian students of

nowadays are faced with so many challenges which

invariably impair their focus and passing their exams

and tests in schools. While some of these problems

are actually beyond their control, many of these

challenges are those they can actually master and

control. This study is aimed at establishing if truly the

fear that goes with preparing for tests or exams and

that goes with writing and passing such tests and

exams reside in university students. The study would

also want to know the extent to which male and

female students differ when compared on the level of

their academic performance.

Objectives of the study

The main objective of this study is to examine the

influence of test anxiety on academic performance

among university students. Specific objectives are as

follows:

(i) To examine the correlation between age and

academic performance of university students.

(ii) To examine the relationship between test

anxiety and academic performance among

university students.

(iii) To examine whether male university

students will perform academically better

than the female university students.

Research questions

The following are the questions the study seeks to

answer:

(i) Is there an association between age and

academic performance of university students?

(ii) Is there a relationship between test anxiety

and academic performance among university

students?

(iii) Is there a relationship between male and

female on academic performance?

Hypotheses

(i) Age of university students will have a

significant correlation with academic

performance.

(ii) Test anxiety will have a significant correlation

with academic performance among university

students.

(iii) Male university students will significantly have

higher academic performance than the female

university students.

Methodology

This research is a correlational design to establish the

relationship between test anxiety and academic

performance among university students. The study

consisted of 200 participantswhich were selected

using stratified random sampling technique and


84

convenience sampling method from the population of

the students.The study was conducted in Federal

University Oye-Ekiti.

The Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI) developed by

Spielberger (1980) to measure anxiety proneness in

tests, examinations and evaluative situations was

employed to measure test anxiety while the test

scores on faculty general course was used to measure

the academic performance.

The socio-demographic information of the

participant was analyzed using descriptive statistics

while the hypotheses weretested using Pearson

correlation and t- test (at 0.05 level of significance)

were used in order to determine the influence of the

independent variables on the dependent variable.

Results

The data collected were scored and analyzed. The

following are the results:

Table1: Descriptive statistics showing the frequency and percentage of research respondents’ socio-demographic

characteristics

N %

Gender Male 103 51.5

Female 97 48.5

Age Group Early Age group 100 50

Middle Age group 51 25.5

Late Age group 49 24.5

Religious Affiliation Christian 161 80.5

Muslim 38 19.5

Traditional Religion 1 .5

Table 1 shows the frequency distribution of research

participants. Male respondents and female

respondents made up 51.5% and 48.5% respectively.

50% of the Research Participants were in the age

category of early, 25.5% were in the age category of

middle while 24.5% were in the age category of late

adolescents. 80.5% of research participants are

Christians, 19.5 % are Muslims and a single

participant is a traditional worshipper.

Hypothesis One

Age of university students will have a significant

relationship with their academic performance.

Hypothesis one was tested with Pearson correlation,

the result was presented in Table 2

Table 2: Relationship between Age and Academic performance.

Mean Std. Deviation N R p

Age 19.89 2.019 200 -.03 >.05

Academic Performance 57.04 19.087 200

In Table 2, the result shows no significant

relationship between age and academic performance

r = -.03, p>.05. Therefore, hypothesis one is rejected

Hypothesis Two

Test anxiety will have a significant relationship with

Academic performance among university students.

Table 3: Relationship between Academic

Performance and Test Anxiety.

Mean Std. Deviation

N R p

Test Anxiety 38.44 9.613 200 -.144 <.05


57.04 19.087 200


85

Table 3 shows that the correlation coefficient

between Academic performance and Test Anxiety is

significant. This shows that there is significant

relationship between Academic Performance and

Test Anxiety(r=.114 p<.05). Therefore hypothesis

two is accepted.

Hypothesis Three

Male university students will significantly have

higher academic performance than Female university

students.

Table 4: Difference between Male and female on

Academic performance

Variables Gender N Mean Std.

Deviation Df t P


Male 103 56.37 20.504 198 -0.51

>.05

female 97 57.75 17.535

Table 4 shows no significant gender difference in

academic performance among university students t =

-0.51, df = 198, p>.05, therefore hypothesis three was

not supported.

Discussion

This study investigated how age and test anxiety

serve as correlates of academic performance.

Hypothesis one stated that age of university students

will have a significant relationship with academic

performance. Contrary to the hypothesis, this study

found out that age does not have a significant

relationship with academic performance. This may be

as a result of students having to come to view their

performance as only significant to meet basic needs

of their life in regardless of their age.Ebenuwa-Okoh

(2010) in his study also did not find significant

relationship with academic performance and age.

Abubakar&Oguguo (2011) also did similar studies of

finding relationship between age and academic

performance but they did not find a significant

relationship.

In assessing the relationship between test anxiety

and Academic performance, independent t-test

analysis showed that there is significant difference in

the mean scores of participants with low and high

test anxiety on academic performance. This study

also shows that there is a significant relationship

between test anxiety and academic performance.

Therefore hypothesis two is accepted. Although the

result shows a negative relationship between test

anxiety and academic performance which states that

the higher the test anxiety, the lower the academic

performance and also, the lower the test anxiety, the

higher the academic performance. The present

finding is in line with the study of Jerrell& Ronald

(2002) who found that test anxiety had a

negativerelationship on academic achievement for

high test-anxious over low testanxiousstudents. The

work of Anthony, Shyngle&Chidi (2017) and

Farhad&Naghmeh (2011) also confirmed the result

of this current study. These authors found in their

study that test anxiety had a negative impact on

academic performance. This finding can be further

explained that students who experience fear during a

test or examination will perform less in the test while

those students who do not experience fear or who

are less anxious will perform very well in their test or

examinations.

In assessing the relationship between gender and

academic performance, hypothesis three stated that

male university students will significantly have

higher academic performance than the female

university students. Contrary to the hypothesis, the

influence of gender on academic performance was

not significant, even though the female students had

higher mean score than the male, the difference in

score was not statistically significant. Therefore

there was no significant influence of gender on

academic performance.Ebenuwa-Okoh (2010) and

Abubakar&Oguguo(2011) and other authors also

found concluded based on their studies that gender

differences does not exist when the issue of academic

performance is on the focus.

Conclusion

Test anxiety manifest in serious psychological

behaviors such as palpitations, shortness of breath,

profuse sweating, gastric sensations and dizziness

and so on. The Spielberger (1980) Test Anxiety

Inventory (TAI) was used to collect the data for this

study which indicates how generally students feel

during tests. The instrument developed by

Spielberger has implications for teachers to know

how their students feel when taking test and can now

master the techniques of reducing test anxiety from

the students. The instrument discriminates students

with varying levels of test anxiety and will now be

easy for teachers to help the students to individually

overcome test anxiety.


86

The instrument gives an opportunity to the user to

find out how much a student feel by each item of the

Test Anxiety Inventory which in turn creates an

appropriate treatment techniques to get rid of test

anxiety. For the fact that this instrument is reliable

and consistent in measuring test anxiety, it has

implications for anxiety clinicians because they can

use it to monitor each students test anxiety level. In

this study, a negative relationship was found to exist

between test anxiety and academic achievement of

students and that the higher the anxiety level, the

lower the academic achievement. The implication is

that the academic achievement of test anxious

students can be improved by helping them to reduce

their anxiety in the examination situation. However,

that test anxiety has been found to have negative

consequences onstudents’ academic performance

does not imply that all the students who do not

perform well intellectually are victims of debilitating

test anxiety, otherfactors such as low intelligence,

poor study habit could be responsible for poor

academic performance

Equally, this study has educational implication among

the curriculum planners who may entrench in the

curriculum other methods of testing that will be less

anxiety provoking than the prevalent methods of

testing observed in schools today. Summarily, there is

a general implication thatproper psychological

intervention and therapeutic strategies be used by

experts to address such problems among students.

Based on the findings of this research work, it can

thus be concluded that age and gender does not have

a significant relationship with academic performance

among university students. Test anxiety has a

significant inverse relationship with academic

performance.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this work,it is thus

recommended that future research can include more

schools instead of one institution that was used in the

current study. This will enable a larger sample size

and will strengthen the literature in this area.

Qualitative research in this regard might produce

more detailed results. More investigation is also

needed to ascertain the reasons behind the gender

difference in the mean scores and the non –

significant difference between male and female

students. For practice, it is recommended that all

helping professionals working in thesecondary

school and the university system such as counseling

psychologists, clinicalpsychologists, social personnel

and educationist should use appropriate methods

and technology to enhance their skills and toidentify

students suffering from test anxiety and help them

out of theproblem.These significant others should

also explore other situational effects such as school

climate and assessment ideology along with a larger

variety of test formats or assessment techniques. In

other words, the total school ecology should be taken

into account in understanding test anxiety.

References

Abubakar, R. B. &Oguguo, O. D. (2011). Age and

gender as predictors of academic achievement

of college mathematics and science students.

Proceedings of the 47th international conference

of teaching, learning and change. International

association for teaching and learning.

Anthony, G. B, Shyngle K. B. &Chidi, V. O. (2017). Test

anxiety and academic performance among

undergraduates: The moderating role of

achievement motivation. The Spanish journalof

Psychology. Vol.20.

Barbara, J. L. & Davis (1999). Empirical Construction

and Validation of a sentence completion test for

hostility, anxiety and dependency, Journal of

Consulting and Clinical psychology, 39,

Cronbach, L.J .(1 980). Essentials of Psychological

Testing. (2nd ed.). New York: Harper.

Durost, N., Walter (2002). Encyclopaedia Americana

Vol. 26.University of New Hampshire.

Farhad,G.D & Naghmeh B. (2011). Relationship

between test anxiety and academic

performance. Social and behavioural sciences.Vol. 15,

pages 3774 – 3778.

Farooqi, Y. N., Ghani, R. & Spielberger, C. D.(2012).

Gender differences in test anxiety and academic

performance of medical students. International

journal of psychology and behavioural sciences, 2,

38 – 43.

Jerrell, C.C. & Ronald E. J. (2002).Cognitive test

anxiety and academic performance.

Contemporary Educational Psychology. Vol. 27, issue

2, pages 270 - 295

Spielberger, C. D., &Vagg, P. R. (1995).Test anxiety:

Theory, assessment and treatment.

Washington D. C. Taylor & Francis


87

Tobias, S. (1985a). A model for research on the effect

of anxiety on instrument. Educational

psychologist, 1(9), 120- 130.

Tobias, S. (1985b). Test anxiety interference

defective skills and cognitive capacity.

Educational Psychologist, 20,135-142.

Walter, P., (2002). Educational Psychology in the

classroom. Journal of Educational Psychology

(4th. Ed.). Henry clay Linagren.

Walsh, R.P, Engbreton, R.& O'Brien, B.A. (1988).

Anxiety and test-taking behaviour, Journal of

Counseling, psychology, l5, (6), 572-575.

Wigfield, A. (1994). Expectancy-Value theory of

achievement motivation: A developmental

perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 49-

78.

Williams J.E. (1991). Modeling test anxiety self-

concept and high school student's academic

achievement. Journal of Reach and Development

in education, 25(5), 1-57.


88

SERVICE QUALITY FOR STUDENT DEVELOPMENT IN UNIVERSITIES IN KWARA STATE NIGERIA

Saheed OYENIRAN Department of Educational Management

University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria

Abstract

The quality of service provided by universities is an important aspect of university management. This is because the quality of service provided by these institutions determine the extent to which the goal of higher education institutions would be achieved. This study is therefore carried out to examine the relationship between service quality and student development in universities in Kwara State. The study adopted a descriptive research of the survey type.A sample of 200 students and Lecturers were drawn from University of Ilorin, Kwara State University and Al-Hikma University representing federal, state and private university respectively. Two sets of instruments were used for data collection for this study. The first instrument was titled Service Quality Questionnaire (SQQ) and was designed based on SERVQUAL model while the second instrument was title Student Development Questionnaire (SDQ). Three research questions and five hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The research questions were answered using descriptive statistic while the hypotheses formulated were analysed using Pearson product-moment co-efficient at 0.05 level of significance.The finding of the study showed that service quality and student development was said to be moderate. The study further showed that there is significant relationship between service quality and student development. Based on the findings of this study, recommendations were made on the need to strengthen the SERVICOM unit of the universities for various department of the university to comply with the provision of quality service among others.

Keywords: Service quality; Quality assurance; Students development; Sustainable development

Introduction

Universities in Nigeria are the key agent in improving

sustainable development in the country. This means

that universities must ensure the sustainability of

whatever goals they are established to pursue. This is

because university role in this direction is theonly

way the objectives of Education for sustainable

development can be achieved.University is an

important aspect of any education system and the

roadmap to the development of any nation. The way

and manners universities are managed should be a

great concern to any serious government and society.

Therefore, all stakeholders must see to what is going

in the university in order to improve their service.

While universities are set up to develop student skills

and talents, the way this is carried out must be in

consonance with the best practices around the world.

The need for qualitative and increased access to

university education in Nigeria has brought about an

increase in the number of universities in Nigeria. This

geometrical increase in the number of universities

has call for the need for quality practices put in place

in the production of their outputs. In this context,

Green (2014) observed that higher education

institutions across the world have experienced the

introduction of processes for quality assurance. The

increasing competition among higher education

institutions to attract highly qualified students

toward achieving high academic profiles is forcing

them to pay more attention to service quality issues.

This makes it prudent to examine whether the quality

process has produced the enhancement of core

outputs (Green, 2014).

Furthermore, Đonlagić and Fazlić (2015) observed

that for higher education institutions, it is crucial to

apply the stakeholder approach to strategic

management due to the variety of stakeholders which

are important for internal and external evaluations,

quality assurance, study program development, etc.

This approach to strategic management is all about

understanding demands of stakeholders and

stakeholder’s relationships in order to achieve

institutional development objectives.The desire for

sustainable national development has drawn the

attention of stakeholders to the need forqualitative


89

university education. Higher education institutions

should ensure that all services encountered are

managed to enhance consumer perceived quality

(Legčević 2008). This is to examine the level of

quality service delivered by universities. Various

categories of stakeholders are involved in the higher

education system. However, for a higher education

institution it is important to identify its key

stakeholders, their needs, demands and interests.

University education is incessantly being sought after

by many admission seekers across the nation but

individuals has drawn attention of scholars to

examine the relationship between service quality and

student satisfaction inuniversities. It is against this

background that this study was carried out the

connection between service quality and student

development in universities in Kwara State.


The role of service quality in higher education has

received increasing attention during the last two

decades (Legčević 2008). Also, there are few studies

conducted in Nigerian higher education institutions

on quality service.Iro-Idoro and Ayodele (2016)

examined Students Perception of Service Quality

encountered and their future Enrichment:

Implication for Academic Quality Assurance in

Nigeria Polytechnics. Muhammed (2016) also carried

out a study on Service Quality, Price and Student

Satisfaction in ModibboAdama University of

Technology, Yola. Adamawa State Nigeria. Usman and

Mukhtar (2016) examined analysis of service quality,

university image and student satisfaction on student

loyalty in higher education institution in Nigeria.

While all these studies examined service quality in

relation to student satisfaction, loyalty and university

image. The researcher view student development as

one of the ways to ensure sustainableuniversities

education in Nigeria. It is this lack of theoretical and

empirical evidences to justify this claim that inspired

the researcher to carry out this study.

Objective of the Study The major objective of this study is to examine the relationship between service quality and student development in universities in Kwara State. The specific objectives are as follows:

i. To examine the level of service quality

provided by universities in Kwara State.

ii. To examine the level of student development

in universities Kwara state.

Research Questions

The following questions were raised to guide this

study

i. What is the level of service quality in

universities in Kwara State?

ii. What is the level of student development in

universities in Kwara State?

Research Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were formulated to

provide direction to this study:

i. There is no significant relationship between

tangibles and students’ development in

universities in Kwara State.

ii. There is no significant relationship between

reliability and students’ development in


iii. There is no significant relationship between

responsiveness and students’ development in


iv. There is no significant relationship between

assurance and students’ development in


v. There is no significant relationship between

empathy and students’ development in


Review of Literature

Service Quality

Researchers have argued that quality is a difficult

concept to define.Therefore, attempts made by

scholars to define quality is based on their perception

of what they assume quality means. This is why

Parasuraman and Zeithaml (1985) describe quality

as an elusive and indistinct construct. Whatever

description we give to it all boils down to the

consumer of the service (e.g. his experience, his

expectations) and the long-term goal of the service

provider is to satisfy the consumer, strengthen

relations with the service provider and achieve

consumer loyalty.

Zeithmaml and Bitner (2003) defined service quality

as a reflection of the customer’s perception of specific

dimensions of services being provided by an

organisation. In the view of Parasuraman, Zeithmaml

and Berry (1988) seesservice quality as consumer

attitude showing his perception of the overall

superiority and excellence of a service provider.


90

Service quality refers to the customer’s judgement

about a service overall performance or the

customer’s overall impression of the relative

weakness or supremacy of the organisation and its

services (Zeithaml 1988). The term service quality

according toĐonlagićand Fazlić (2015), can be

defined as the conformance of requirement, being fit

to use,or technical and functional aspects of quality

can be distinguished.

Grönroos (1984) observe that quality of service

consists of three key dimensions: functional,

technical and image and that the quality of service

depends on two variables: the expected and

perceived service. Functional quality of services is

assessed by customers' attitudes. In order to better

understand the meaning of the concept,Zeithaml and

Parasuraman (1985) proposed a model based on a

multiple-item scale for measuring service quality.

This is known as the SERVQUAL model. Zeithaml

and Parasuraman (1985) referred to this model as

the gap model. This is due to the fact the gap which is

identified between customer expectations and

customer perceptions needs to be closed in order to

offer excellent quality (Đonlagićand Fazlić, 2015).

Service Quality (Q) = Expectations (E) – Perceptions

(P)

According to Đonlagićand Fazlić (2015) the

SERVQUALmodel is premised on the view that

customers' assessment of service quality is

paramount. Major dimensions in the SERVQUAL

model for determining the gap between customer

expectations and perceptions are:

1. Tangibles: Appearance of physical facilities,

equipment, personnel, and communicate

2. Reliability: Ability to dependably and accurately

perform the promised service

3. Responsiveness: Willingness to help customers

and provide prompt service

4. Assurance: Knowledge and courtesy of

employees and their ability to convey trust &

confidence

5. Empathy: Caring, individualized attention that

the firm provides its customers (Green, 2014).

The notion of difference is the degree and direction of

discrepancy or gap between customer expectations

and perceptions of a service (Parasuraman et al.,

1985). The measurement of service quality has been

illustrated along a continuum ranging from ideal

quality to totally unacceptable quality with some

point along the continuum representing satisfactory

quality. The position of customer perceptions of

service quality on the continuum depends on the

nature of discrepancy between the expected service

and the service perceived by the customer. On one

hand, if expectations are greater than perceptions,

the perceived service quality is less than being

satisfactory and customer dissatisfaction is said to

occur. On the other hand, if expectations are less than

perceptions, perceived service quality is said to be

satisfactory and will tend toward ideal quality with

increased positive discrepancy between expected and

perceived service quality (Green, 2014).

In order to localise service quality in the context of

higher education, Nitecki and Hermon (2000) defined

service quality in relation to higher education

meeting or exceeding student expectations or as the

difference between student perception and

expectation of the service provided by higher

education institutions. It is a focused evaluation that

reflects the student perception of specific dimension

of service: reliability, responsiveness, assurance,

empathy and tangibles’ the other hand students’

satisfaction is more inclusive: it is influenced by

perception of product quality, service quality and

price as well as personal and situational factors. The

role of service quality in the universities has received

increasing attention in the past two decades and the

management of universities is ensuring that all

services provided to students are and well organised

to enhanced the student perceived quality service

delivery.

Student Development

Sustainable development is development that meets

the needs of the present without compromising the

ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

(Brundtland, 1987) The goal of sustainable

development is to enable all people throughout the

world to satisfy theirbasic needs and enjoy a better

quality of life, without compromising the quality of

life of futuregenerations(Defra, 2005)Securing the

Future presents the goal of achieving a strong, health

and just society within environmental limits. This is

to be achieved through the means of a sustainable

economy, using sound science responsibly and the

promotion of good governance.


91

Sustainable education requires a new approach to

knowledge acquisition and learning. This approach

is manifested in merging student experience inside

and outside the classroom, which eventually results

in shaping the21st century lifelong learner. The

student finds himself or herself in a journey of self-

development and growth throughout the course of

his or her study until graduation. At the time of

graduation, she is equipped with all what it takes to

be a successful career woman and a leader of change

in her society (Brown, 2009). In this regard,

universities need to develop student who are

capable of achieving the of education for sustainable

development.

This is why Quinlan (2011) observed that today’s

university students will be tomorrow’s doctors,

engineers, business managers teachers, faith leaders,

politicians, citizens, activists, parents and neighbours.

While they need to be able to demonstrate key skills

and knowledge to enact those roles effectively, they

must also demonstrate good character in carrying out

their responsibilities.The notion of holistic student

development encompasses academic learning and the

development of skills such as problem-solving and

analysis while simultaneously recognising other

aspects of students as people who are growing and

maturing affectively (emotionally) and morally.

Methodology

Research design for this study is a survey research of

correlation type. This is because the researcher

examines the relationship between service quality

and student development. A sample of 200 students

and Lecturers that were drawn from University of

Ilorin, Kwara State University and Al-Hikmah

University representing federal, state and private

university respectively.

Two sets instrument were used for data collection for

this study. The first instrument was titled Service

Quality Questionnaire (SQQ) and was designed based

on SERVQUAL model developed by Parasuramann et

al (1988) and adapted Muhammed (2016) and

Đonlagićand Fazlić, (2015) instrument to the current

situation. The instrument is a 25-items questionnaire

which was responded to by the students.Items 1-4 is

measuring tangibles, 5-9 is on reliability, 10-13

encompasses responsiveness, 14-19 measures

assurance while 20-25 measures Empathy. Students

were asked to respond to the instrument on a four

pointlikertscale (Strongly Agree = 4, Agree = 3,

Disagree = 2, strongly Disagree = 1). Lectures were

asked to respond to this instrument on a five

pointlikert scale (Excellent = 5, Very Good = 4, Good =

3, Moderate = 2, poor = 1). The second instrument is

a 20-items questionnaire titled Student Development

Questionnaire (SDQ) responded to by the lecturers.

In the instrument items 1-4 is on communication

skill, 5-8 is on analytical ability, 9-12 measures ICT

skills, 13-16 is on competence in chosen field while

items 17-20 measures decision making skills. The

reliability coefficients of the two instruments were

found to be .65 and .74 for SQQ and SDQ respectively.

Two research questions and five hypotheses were

formulated to guide this study. All the hypotheses

were tested at 0.05 level of significance. For the first

research question the decision is as follow: the mean

value between 1.00-2.00 regarded as low, 2.01-3.00

is moderate while 3.01-4.00 is high. The decision rule

for the second research question is that mean score

of 1-2.33 is low, 2.34-3.66 is moderate while 3.67-

5.00 is high.

Research questions were answered using descriptive

statistic while the hypotheses formulated were

analysed using Pearson Product Moment Coefficient

at 0.05 level of significance.

Analysisof Dataand Presentation of Results


92

Research Question 1: What is the level of service quality in Universities in Kwara State?

Table1: Level of Service Quality

S/N

Questionnaire Items

Mean

Standard

Deviation

Decision

Tangibles

1 The university has modern equipment for teaching and

learning process

2.92 .796 Moderate

2 Building and other physical facilities are visually appealing 3.27 .719 High

3 Lecturers and non-teaching staff in the university are neat in

their appearance

3.24 .837 High

4 Teaching materials are available and are up- to date 3.02 .865 High

Average 3.11 .804 High

Reliability

5 The university adhere strictly to its academic calendar 3.22 .863 High

6 When you have problem, the university show keen interest in

solving it

2.78 .874 Moderate

7 Lecturers respect lectures and exams schedules 3.15 .693 High

8 Courses are taught by highly knowledgeable lectures 3.09 .738 High

9 Records kept in the university are error free 2.83 .851 Moderate


Responsiveness

10 Inquiries, requests and claims of students are handled and

resolved timely and promptly.

2.82 .815 Moderate

11 Academic staff conducts themselves in students’ best interest. 2.92 .767 Moderate

12 Academic staff pays special attention and provides help to

students in resolving their problems.

2.88 .830 Moderate

13 Lecturers stick to their lecture time 3.00 .855 Moderate

Average 2.91 1.02 Moderate

Assurance

14 Academic staff has the necessary knowledge and skills, and

adequate communication skills.

3.09 .740 High

15 Quality of teaching process is at a high level. 3.01 .650 High

16 Conduct of staff fills students with confidence. 2.86 .788 Moderate

17 Academic staff provides professional answers to students’

questions.

2.94 .750 Moderate

18 The Lecturers/staff of the university do not indulge in corrupt

practices.

2.70 .878 Moderate

19 The school has a well-developed curriculum. 3.09 .934 High

Average 2.95 .790 Moderate

Empathy

20 Academic staff understands students’ needs. 2.86 .864 Moderate

21 Academic staff shows positive attitudes towards students. 2.82 .845 Moderate

22 Academic staff treats students equally and with respect. 2.66 .906 Moderate

23 Academic staff is available for consultations and is forthcoming

towards students.

2.84 .807 Moderate

24 The university values and acknowledges feedback from

students for improving processes.

2.86 .798 Moderate

25 Staff is polite, kind and professional in communication with

students.

2.80 .934 Moderate


In table 2, item 2 which measures tangible obtained

the highest mean score while item 22 measuring

empathy obtained the lowest mean score. The table

also showed that 9 items (36%) of the total number

of the questionnaire items had mean value ranked

high while 16 items (64%) of the items were ranked


93

moderate. This implies that students generally

perceived the quality of the service provided by the

universities as moderate.

Research Question 2: What is the level of

Students’ developments in universities in Kwara

State?

Table2: Level of Students’ Development

A Communication Skill Mean Standard

Deviation

1 Speaking Skills 3.73 .802 High

2 Writing skills 3.64 .914 Moderate

3 Listening Skills 3.71 .903 High

4 Reading skills 3.69 .973 High


B Analytical Ability

5 Critical mind 3.36 1.02 Moderate

6 Diagnostic Mind 3.26 1.01 Moderate

7 Investigative Mind 3.45 .943 Moderate

8 Inquisitive Mind 3.29 .974 Moderate


C ICT Skills

9 Ability to operate ICT gadgets 3.55 .985 Moderate

10 Ability to use ICT gadgets to solve simple

problems

3.43 .959 Moderate

11 Ability to use application packages that are

relevant to the job

3.39 .991 Moderate

12 Ability to use the internet 3.80 .986 Moderate


D Competence in Chosen Field

13 Mastery of basic principles in the field of

specialization

3.54 .820 Moderate

14 Competence in effectively handling tasks that are

related to the chosen field

3.46 .874 Moderate

15 Ability to extend the knowledge of chose field to

solve problems in related field

3.49 .902 Moderate

16 Competence in handling equipment in carrying

out some tasks

3.38 1.01 Moderate


E Decision-Making Skills

17 Critical analysis of situation before decisions are

taken

3.42 .910 Moderate

18 Recognizes decision requirements 3.40 .920 Moderate

19 Developing alternative decision 3.27 .908 Moderate

20 Selection of desired alternatives 3.36 .957 Moderate


Table 2 showed that item 1 under communication

skill obtained the highest mean score of 3.73 while 6

measuring analytical ability had the lowest mean

score of 3.26. Table 2 also showed that three items

(15 %) were ranked high while 17 items (85%) of the

items were ranked moderate. This implies that

lecturers generally rate student development in the

universities as moderate.


94

Hypothesis Testing Ho1: There is no significant relationship between

tangibles and students’ development in universities

in Kwara State.

Table 3: Tangible and Student Development

Variable N X SD Df Cal r-

value

P-value Decision

Tangible 176 3.11 .804

174 .65 .002 Ho1

Rejected

Student

Development

176 23.01 4.46

Table 3 shows the calculated p-value of .002 is less

than the significance level (0.05) for 174 degrees of

freedom. Therefore, the hypothesis which states that

there is no significant relationship between tangibles

and students’ development in universities in Kwara

State is rejected. The finding reveals that there was

significant relationship between tangibles and

students’ development in universities in Kwara State.


reliability and students’ development in universities

in Kwara State.

Table 4: Reliability and Student Development


value

P-value Decision

Reliability 176 3.01 .801

174 .55 .024 Ho2

Rejected

Student

Development

176 23.01 4.46




there is no significant relationship between reliability

and students’ development in universities in Kwara

State is rejected.

The finding reveals that there was significant

relationship between reliability and students’

development in universities in Kwara State.


assurance and students’ development in universities

in Kwara State.


Variable N X SD Df Cal r-value

P-value Decision

Assurance 176 2.95 .790 174 .02 .094 Ho3 Not

Rejected Student

Development 176 23.01 4.46

Table 5 shows the calculated P-value of .02 is greater



there is no significant relationship between

assuranceand students’ development in universities

in Kwara State is not rejected. The finding reveals

that there was no significant relationship between

assurance and students’ development in universities

in Kwara State.


responsiveness and students’ development in



95



value

P-value Decision

Responsiveness 176 2.91 1.02

174 .52 .022 Ho4

Rejected

Student

Development

176 23.01 4.46





responsivenessand students’ development in

universities in Kwara State is rejected. The finding

reveals that there was significant relationship

between responsiveness and students’ development

in universities in Kwara State.


empathy and students’ development in universities in

Kwara State.



value

P-value Decision

Empathy 176 2.81 .860

174 .54 .006 Ho2

Rejected

Student

Development

176 23.01 4.46





empathyand students’ development in universities in

Kwara State is rejected. The finding reveals that there

was significant relationship between empathy and

students’ development in universities in Kwara State.

Discussion

The results presented in table 1 showed that

equipment, building and other physical facilities,

teaching materials and the appearance of teaching

and non-teaching stall are all of high quality. The

universities ability to dependably and accurately

perform the promised service was high.The

willingness to help students and provide prompt

service was also moderate. Knowledge and courtesy

of employees and their ability to convey trust &

confidence and caring, individualized attention that

the university provides its customers were all

moderate. This implies that the student’s

expectations about the services provided by the

universities are moderate. However, their

expectation quality of physical facilities and

reliability are high. This result was in agreement with

the findings of Green (2016) and Đonlagić and Fazlić,

(2015) who also found that students expectations

about the quality of physical facilities in their

respective studies were high.

The findings also revealed that communication of

students was said to be high. Furthermore, their

speaking, listening and reading skills were said to be

high while their writing skills was said to be

moderate. In the same vein, their analytical skills, ICT

skills, competence in the chosen field and decision

skills were moderate. The implication of this is that

student development is moderate. This shows that

student development is a way by which education the

university can be sustained.

The result presented in table 3 showed that there is a

relationship between tangibles and students

development in universities Kwara State. This means

that provision of modern teaching equipment,

building and other physical facilities and teaching

materials can bring about student development. Also

the quality and appearance of academic and non-

academic can also influence student development.


96

Table 4 also indicates that there is a relationship

between reliability and student development in

universities in Kwara State. This means that the

ability of the university to adhere strictly to its

academic calendar, showing keen interest in solving

student problem and keeping of up to date and error

free record have implication for student

development. In the same vein, lecturers respect for

lectures and examination schedules and the

university ability to appoint knowledgeable lecturers

to teach students will also bring about student

development.

The result presented in table 5 revealed that there is

no relationshipbetween assurance and student

development. Knowledge and courtesy of university

staff and their ability to convey trust and confidence

in student cannot enhance student development.

There is a relationship responsiveness and students

development in universities in Kwara State according

to the data presented in table 6. This means that

when student inquiries, request and claims are

handled and resolved promptly and timely and when

academic staff payspecial attention and provides

helps to student in resolving their problems would go

a long way in enhancing the development of the

students.Table 7 also indicated that there is a

relationship between empathy and student

development. This implies that if academic staff

understand students needs, show positive attitude

toward student, treat student equally with respect

and are available for consultation and forthcoming

with student will improve their development.

Furthermore, if university values and acknowledges

feedback from student for improving process and

that staff is kind polite and processional in

communication with student will also enhanced

student development.

Conclusion

Thisstudy concludes on the note that service quality

is an important factor that enhances student

development. This implies that the level of service

provided by the university impact on student

development. Therefore, one of the ways universities

can promote sustainable is improve on the quality of

the services they provide to the students.

Recommendations


recommendations were made.

1. The willingness to help students and provide

prompt service by the universities needs to

be improved upon.

2. The universities should instil staff courtesy,

knowledge and ability to convey confidence

and trust in their students.

3. The universities should also improve the

servicom unit to make various departments

of the university comply with service quality.

References

Đonlagić, S. Fazlić, S. (2015). Quality assessment in

higher education using the SERVQUAL model.

Management, 20: 1, 39-57.

Green, P. (2014). Measuring service quality in higher

education: A South African case study. Journal of

International Education Research – Second

Quarter 10: 2.

Grönroos, C. (1984). A service quality model and its

marketing implications. European Journal of

Marketing, 18 (4): 36-44.

Iro-Idoro, C. B., Ayodele, K. O. and Orija, J. I. (2014).

Students perception of service quality

encountered and their future enrichment:

Implication for academic quality assurance in

Nigeria Polytechnics. International Review of

Management and Business Research, 3(2)

Mohammad, H. I. (2016). Service quality, price and

student satisfaction in ModibboAdama

University of Technology, Yola. Adamawa State

Nigeria. British Journal of Economics,

Management & Trade 14:3, 1-12.

Nitecki, D. A., & Hernon, P. (2000). Measuring service

quality at Yale University’s libraries. The Journal

of Academic Librarianship, 26(4), 259-273.

Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. A., & Berry, L. L. (1985).

A conceptual model of service quality and its

implications for future research. Journal of

Marketing, 49 (4), 41-50.

Parasuraman A, Zeithaml V, Berry L. (1988).

SERVQUAL: A multiple item scale for measuring

consumer perceptions of service quality. Journal

of Retailing 6:1,12-36.

Quinlan, K. M. (2011). Developing the whole student:

leading higher education initiatives that

integrate mind and heart.Oxford Learning

Institute, University of Oxford:Stimulus Paper.


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Usman, U, and Mohd Mukhtar, S. S. (2016). Analysis

of service quality, university image and student

satisfaction on student loyalty in higher

education in Nigeria.International Business

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Zeithmaml VA, Bitner M. J. (2003).Service marketing:

Intergrated customer focus across the firm. New

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2-22


98

LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR EDUCATION IN NIGERIA: APPLICATION AND MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS

Fasasi, Y. A. Department of Educational Management

University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. Email: [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract

In Nigeria, socio-economic, political and religious crises seem to be on increase with attendant consequences on national development. In spite of the existing regulations, many people are involved in behavioural anomalies in their private and public affairs. These are posing challenges to the educational system whose main objective is to inculcate the right type of values and attitude into the citizens. Therefore, this paper discussed the legal framework for ensuring positive behaviour among stakeholders in the nation’s educational organisations. The paper posited that application of the law involved government officials, school administrators, teachers, students, parents, school proprietors and other stakeholders whose constitutional rights should be respected. It stated further that educational managers must understand the law for proper application and for sensitisation of the stakeholders on consequences of their actions. It therefore recommended that education law should be taught to all prospective teachers.

Keywords: Education law, Legal framework, Educational organizations, Constitution, Statute law, Common law.

Introduction

Nigeria as a nation entered the 21st century with

series of socio-economic, political and religious

challenges. There are manifestations of corrupt

practices in private and public lives of many citizens

to the extent that Nigeria is regarded as a front liner

among corrupt nations across the world. The

government made series of efforts towards crises

prevention and eradication of corrupt practices.

These include launching of War Against Indiscipline

(WAI) in 1984, and War Against Indiscipline and

Corruption (WAIC) in 1994. The government also

established the Independent Corrupt Practices and

other related offences Commission (ICPC) in 2000,

and Economic and Financial Crimes Commission

(EFCC) in 2003 (Fasasi, 2012). Although, WAI and

WAIC terminated after some years of

implementation, ICPC and EFCC are still functional

today as agencies for fighting corruption in the

country.

In spite of these efforts, the rate of crises and

corruption seem to be on increase in the country.

Many people engage in dishonesty, vandalism, abuse

of power, academic and financial fraud, bribery and

other forms of immoralities. These types of offences

have been trivialized as acts of indiscipline when they

are committed in schools. However, they eventually

translate into serious crimes in the larger society

(Noha, 2003; Olagboye, 2004). They, therefore, pose a

great threat to national development. Incidentally,

education which has been adopted as an instrument

for national development (Federal Republic of

Nigeria, 2004) is completely engulfed in the ills of the

society. Corruption in form of bribe-giving, bribe-

taking, fraud, child abuse and other acts of

indiscipline is prevalent in the nook and crannies of

the education system.

The government (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2013),

intends that education should develop individuals

into a morally sound, patriotic and effective citizen.

Education should also empower the citizens to live

and contribute positively to the society. These

laudable goals could be achieved if the citizens are

aware of their duties, obligations, rights and

responsibilities, and thus regulate their behaviour

accordingly. Knowledge of education law would

encourage positive behaviour among school-leavers

who would be in position to transform the society

and tailor it towards achieving developmental goals.

It is therefore imperative that educational managers

should be aware of the law guiding the behaviour of

personnel in their organizations. Educational

organizations include education ministries and their

parastatals, as well as educational institutions at

primary, secondary and tertiary levels (Fasasi, 2011).

The objective of this paper, therefore, is to examine the legal framework for education in Nigeria. The




99

paper also highlights the stakeholders who are involved in application of the law and its implications for management practices in education. Legal framework for education is a broad system of rules which are meant to regulate the activities of the government, personnel in educational institutions, ministries, boards and other stakeholders. It includes the federal constitution, acts, laws enacted by civilian government, decrees, edicts, by-laws, policies, legislations and other regulations on education.

Concepts in Education Law

Education law is an aspect of a nation’s regulation which is enacted in order to govern the activities of

stakeholders on all types of education at all levels. Thus, its concepts are derived from the legal system. There are statute and common laws. Statute laws are statutory or written laws. They include military decrees and edicts. They also include Acts of Parliament, State/Regional laws and Local Government Area by-laws of civilian government. Common laws are developed from customs, traditions and judicial decisions. They include civil and criminal laws. Civil laws are laws relating to family, commerce, lands, torts and contracts. Criminal laws are laws on crime against person, property and government. Statute and common laws have relevance in education and they are of different types as shown in figures i and ii.

Fig i: Aspects of Statute Law

Source: Adapted from Olagboye, A. A. (2004). pp. 142-145.

Decree: Education law made by military government

at federal level. Decree No 1 of 1974 established

National Universities Commission as a parastatal of

the Federal Ministry of Education.

Edict: Education law made by military government at

state level. Public Education Edict of 1970 by the

Government of East Central State of Nigeria and Edict

No 5 of 1984 which established Kwara State College

of Education with retrospective effect from 1974

when the College was established are examples.

Act: Education law made by civilian government through the National Assembly. Examples are the

Teachers Registration Council established by Act 31 of 1993, and Universal Basic Education Act of 2004.

Law: Education law passed by State House of Assembly. The Lagos State Government promulgated the Yoruba Language Preservation and Promotion law of 2018 which made Yoruba Language compulsory in all the State’s primary and secondary schools (Akinsanmi, 2018).

By-Law: Education law made at Local Government

level.

Statute law

Civilian Military

Decree Act of Parliament

Edict State Law

LGA by-law


100

Fig ii: Aspects of Common Law

Source: Adapted from Olagboye, A. A. (2004). pp. 142-145.

Family law: These are laws on family related issues

such as divorce, child adoption, child abuse and child

support payment.

Commercial law: Laws on purchase of facilities,

school business venture for internally generated

revenue.

Land law: Law on land ownership, use,

documentation and encroachment.

Law on tort: Law on injury or torture, assault,

seduction, negligence on part of staff and students.

Law on contracts: Laws on employer-employee

contract and job negotiation agreement.

Law on crime against property: Laws on arson, theft

and destruction of properties.

Law on crime against person: Laws on manslaughter,

murder.

Law on crime against government: Laws on rioting,

sedition and treason.

Other concepts in education law include:

Constitution: Fundamental rules of the nation which

spells out the powers and duties of the government

and duties and rights of the people. It is the source of

laws governing all affairs of the country including

education. The 1979 and 1999 Constitutions of the

Federal Republic of Nigeria are examples.

Ordinance: Education law made by Colonial

Government under the British Constitution. The first

education Ordinance was published in 1882 for

British West African Colonies of Lagos, Gold

Coast(Ghana), Sierra Leone and Gambia. There was

another Education Ordinance in 1887 for Colony and

Protectorate of Lagos.

Policy: An authoritative plan of actions on education

proposed or approved by the government. The first

national policy on education was published in1977

by the Federal Government. It has been revised five

times and its sixth edition was published in 2013. A

policy could be either be written on unwritten. It

could be made at any level of government and

educational institutions.

Code: Executive rules made in order to interpret and give effect to an existing written law on education.

Rule and Regulation: Education laws authorized to be made under the existing statute. Rules and regulations could be made at educational institutional levels for staff and students on dress code, class attendance, conduct of examinations and many other activities as contained in documents students’ manual, institutional handbooks and staff

Common law

Criminal Law Civil

Family Commercial Crime against

person

Crime against

Government

Land

Contract Crime against

Property

Tort


101

conditions of service. Rules and regulations may also be unwritten.

Legal Framework for Education

Richard’s Constitution of 1946 divided Nigeria into

Eastern, Northern and Western regions. It provided a

central legislature in Lagos and a house of assembly

for each of the regions. As a follow-up, an educational

ordinance was enacted in 1948 to establish boards of

education for the centre and the three regions, among

others. The 1951 MacPherson Constitution granted

more autonomy to the regions (Olagboye, 2004). This

provided an initial structure for Nigerian education

system. Moreover, the Constitution of the Federal

Republic of Nigeria (1999) recognised Federal, State

and Local Governments. This provides the present

structure for formulation and application of laws in

the nation’s education system. At the federal level,

there is a Federal Ministry of Education. There is a

state ministry of education in each of the 36 states

and there is a local government education authority

in each of the 774 local government areas.

The Federal Government laws in the Constitution and

other enactments at federal level spell out the

activities of the citizens of the Federal Republic of

Nigeria. The education law emanating from these

federal laws also controls the educational activities of

the citizens in the country (Figure iii). The education

laws guiding ministries of education are for Federal

and State Ministries of Education and Local

Government Education Authorities in the country.

Moreover, laws guiding federal, state and local

government educational parastatals are derived from

the education ministries. Tertiary, secondary,

primary and pre primary educational institutions

also derive their laws from their parastatals while

laws guiding classroom activities at all levels of

education are derived from their educational

institutions.

Figure iii: Flow of Education Law From Government to Educational Organisations.

Keys: MOE: Ministry of Education

LGEA: Local Government Education Authority

Source: Author’s Design

Federal Government Law Federal Republic of Nigeria

Education Law Federal Republic of Nigeria

Laws Guiding Ministries of

Education

Federal, State MOEs; LGEAs

Laws Guiding Parastatals Federal, State, Local

Government Parastatals

Laws Guiding Education

Institutions

Tertiary, Secondary, Primary,

Pre-Primary

Laws Guiding Classroom

Activities

Tertiary, Secondary, Primary,

Pre-Primary


102

In the Second Schedule part 1 item 60(e) of Exclusive

Legislative List of the 1999 Constitution, the Federal

Government has an exclusive power to prescribe

minimum standards of education at all levels (Table

1). This empowered the Federal Government to

provide education decrees, acts and policies which

constitute the basis for decision-making and

implementation on all aspects and levels of education

in Nigeria. For example, the Government

promulgated the Universal Basic Education Act in

2004, and Minimum Education Standard for

establishing pre-primary, primary, junior secondary

and senior secondary schools in 2005. The 2007 and

2015 editions of Benchmark Minimum Academic

Standard published by the National Universities

Commission are also examples of Federal

Government’s constitutional power on education.

In the Second Schedule, Part II items L 27 to 30 of the

Concurrent Legislative List of the 1999 Constitution,

Federal and State Governments have concurrent

legislative power on university, technological, post-

primary and professional education (Table 1). State

and Federal Governments are also empowered to

establish education agencies, boards and

commissions. The federal and state ministries of

education are saddled with planning and

administration for these institutions and parastatals.

In the Second Schedule part II item L 30, and in the

Fourth Schedule, item 2(a) of Concurrent Legislative

list, State and Local Governments have concurrent

legislative power to establish and maintain primary,

adult and vocational education and their parastatals

(Table 1).

Table 1: Government’s Legislative Power on Education

Level of Government Legislative Power

Examples

Federal Exclusive Prescription of minimum standard for all levels of education.

Federal and State of education

Concurrent Establishment and admi-nistration of tertiary, post -primary and profession-nal

State and Local Concurrent Establishment and adm-inistration primary, adult and education.

Source: Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999). Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.

Education laws are made at federal, state and local

government levels. The federal law covers the whole

country and is superior to state or local government

law. In all matters, state law should not contradict

federal law; neither should local government law

contradict state law. A law that is contradictory to the

one made at a higher level is null and void. In the

education system, the smallest unit is classroom. A

teacher has an authority to formulate rules and

regulations for smooth running of classroom

activities. These must be in conformity with school

rules and regulations. The school must also conform

to LGEA and state ministry of education rules which

must not be at variance with federal laws. The entire

education system operates under the Federal

Government. Its activities are regulated by the

Federal Government law. Hence, education law

should not be contradictory to any of the government

law.

Application of Education Law

Section 18 of the Nigerian Constitution (Federal

Republic of Nigeria, 1999 p.13), charged the

government with provision of education. It states

that ‘Government shall direct its policy towards

ensuring that there are equal and adequate

educational opportunities at all levels’. The

Government recognised the support of other

stakeholders in planning and administration of

education in the country (Federal Republic of Nigeria,

2004, 2013). Therefore, Government, personnel in

educational organisations (ministries, parastatals

and institutions), students and other stakeholders

have roles to play towards achievement of

educational objectives (Figure iv). They are all

involved in the application of education law.


103

Figure iv: Implementation of Education Law

Source: Author’s Design

The government discharges its duties through the

personnel in the ministries of education. Sections 147

and 148 of the Constitution direct the Federal

Government to appoint an education minister for the

Federal Ministry of Education. Sections 192 and 193

of the Constitution also direct the state governor to

appoint an education commissioner for the state

ministry of education. Parastatals under the

education ministries are legally established to

facilitate achievement of educational objectives. They

include Universal Basic Education Commission, State

Universal Basic Education Board, National

Universities Commission and National Commission

for Colleges of Education, among others (Adeogun,

2002). The government and other stakeholders also

established educational institutions at pre primary,

primary, secondary and tertiary levels. Personnel in

the education ministries, parastatals and institutions

are employees of government. Their appointment

and conditions of service are guided by the education

law. Their heads must ensure compliance and proper

direction of efforts towards achievement of

educational objectives.

The government, in order to discharge its

constitutional role of providing education to the

citizens effectively, has many other roles to play. The

government is expected to ensure provision of

human, material and financial resources. Human

resources in education include teachers,

administrative staff and students. There are

conditions laid down in the education policy on

employment of teachers, administrative staff and

admission of students. A prospective teacher-

employee must be trained with minimum

qualification of Nigeria Certificate in Education

(NCE). He must also register with Teachers

Registration Council of Nigeria (Federal Republic of

Nigeria, 2013). Employment of an administrative

staff must also be guided by the law. It is a contract

between employer and employee and the contract

must be respected.

Moreover, the government is expected to provide

facilities in adequate quality and quantity for use in

the educational institutions. For instance, a piece of

land which can serve immediate and future needs of

a school would be required in a safe environment.

The land must be free from litigation, well

demarcated and fenced in order to prevent

encroachment. Classrooms, offices, libraries,

workshops, toilets, recreational facilities and other

structures must also be located in suitable sites

which would ensure effective teaching and learning.

In public and private educational institutions, head

teachers and other personnel have roles to play

towards smooth running and achievement of

educational objectives. They are in loco parentis and

they are expected to ensure an all-round

development of the students under their care

(Fayokun, 2006). They should therefore be familiar

with laws that are meant to guide students’

Government

s

Personnel in Educational

Ministries, Parastatals

(Board, Agencies, etc)

Ministries

Other

Stakeholders:

(Philanthropist,

Companies,

Religious

bodies,

Communities,

Parents and

Voluntary

organizations)

Personnel in Educational Institutions

Students


104

behaviour. For instance, law on tort is meant to

prevent torture, injury and assault on students. The

law is also to guide against corporal punishment.

However, many practices in the education system are

against the law. Ojoye (2016) reported that a school

proprietor defiled a four-year old nursery one girl in

his school. Jonathan (2018) also reported that a

teacher flogged a student to death in Zamfara State.

Another case was a school roof which collapsed and

killed a ten-year old pupil (Unigwe, 2015). These are

legal issues which can lead to imprisonment,

termination of appointment or any other stiffer

penalty. Constitutionally the parties concerned have

fundamental human rights to seek redress (Federal

Republic of Nigeria, 1999).

Implications for Education Managers

Education managers are heads of education

ministries, parastatals and institutions at all levels.

Heads of units, departments and classrooms in these

organizations are also included as managers of their

various levels of education. They are expected to

have a thorough understanding of the education law

and the overall legal system of the nation. They are

also expected to allocate duties impartially and

recognize the rights of their subordinates in

accordance with the law. Application of the law is

impossible where understanding is lacking.

Moreover, formulation of the law and its

implementation is not an exclusive right of an

individual or a group. The government, the education

managers and their subordinates at all levels are

responsible for formulation and implementation.

Managers must ensure that their education law is in

line with the law of the country. They should be

aware that a law formulated at lower level of

education should complement and not contradict any

law at higher level in order to be valid. Therefore,

there is need for the managers to learn how to

formulate simple rules which will not contradict the

existing statute.

Education managers are to perform their functions

under the law. Planning of school activities,

organisation of educational resources, control

strategies for ensuring that performance does not

deviate from objective and maintenance of effective

leadership should be based on the law. Thus the

managers must be guided by the law and they should

encourage subordinates to be law abiding.

Finally, education managers should realise that the

organizations in which they are working are

established by the law. Code of ethics, policies,

guidelines and conditions of service in these

organisations must be made available, studied and

followed religiously. Managers and subordinates

must realise that there are consequences for their

actions. Thus, obedience and discipline are

imperative among the managers and their

subordinates.

Recommendations

It is recommended that education law should be

taught to all prospective teachers in all teacher

training institutions to facilitate understanding and

proper application. It is also recommended that

documents on education law, education policy and

the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria

should be made available to staff and students in the

nation’s educational institutions. The government

should also provide an enabling environment,

authority and adequate facilities in order to enhance

application of the law and its compliance.

References

Adeogun, A. A. (2002). Educational agencies in

Nigeria. Lagos: Olatunji Publishing Press.

Akinsanmi, G. (2018). LASG: Yoruba now mandatory

for admission into tertiary institutions in

Lagos. Retrieved 20th February, 2018, from

www.thisdaylive.com

Fayokun, K. (2006). The ‘In Loco Parentis’ Doctrine

and school discipline. In J. B. Babalola, A. O.

Ayeni, S. O Adedeji, A. A. Sulaiman & M. O.

Arikewuyo (Eds.), Educational management:

Thoughts and practice. (pp. 308-319). Ibadan:

Codat publications.

Fasasi, Y. A. (2011). Managerial behaviour in

educational organization in Nigeria.

International Journal of Academic Research in

Business and Social Sciences. 1, (Special Issue),

14-23. Retrieved on 18th December, 2017 from

www.hrmars.com/journals

Fasasi, Y. A. (2012). Supervisors’ roles in promotion

of Islamic religious education for moral

development in Nigerian secondary schools.

Vocational Business Educator. 1(1), 117-123,

Published by Business Educators Association in

Vocational Education. Faculty of Education,

Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

http://www.thisdaylive.com/

http://www.hrmars.com/journals


105

Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999). Constitution of the

Federal Republic of Nigeria. Lagos: Federal

Government Press.


education. 4th Edition. Lagos: NERDC.


education. 6th Edition. Lagos: NERDC.

Jonathan, Z. (2018). Teacher flogs student to death in

Zamfara. Retrieved on 22th February, 2018, from

https://punchng.com/teacher-flogs-student

Noha, A. O. K. (2003). Anti-corruption crusade in

secondary schools. Lagos State Post-Primary

Teaching Service Commission TESCOM NEWS.

Quarterly Publication of Lagos State Post-

Primary Teaching Services Commission.

Ojoye, T. (2016). How school proprietor raped me:

Girl, 4. Retrieved 15th November, 2017, from

http://punchng.com>how-school

Olagboye, A. A. (2004). Introduction to educational

management in Nigeria. Ibadan: Daily Graphics

(Nigeria) Ltd.

Unigwe, C. (2015). Tragic: School roof crashes killing

10-year old pupil. Retrieved 15th November,

2017, from https://www.thetrentonline.com

https://punchng.com/teacher-flogs-student

https://www.thetrentonline.com/


106

IMPACT OF PARENTAL SEPARATION ON SOCIAL ATTITUDE AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF SECONDARY

SCHOOL STUDENTS IN IJEBU-ODE LOCAL GOVERNMENT, OGUN STATE

1Akinwunmi, F.S., 2Adeyanju H. I. and 3Yusuf-Babatunde A. M. 1Department of Educational Management,

University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. 2Department of Educational Management,

Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijagun, Ijebu-Ode, Ogun State, Nigeria.

3Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Ogun State College of Health Technology,

Ilese-Ijebu.Ogun State, Nigeria.

Abstract

The study examined the impact of parental separation on social attitude and academic performance of secondary school students in Ijebu-Ode Local Government Area of Ogun State. The research design was descriptive survey. Three hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 alpha level of significance. The population for the study consisted of 15,500 students from 19 secondary schools in Ijebu-Ode local government from which two hundred and seventy (270) students were stratified based on sex, home background and family set-up from nine randomly selected secondary schools in the area of study. The instrument used for data collections were structural designed questionnaire tagged “Parental Separation on Social Attitudes and Academic Performance of Secondary School Students” (PSSAAPSSSQ) and scores of academic performance of students. The instruments was validated, pilot study carried out made use of Pearson Product Moment Correlation with coefficient of 0.79 to show the reliability of the instrument. Data collected were analysed making use of MANOVA and ANOVA statistical tools. Findings showed that there is significant impact of parental separation on social attitude, academic performance and combined variables of social attitude and academic performance of secondary school students in Ijebu-Ode Local Government of Ogun State. A recommendation made among others was that Teachers, Social workers, Counselors should identify and counsel students from divorced families and separated parents should also be counseled in social needs of their children so that academic work will not suffer at school.

Key words: Parental separation, Social attitude, Academic performance, Students, Variables.

Introduction

Parents play significant roles in the educational

development of a child as they are the first point of

contact in a child’s life. Success or failure of a child

depend largely on the up-bringing of such a child

which is handled by the parents. Every parent will be

proud of a successful child while failure is frown at,

hence, the adage that, ‘failure is an orphan, success

has many parents’

Over the years, scholars have been trying to find out

the reason for the downward trends in the academic

performance of students. Daramola (2005) stated

that, the factors affecting a child’s educational

performance include the occupational status of the

parents, the attitude of parents to their children’s

education, and the value transmitted by the parents.

Obemeata and Daramola (1994) attributed it to the

students’ background, that is, the type of home

environment where the child is raised.

In all societies, throughout the world, parenting is a

complex activity that includes much specific behavior

that works individually and together to influence

child’s outcomes (Darling, 1993). The home is the

first social institution the child is exposed to in life, as

he grows older, he extends the social contacts to

other people within the neighborhood and beyond.

The parents play a very important and crucial role in

the education of their child. During this process, the

child, his home and the school constitute a part which

stands as a triangle. Whatever the child learns at


107

home as he find himself/herself in, motivates

him/her towards his education and this in return

contributes to the child’s success or failure in the

school and whether the child turn out to be a well

behaved child or not (Fraser, 2003).

Child

School Home

Source: The Researchers Findings (2018)

The above triangle shows the tripartite contribution

of the child, the school and home to either the success

or failure of a child.

According to Bamisaye (1998), the family is the

bedrock of attitude and value formation, both

positively and negatively. The family is a primary

socializing agent for the child both overtly and

covertly. The child first learns his social roles through

imitation of the older siblings and later, through

internalized patterns and principles of behavior in

the family. Bamisaye (1998), referred to the family as

the place where the child first learns the appropriate

behavior patterns, values, attitudes, norms and

folkways of the society. All these are known to

influence the socialization process in significant ways

resulting in different patterns of behavior and

consequently in their personality. The values and

attitudes, customs and traditions of the society are

taught to young children in the family.

This means that social behavior is learnt in the

family. Attitudes and values are easier learnt under in

a conducive family environment. It is therefore

within the family that the child gets prepared for the

outside world.

Attitude is concerned with an individual’s way of

feeling, thinking and behaving and this has serious

implications for the child, the parents, the immediate

social group and the society at large. In other words,

a person attitude is reflected through his/her

behaviour. Bandura (1977) identified the causes of

behaviour in terms of relationship with others being

external or internal. Internal causes are perceived to

be ones genetic background and personality traits,

while external causes are perceived to be related to

one’s physical environment and social setting.

Internal causes are supposed to represent factors

that are completely under the control of or within the

individual while the external causes are supposed to

be beyond the control or outside of the individual.

Tittley (1990) argued that the human dignity begins

in the home. The family is the breeding ground of all

interpersonal relationships, the basic sociology unit

where personal character is first molded and self-

identity first formed. Unfortunately, instability is

present in many homes today due to parental

separation which often affect the social attitudes of

the child. Children social stability could be largely

enhanced by the stability of the parents and siblings

in their immediate environment. In a stable,

supportive home, the child grows up to learn that the

world is a safe and predictable place where

competent, caring adults help to navigate challenges.

It should be noted that marital instability has much

story to tell in the lives of the adolescent because it

gives them room to be free when there is no one to

control them. Parental divorce or separation leads to

many changes in the development of the child.

Forman and Davies (2003) maintained that at

adolescence, the individual is getting developed

psychologically to cope and bear with stress and

tensions which they are faced with. They argued that

ability to bear with stress and tensions that the

adolescents are faced with posed a lot of pressure

their academics. A child biological temperament

plays a vital role in the eruption and resolution of

separation. The studies of Park and Kim (2001)

maintained that individuals are generally

predisposed to certain styles of social attitudes and

interaction. The study is to assess on the impact of

parental separation on social attitude of secondary

school students.

According to Ekundayo and Oyeniyi (2008) and

Adebule (2012), the society is battling with many

behavioural problems of the adolescent students,

which include truancy, disobedience, drug addiction,

smoking, flirting, stealing, armed robbery, violent

behaviour and demonstration, examination

malpractice, cultism and thuggery. Omotosho,

Adeniyi and Bada (2010) in addition to the above

mentioned, also viewed sex abuse, sex activities,

indiscriminate sex, homosexual (gay and lesbianism )

as part of behaviour problems prevalent among

Nigerian secondary school adolescent students.


108

Adebowale (2006) in a study on the social behaviour

of adolescents as it affects their moral behavior

observed that the type of home which the adolescent

comes from, determine to a considerable extent, the

type of attitude which he will develop to exhibit. The

study revealed that the co-parental relationship of

mother and father provides children with a model of

adjusting, communicating, negotiating, and

compromising together.

Marital instability seems to have a long and lasting

impact on lives of any adolescent. The state of the

home or the marital status of adolescent parents

speaks volume about the life of the child. Separated

homes have been found as a crucial factor causing

anti-social problems among youths. Olusola (2008)

believed that the highest incidence of adolescents

whose parents are living separately may become

way-ward, unruly, or take to sexual misconduct as a

way of searching for affection which was lacking in

their unhappy parental home. Many researches

(Hayes, 1987; Miller & Webb, 1995) have shown that

immoral behavior are prevalent among adolescents

who are from unstable or separated family, with less

adequate parental training on their moral and social

attitudes.

Park and Kim (2003) argued that the mother

traditionally play substantial role in the care of the

family. The mothers’ care for them, listens to their

problems and provide solutions. Mothers are very

important in ensuring a happy childhood and

meaningfully adult life for their children. The parent

child relationship studies indicate that a father can

contribute uniquely to the development of the child

independently of the mother’s contribution.

However, when issues on factors such as emotional,

intelligence, self esteem, competence and confidence

come up, the father cannot be replaced easily by the

mother.

This study best fits on “Family Deficit Model”:

Hetherington and Kelly (2002) described family

deficit model as the ideal and normal family structure

of the nuclear or two-parent family. This model

upholds that single parent families tend to show

some negative influences on children since such

families are not nuclear in structure. The structure

plays down the effects that economic and other

background factors could have on academic

attainment of the learners (Abimbola, 2014). In the

view of Park and Kim (2003), family deficit model

assumes that single-parent households are deficient

in some critical ways for effective child training. This

could be so since there may not be any single parent

(father or mother) that can fully play the roles father

and mother play in the upbringing of the child in all

these areas such as housing, feeding, clothing, shelter

and education.


Parental separation is an increasing social problem

that has become a topic for discussion in recent

times; it is traumatic for those who experience it.

Those affected may experience grief, embarrassment,

resentment, disappointment, intense anger and

divided loyalty with reluctant effect on academic

performance. Marriage is the bedrock of every

society which impacts every child to have high self-

esteem. It has been discovered that many people go

into marriage today without adequate preparation in

terms of growth and maturity to meet the challenges

of marital life. Hence, many marriages have been

known to end up in divorce. As soon as

divorce/separation occurs, the result can be on the

parents themselves, their children academic

performance and the entire society. Therefore,

divorce has become a subject of serious concern to

researchers at various levels. Researches have been

conducted on the issue of parental separation but this

research was carried out among secondary school

students in ijebu-ode Local Government of Ogun

State as it affect their academic perfomances.

Research Hypotheses

Three research hypotheses were formulated to guide

the study as stated below:

1. There is no significant impact of parental

separation on the combined variables of social

attitude and academic performance of secondary

school students in Ijebu-Ode local government, Ogun

State.


separation on social attitude of secondary school

students in Ijebu-Ode local government, Ogun State.


separation on academic performance of secondary


State.


109

Methodology

Descriptive research design of survey type was

adopted for this study. The design entails the

collection and use of data systematically from a given

population to describe certain characteristics

features of the population. The design is considered

appropriate for this study being that the work was

intended to collect data from small group with view

to describing the entire population vis–a–vis

determining the impact of parental separation on

social attitude and academic performance of

secondary school students in Ijebu-Ode Local

Government.

The target population of the study comprised junior

and senior secondary school students in Ijebu-Ode

local government, Ogun State, Nigeria. The

population of students in nineteen secondary schools

is 15,500 while the sample size for this study was 270

secondary school students. Nine schools were

randomly selected from the nine junior and senior

secondary schools in Ijebu-Ode Education Zone.

From each selected school, thirty students were

stratified and stratified sampling technique was used

to select five students from each class level (from J.S.S

1 to S.S.S 3). The sampling techniques ensured the

selection of students of different sexes, separated, un-

separated, home background.

A self-constructed questionnaire titled “Parental

Separation on Social Attitudes and Academic

Performance of Secondary School Students

Questionnaire (PSSAAPSSSQ) were administered to

collect data from the respondents for the study. The

instrument was divided into two sections, A and B.

Section A deals with the personal data of the

respondents like name of school, age, class, parental

status and sex, while Section B consisting of 30 items

solicited information on parental separation, social

attitudes and academic performance of the students.

The instrument was validated through constructive

suggestions by two experts from educational

management and evaluation.

To ensure the reliability of the instrument, a pilot

study was carried out. The questionnaire were

administered twice on students from schools that are

not part of sampled schools using Pearson Product

Moment correlation Statistical tool to find the

reliability and the score was 0.79. This value was

adjudged high and therefore, the instrument was

considered reliable and appropriate for this study.

The questionnaire were administered on the

respondents; responded to and collected

immediately on the same day. The data collected on

this study were analyzed using one-way multivariate

analysis of variance (MANOVA) for the hypothesis

one and a univariate ANOVAs to follow-up statistical

significant result to test hypotheses two and three at

0.05 level of significance.

Results

Hypothesis 1:

There is no significant impact of parental separation

on the combined variables of social attitude and

academic performance of secondary school students

in Ijebu-Ode local government, Ogun State.

Table 1: Multivariate tests showing the impact of parental separation on the combined variables of social attitude and academic performance of students Effect Value F Hypothesis df Error df Sig.

Intercept

Pillai's Trace .993 17777.617b 2.000 267.000 .000 Wilks' Lambda .007 17777.617b 2.000 267.000 .000 Hotelling's Trace 133.166 17777.617b 2.000 267.000 .000 Roy's Largest Root 133.166 17777.617b 2.000 267.000 .000

Ps

Pillai's Trace .567 174.661b 2.000 267.000 .000 Wilks' Lambda .433 174.661b 2.000 267.000 .000 Hotelling's Trace 1.308 174.661b 2.000 267.000 .000 Roy's Largest Root 1.308 174.661b 2.000 267.000 .000

ps= parental separation

Table 1 shows the Wilks' Lambda value to the effect

of parental separation on students’ social attitude

and academic performance combined. The results

revealed that there was a statistically significant

difference between the two parental separation

status on the combined dependent variables, F(2,

267) = 174.661, p< .0005; Wilks' Λ = .433; partial η2 =

.567. Therefore the null hypothesis one which states

that there is no significant impact of parental

separation on the combined variables of social

attitude and academic performance of secondary



110

State is rejected, thus the alternate hypothesis is

sustained.

Hypothesis 2:


on social attitude of secondary school students in

Ijebu-Ode local government, Ogun State.\

Table 2: Tests of Between-Subjects Effects showing the impact of parental separation on social attitude of

secondary school students

Source Dependent Variable Type III Sum

of Squares

Df Mean Square F Sig.

Intercept Social Attitude 229839.912 1 229839.912 14234.365 .000

Academic Performance 757912.000 1 757912.000 20669.696 .000

Ps Social Attitude 2687.023 1 2687.023 166.412 .000

Academic Performance 6467.733 1 6467.733 176.387 .000

Error Social Attitude 4327.351 268 16.147

Academic Performance 9826.967 268 36.668

a. R Squared = .383 (Adjusted R Squared = .381) b. R Squared = .397 (Adjusted R Squared = .395)


Table 2 shows the F-ratio and its significance results

for the impact of parental separation on social

attitude of secondary school students in Ijebu-Ode

local government secondary schools, Ogun State. The

results revealed that there was a statistically

significant difference in social attitude scores

between the students from different parental

separation status, F(1, 268) = 166.412, p< .0005;

partial η2 = .383. Therefore, the null hypothesis two

which states that there is no significant impact of

parental separation on social attitude of secondary


State is rejected, and the alternate hypothesis was

retained.

Hypothesis 3:


on academic performance of secondary school

students in Ijebu-Ode local government, Ogun State.

Table 3: Tests of between-subjects effects showing the impact of parental separation on academic performance of

secondary school students

Source Dependent Variable

Type III Sum of Squares

Df Mean Square F Sig.

Intercept Social Attitude 229839.912 1 229839.912 14234.365 .000 Academic Performance

757912.000 1 757912.000 20669.696 .000

Ps Social Attitude 2687.023 1 2687.023 166.412 .000 Academic Performance

6467.733 1 6467.733 176.387 .000

Error Social Attitude 4327.351 268 16.147 Academic Performance

9826.967 268 36.668

a. R Squared = .383 (Adjusted R Squared = .381) b. R Squared = .397 (Adjusted R Squared = .395)


Table 3 shows the F-ratio and its significance results

for the impact of parental separation on academic

performance of secondary school students in Ijebu-

Ode local government secondary schools, Ogun State.

The results revealed that there was a statistically

significant difference in academic performance

scores between the students from different parental

separation status, F(1, 268) = 176.387, p< .0005;

partial η2 = .397. Therefore, the null hypothesis two


111

which states that there is no significant impact of

parental separation on academic performance of

secondary school students in Ijebu-Ode local

government, Ogun State was rejected, and the

alternate hypothesis was retained.

Discussion

The study was conducted to investigate the impact of

parental separation on social attitude and academic

performance of secondary school students in Ijebu-

Ode Local Government, Ogun State, Nigeria. The

results from the test of hypothesis one revealed that

there was significant impact of parental separation

on the combined variables of social attitude and

academic performance of secondary school students

in Ijebu-Ode local government, Ogun State. The

implication of this result is that there was a

significant difference in social attitudes and

relationships between students from separated

parent and those living with both parents. This

finding is in line with Salami (2008), who affirmed

that adolescents from broken homes are usually

associated with antisocial behaviour and poor

academic records. Studies confirmed that children of

separated parents are at an increased risk for the

development of psychological, behavioural, social and

academic problems. Also, Overland, Thotsen and

Storksen (2012) stated that divorce affects children in

a multitude of ways. “Ongoing conflict, blocked

communication and power imbalances between

parents are problematic for child and family

functioning”. In the same manner, Brown and Lin

(2012) concluded that children who experience their

parents going through a divorce are susceptible to

becoming depressed, being withdrawn, acting out,

and acting differently.It is well documented that

psychosocial stressors constitute a significant,

pervasive risk for children’s mental health problem.

Results from hypothesis two which states that there

is no significant impact of parental separation on

social attitude of secondary school students in Ijebu-

Ode local government, Ogun State, however revealed

that parental separation has a significant impact on

social attitude of secondary school students in Ijebu-

Ode local government, Ogun State. The implication of

this result is that the difference in social attitude

between students from separated parent and those

living with both parents was significant. Students

from separated parents were rated lower on their

social attitude compared to non-separated parents.

Separated home is characterized with abnormal

personality and mental adjustment and posed a real

danger to emotionally personality and mental

adjustment of young adolescents. Salami, (2008)

study corroborates this with the view that the actions

of the parents affect the children all throughout their

childhood, and eventually may overlap into their

adulthood. “It is well documented that parental

divorce is associated with multiple problems for

youth that extend into adulthood, including

internalizing and externalizing problems,

interpersonal difficulties, poor physical health, and

substance abuse”. And also Van-Dolen, Weinberg and

Ma (2013) study also affirms that, “experiencing

parental separation during childhood is associated

with increased likelihood of being subject to child

abuse and/or witnessing violence”. When parents go

through a divorce, the children can become witness

to what it brings about in their parents, and

sometimes even unknowingly get in the middle of it.

Results from the analysis of hypothesis three which

states that there is no significant impact of parental

separation on academic performance of secondary


State, however revealed that parental separation has

a significant impact on academic performance of

secondary school students in Ijebu-Ode local

government, Ogun State. The implication of this

result is that the difference in academic performance

between students from separated parent and those

living with both parents was significant. Separated

home has been identified as one of the great factors

affecting students’ academic performance which

engendered intellectual stimulations causing

students to perform poorly in schools. This finding

conforms with that of Borgers and Van (1996), who

concluded that educational outcomes of children

living with a single mother were generally poorer

than those of children living with two parents

although fairly small in the magnitude. Also

Hetherington and Elmore (2003), stated that children

of separated parents are at risk of lower academic

performance than their peers from non-divorced

families. Angel-Castillo and Torres-Herrera (2008)

support this finding and viewed it from the

perspective of school dropout. School dropout rates

for Hispanic students were almost doubled in

students from single-parent families or blended

families as compared to students from two-parent

families.


112

Conclusion

On the basis of the findings of this study, it is

concluded that parental separation has impact on

both the social attitudes and academic performance

of students combined. Considering the impact of

parental separation on social attitude, two-parenting

offers moral development that incorporates

punishment and consequences to the violation of

moral upbringing of a child in the society. This

emphasizes the social behaviours of secondary school

adolescents in homes where parents live together to

differ from the social attitudes of those students from

separated parents. The effect of parental separation

on academic performance is the resultant impact to

the underlying reason why students in seperated

homes lack the ability to concentrate in class;

declining attendance and willingness to participate in

class indicate students are having difficult time

adjusting to a transition in family dynamics.

Therefore, there is a connecting fibre established for

parental separation to have positive or negative

impacts on social attitudes and academic

performance of secondary school students.

Recommendations

Considering the impact of parental separation on

social attitude and academic performance of

secondary school students, the following

recommendations are made:

1. Counselors, psychologists, social workers and teachers should identify students from divorced families and counsel them on the need for positive social attitude with their mates and separated parents should also be counseled on the need for reconciliation and harmonious living to improve social needs of their children so that their academic work will not suffer in school.

2. There is need for marriage counseling in schools

for parents, this can come up during the Parents

and Teachers Association (PTA) meeting to

enlightening the parents on the evil effects of

parental separation on children’s social

interaction and academic performance This will

reduce divorce or separation rates among

couples and encourage them to have enough

time for each other and make love and

understanding the corner stone of their

marriage. For instance, there should be effective

communication among couples since

communication serves as the blood of any

relationship.

3. Enlightenment programmes should be

organized for the students also on the evil effect

of parental separation on students’ academic

performance. Pre-marital pregnancy and forced

marriages should be discouraged by organizing

family life education, seminars, games etc in the

schools, churches and communities as much as

possible since these situations often result in

high state of marriage disruption.

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resource and home background on students’

academic performance in federal government

colleges, Ogun State, Nigeria. An

Unpublished work of National Open University,

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Adebowale, I. O. (2006). Parental background,

influence and immoral behaviour among

secondary school students. An Unpublished work

of National Teachers Institute , Kaduna.

Adebule, S.O. (2012). Moral discipline and academic

performance of secondary school students in

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International Conference on Education Psycholo-

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Angel-Castillo, M., & Torres-Herrera, M. (2008). The

lack of academic achievement in the new family

structure models. Universitas Psycho-logica, 7(2),

403-409

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114

APPRAISAL OF PUBLIC SCHOOL REFORMS IN OSUN STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS,

2011-2015

Yusuf, M. A. Department of Educational Management

Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife

Abstract

This study identified the reforms in the Education system of Osun State from 2011 to 2015. Descriptive survey research design was used for the study as at the time of this study. The population for the study consisted of 5,878 secondary school teachers in Osun State. The sample comprised 156 teachers selected using multistage sampling technique. One research question was raised and answered in the study. An Instrument tagged “Public School Education Reform Questionnaire (PSERQ)” was used to elicit information from 156 respondents selected from three senatorial districts in Osun State. The instrument used was validated by given the experts in educational Management and Test and Measurement in Obafemi Awolowo University. Based on their recommendations and suggestions, the instrument was restructured to meet face, content and construct validity. The reliability of the instrument was also ensured through test-retest method and a reliability coefficient of 0 .87 was obtained which was considered high enough for reliability. The results showed that reforms introduced in education system of Osun State from 2011 to 2015 are: merging of schools, introduction of new subjects, introduction of I PAD (opo-imo), introduction of same school uniform, reclassification of schools and introduction of O meal. It was therefore recommended that government should have education summit before introducing new policy into the system, this will allow all the stake holder to contribute and be aware of the new policy.

Keywords: Public School, Education Reform, Merging of Schools, Same School Uniform, Reclassification of School

Introduction

It is worthy to emphasise that education is a means

by which the society ensures its stability. It is through

education system that young members of the society

are taught the expected behaviour of the society.

Through education, individuals acquire useable and

socially acceptable vocational skills with which one

can be productive, which ensures individual and

group survival. The importance of education as

described above justifies the recognition given to it

by the Federal Government of Nigeria as stated in the

National Policy on education that “….the Federal

Government of Nigeria has adopted education as an

instrument par excellence for effecting national

growth and development (Federal Government of

Nigeria, FGN. 2014).

The place of secondary education in achieving the

general objectives of education in Nigeria cannot be

underestimated as it is the transitional level of

education from childhood to adulthood. The major

aim of secondary education in Nigeria as stated in the

National Policy on Education, section 221(a) are two-

fold; preparation for useful living within the society

and preparation for higher education (FGN, 2014). If

these aims are going to be achieved there is a need to

give the students right type of education and training

which will help them to be self-reliant especially for

the benefit of those who may not be able to proceed

beyond this level of education and prepare those who

are moving ahead for the future challenges, hence the

introduction of new subjects into the curriculum such

as; Animal Husbandry; Catering Crafts; Carpentry,

Electrical Electronics and so on.; by the reform

programme.

Education is the bedrock of development as stated by

the Federal Government of Nigeria (2014) in the

National Policy on Education. Before the public

school reforms in Osun State, the structure of

education being operated in the State was the 6-3-3-4

system which was introduced by the military

government of General Ibrahim Badamosi Babangida.

The public schools in the state prior the reforms

embarked on by Osun State government in 2011

particularly the Senior Secondary School level of

education was faced with lots of challenges such as

inadequate manpower, inadequate infrastructure,


115

inadequate funding, mass failure in public

examinations such as senior secondary school leaving

certificate examination, Joint Admission and

Matriculation Examination (JAMB) and so on (Osun

Defender, 2016).

The 9-3-4 system of education was designed in

conformity with the Millennium Development Goals

(MDGs). The 9-3-4 system was designed to give

children the opportunity to have access to

uninterrupted primary education of six years and

three years junior secondary school education. Here,

the promotion is to be automatic and it is to be

determined by continuous assessment and it is to be

made free and compulsory for every Nigerian Child.

Therefore, the Universal Basic Education Commission

law section 15 defines Universal Basic Education as

early childhood care and education.

Secondary education in Nigeria is to be three years of

Junior Secondary School and three years in senior

secondary school. Junior secondary school is free and

compulsory. This policy is to be implemented by all

tiers of government. It is important to state that

education is on the concurrent list of the constitution

of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. So both the central

and the state government have the right to establish

and be responsible for funding of secondary schools.

Also prior to these reforms, there were many

secondary schools that were situated in unconducive

environments. There were lots of factors that were

disrupting teaching and learning in some of these

schools, some of them which were established years

ago have now fallen within noisy area, even in market

places, while many of them are no more secure as the

fences were already either pulled down or not even

fenced at all, many structures are already dilapidated

and furniture for both teachers and students use are

no more in place. Because of this, the reform

introduced the merger of schools as solution to these

problems. However, this study appraised the reforms

put in place by Osun State government in 2011 to

2015.

In Osun State, it has been observed that the general

performance of students in public examinations such

as Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (SSCE),

National Board on Technical Education Examination

(NABTEB), and so on seems to be poor. The reform

introduced some measures to improve the students’

academic performances, such as the introduction of

the “Tablet of knowledge” (Opon Imo), recruitment of

more teachers, and so on. It was also observed that

the students were wearing tattered uniform to school

and the government felt that it was not proper.

Consequent upon this, the reform introduced same

school uniform for all secondary school students in

the state at a reduced price.

As a result of school reforms in Osun State, which led

to the re-classification and merging of schools,

introduction of same school uniform and

introduction of the tablet of knowledge (Opon Imo).

Some concerned educationists have questioned the

workability of such reforms. The reform caused a lot

of uproar among students, teachers and parents. In

fact on the 5th of February 2014 students of Baptist

High School Iwo protested by wearing chorister’s

garments and other clothing to school protesting the

merging of a Muslim school with the school. This

disrupted school programmes in the town for weeks.

Also, students in other parts of the State protested

against the merger of schools. In such towns and

cities where students protested include Ikire, Ikirun,

Ejigbo and Osogbo, schools were closed down for

months which had effect on the administration and

academic performance of students.

Another challenge identified was the burden of

buying new school uniforms by the parents after the

first set donated by the government had been weak

and torn. It was even discovered that the cost of this

uniform is higher than the amount of the old one.

Also, this uniform is not even readily available in the

market, some parents have to travel to the garment

factory in Osogbo established by the State

government before they could buy this uniform. So

many students resulted into wearing either the old

uniforms or just any clothes to school.

Also, the merging of same sex and faith schools with

others generated a lot of controversy among the

people. Many old student’s associations and the

original founders of some schools vehemently

opposed this aspect of the school reform as the

merging led to outright extinction of some schools or

alteration of the philosophy and visions of the

founder. For instance, Fakunle Comprehensive High

School, Osogbo was closed and the students were

taken to another site with new name such as

Salvation Army High School, Oke Fia, Osogbo. Many

High Schools were changed into middle schools as a

result of reclassification of school. Schools were


116

reclassified as Elementary, Middle and High schools.

Merging of school is the combination of two or more

schools to become one. It means collapsing of two or

more schools with one another to become one.

Merging of school is not new in the educational

system of the world. Because of decrease in birth

rates in Singapore for instance schools were merged

(Kenneth and Kelly, 2016). Also, in China primary

schools were merged in the rural part of the country.

“The primary schools were heterogeneous, reporting

different levels of enrolment, facilities and teaching

staff. For example it was reported that primary

schools in some villages in one province had less than

ten students whereas other primary schools in the

same area of the same province had more than 200

students (Wenjin, 2012).

Considered the biggest controversy is the alleged

introduction of “Ifa” as a subject of study in public

schools. The controversy is heightened as the tablet

of knowledge (Opon Imo) which came pre-loaded

with learning materials, textbooks, Bible, Quran and

Ifa. This made some religious leaders and other stake

holder in the state condemned the newly introduced

curriculum and publicly condemned the inclusion of

“Ifa” into the secondary school curriculum.

In fact, the challenges of public school reforms in

Osun State can be categorized into political,

economic, religion and social. Political challenges

have to do with the criticisms from the opposition

political parties and political opponents of the

Government of the day. The opposition party

vehemently condemned all aspects of the reform

accusing the Government of not doing the right thing,

right from the convening of the summit that

recommended most aspects of the reforms. The

religion aspect of these challenges is the stand of both

Christian and Muslim leaders on the merger of

schools and the alleged introduction of Ifa as a school

subject, for instance, the Osun State Chapter of the

Christian Association of Nigeria (OSCAN) argued that

it was not properly consulted before decisions were

made in respect of the school reforming, Osun State

Chapter of the Christian Association of Nigeria

(OSCAN) stated that the association was not against

any new educational policy being put in place by

either the Federal or the State Government but were

vehemently kick against any educational programme

that will obliterate the mission schools and affect the

tenets of faith particularly in the state.

Economically, the government have not been able to

properly fund the schools as a result of the paucity of

fund. Many school building projects embarked on by

the State Government are yet to be completed three

years since commencement, schools are lacking

instructional materials, since the government have

not been able to release grants and subventions to

the head of these schools. Many parents cannot even

afford the cost of new uniforms for their children and

wards, students whom schools were merged have to

trek kilometres to and from school every day since

most of their parents cannot afford the cost of

transportation.

Another challenge of education reforms is egocentric

which serves as motivation for protest. Egocentrism

on the part of some educationists that believe they

know all about educational operations, such

challenge as identified by the Punch Newspaper is

one posed by two retired directors of education

Lagos State Ministry of Education, Mrs Awoyinfa and

Mrs Amosin they stated that “… for schools to be

functional, the classrooms must be well developed,

teachers must be well trained and paid, quality

materials and conducive environment must be in

place to boost learning and improve students’

performance.

Nigeria has witnessed several reforms in her school

system. Ejieh (2014) stated that the education reform

in Nigeria is dated back to the pre-independence era.

At the introduction of Western system of education,

the sector was being controlled by the missionaries,

but with the amalgamation of Southern and Northern

protectorates in 1914, an ordinance was introduced

in 1916 that gave the British colonialist mandate to

participate in the funding and control of schools.

According to Bello (2008), “education reforms

emanate from the basic conviction that considerable

progress can be made in a nation by its people

through careful engineering of the educational

process”. It is against this statement that agitations

for more change and improvement on school and

education continued. This quest for change made the

British administration in Nigeria to change the

educational system in operation in 1954 from 5-4-3

system (i.e. 5 years for primary, four years for Higher

School Certificate and three years university

education) by reducing the number of years the

pupils were spending in both primary and secondary

schools.


117

Over the years researchers have directed their

attention into other aspects of education, but this

research appraised the public school reforms in Osun

State secondary schools from 2011 to 2015.


Reforms in the education industry are inevitable in

dynamic societies. As a result of this, Osun State

government has introduced a set of reforms into the

education sector between 2011 and 2015 particularly

in the secondary school. The impact of these reforms

on the parents, teachers’ effectiveness, and

availability of human and material resources are yet

to attract any formal appraisal. Since the introduction

of these reforms, a lot of heat have been generated

from members of public which nearly grounded the

educational system in the State. Various religious

organizations and students protested against certain

aspects of the reforms, thus generating series of

crises in the public school system. There is a need

therefore to appraise these reforms, hence this study.

Research Question

i. What are the reforms in the Education system of

Osun State from 2011 to 2015?

Methodology

Descriptive research of the survey type was used for

the study. The population for the study comprised 5,

878 teachers of public secondary schools teachers of

public secondary schools in Osun State 2014/2015

academic session. The targeted population were

teachers of public secondary schools in Osun State.

The sample size consisted of 156 teachers from 12

schools selected for the study. The sampling

technique adopted was multi-stage sampling

procedure. Four Local Government Areas were

selected from each of the three senatorial districts in

the State using simple random sampling techniques.

One secondary school was selected from each of the

12 Local Government Areas which will make 12

schools. Thirteen (13) teachers were selected from

each of the schools using simple random sampling

technique. One research instrument was used to

collect data for the study, namely: Public School

Education Reform Questionnaire (PSERQ) The PSERQ

elicited information from the teachers on changes

brought about in the secondary schools in Osun state.

Section A contained five items on personal

information of teachers. Section B was used for

collecting information from the teachers about the

reforms brought about by Government in the public

secondary schools in Osun State from 2011 to 2015.

The questionnaire was on four points Likert scale

ranging from 4 points for strongly agreed, 3 points

for agreed, 2 points for strongly disagree and 1 point

for disagree.

To ascertain the validity of the instrument, the draft

of the questionnaire were subjected to vetting by the

experts in the Department of Educational

Management and Test and Measurement, whose

comments and suggestions were later incorporated

before administration. To ensure reliability of the

instrument, test-retest method was used. A pilot

study was conducted by the researcher on two

occasions in close succession of two weeks on

selected respondents from schools who are not part

of the sampled used in the study. The two set of

responses scores were analysed using Pearson

Product Moment Correlation, the coefficient of .87

was obtained which was considered high enough for

reliability. The instrument was administered by the

researcher with the help of research assistants, who

were teachers in the selected secondary schools. The

copies of questionnaire were collected immediately

after completion, and a total of 156 copies of

questionnaire administered by the researcher were

collected and found useful for the analysis of this

study. The descriptive statistics of frequency counts

and percentage was used to answer the research

question raised.

Results

Research Question 1: What are the reforms in the

education system of Osun State from 2011 to 2015?

Table 1: Teachers’ responses to reforms in the education system

Public School Reforms A D Total

(f) (%) (f) (%) (f) (%)

Merging of schools is part of the public school reforms in

Osun State 131 84 25 16 156 100

The introduction of tablet of knowledge (Opon Imo) is one

of the reforms brought into public schools in Osun state 106 67.9 50 32.1 156 100


118

The introduction of same school uniforms 98 62.8 58 37.2 156 100

With the reclassification of public schools a reform was

brought into public schools in the state 89 57 67 43 156 100

Introduction of the new subjects into the curriculum 108 69.2 48 30.8 156 100

Introduction of O meal programme is a reform in the

public school of Osun State 88 56.4 68 43.6 156 100

Average 103 66.2 53 33.8 156 100

Table 1 shows teachers’ responses to the reforms in

the education system of Osun State. The responses of

teachers in Table 1 were collapsed together such that

Agreed and Strongly Agreed became “Agreed” while

Disagreed and Strongly Disagreed form “Disagreed”.

The data shows that, respondents indicated different

views of responses to item one 84% respondents

agreed, while 16% disagreed that merging of schools

is a part of the reforms introduced into the public

secondary school system of Osun State between 2011

and 2015. The implication of this is that the merging

of schools is the major reform programme within the

period of discussion (2011 to 2015). On the

introduction of new subjects into the curriculum

69.2% of the respondents agreed that the

introduction of new subjects is one of the reforms

introduced into the public secondary schools, while

30.8% disagreed. This simply implied that the

introduction of new subjects into the curriculum is

one of the reforms introduced into public secondary

schools between the period of 2011 and 2015. The

introduction of same school uniforms has 62.2% of

the respondents that agreed, while 37.2% disagreed

that the introduction of same school uniform is not a

part of the reforms introduced into the public school

system in Osun State, this implies that the

introduction of same school uniform is one of the

reforms introduced into the public secondary school

system in Osun State. On the question that with the

reclassification of public schools a reform was

brought into public schools in the state, 56.4% of the

respondents agreed, while 43.6% disagreed, this

implies that the reclassification of school is one of the

reforms introduced to public secondary school

programmes in Osun State between 2011 and 2015.

On whether the introduction of tablet of knowledge

(Opon Imo) is one of the reforms brought into public

schools in Osun State between 2011 and 2015, 67.9%

of the respondents agreed, while 32.1% disagreed, so

the result indicate that introduction of tablet of

knowledge (Opon Imo) is one of the reforms

introduced within the period under discussion. On

the introduction of O meal programme 56.4% of the

respondents agreed, while 43.6% disagreed, this

implies that the introduction of O meal is also one of

the reforms introduced within the period (2011 to

2015).

Discussion

The finding of the research indicated that the Osun

State Government introduced some reforms into the

public secondary school system in the state between

2011 and 2015. However, merging of schools was

majorly identified as the reform that was introduced

with 83.9% of the respondents agreed. Merging of

school is the combination of two or more schools to

become one. It means collapsing of two or more

schools with one another to become one. Merging of

school is not new in the educational system of the

world. Because of decrease in birth rates in Singapore

for instance schools were merged (Kenneth and

Kelly, 2016). Also, in China primary schools were

merged in the rural part of the country. “The primary

schools were heterogeneous, reporting different

levels of enrolment, facilities and teaching staff. For

example it was reported that primary schools in

some villages in one province had less than ten

students whereas other primary schools in the same

area of the same province had more than 200

students (Wenjin, 2012). So, the introduction of

merging of schools in Osun State is not new to

education system. Also, introduction of “I pad” (Opon

Imo) was identified as a reform introduced to the

public secondary education system in Osun State

with 67.9% of the respondents agreed. “Opon Imo” is

the name given to the “I pad” distributed to the

students of public secondary schools in Osun State.

This “I pad” is preloaded with all instructional

materials needed for the secondary school level of

education. This is in line with the opinion of Merriam

(2007) that learning acquisition in technology helps

to increase the students’ self-confidence and self-

esteem. By using technology to teach students, they

also learn about technology itself. This technology

supported education systems cost efficient, which is

especially meaningful in countries with poor


119

infrastructure (Oliveira, 1989). Another reform

identified by this research work is the introduction of

same school uniform with 62.8% of the respondent

agreed. However, one of the main advantage of

school uniform is the reality that every students look

the same. Students who don’t have enough means to

buy expensive and fashionable cloths can surely

benefit from this. On the reclassification of schools

57% of the respondents agreed that reclassification

of schools is one of the reforms introduced within the

period of 2011 to 2015 while 42.9% disagreed that

reclassification of schools is a part of reform. This is

in line with the report of Buffalo news as regards the

reclassification of four public schools in Buffalo

which had fallen from being schools in good standing

which reclassification made to become “focus

schools” (Buffalo News 2015). The introduction of

new subjects into the public secondary school

reforms also has 69.2% agreed and 31.8%, this shows

that higher percentage of the respondent agreed that

introduction of new subject is one of the reforms

introduced into the public secondary school system

by Osun State Government between 2011 and 2015.

This is supported by the Hong Kong government

curriculum reform in 2013. In Hong Kong subjects

like Chinese History, Economics, Ethics and Religious

Studies, Geography and Travel and Hospitality

Studies were introduced into secondary school

curriculum (Hong Kong Education Bureau 2014).

Also the introduction of new subjects is in line with

the provision of the Nigeria National Policy on

Education which has as one of its goal the building of

a great and dynamic economy (FGN 2014). The new

subjects introduced include catering crafts, civic

education and animal husbandry. The National

Policy on Education recognizes “Education in Nigeria

as an instrument “par excellence” for effecting

national development” (FGN 2014).

This implies that the reform programme made the

state government to provide materials resources for

the students. This finding is in line with the efforts of

government at all levels and private donors to make

teaching and learning environment more conducive,

for instance the MTN Foundation in Nigeria has being

donating furniture and other learning materials to

schools across the country. Some of these schools

include Vetland Senior Grammar School, Ifako-Ijaye,

Lagos State, Idia College, Benin City, Government

College, Umuahia, Government Pilot Secondary

School, Daura, Christ School Ado-Ekiti and so on

(MTN Foundations 2016). Also, Nicole (2014) opined

that there is no material more important in an

inclusive classroom than tables and chairs. Also the

finding is supported by Nedburn (2013) who opined

that tablet computers is expected to significantly

reduce the amount of money parent usually spend on

the purchase of textbooks at the beginning of term in

Jamaica. He further stated that the computer tablets

should do so considerably because the basic text can

be downloaded on the tablets, and with proper

protection of copyright, this should mean that there

would be much less need for printed copies.

Conclusion


that the reforms introduced into Osun State

Secondary School system from 2011 to 2015 were

merging of school, introduction of the tablet of

Knowledge (Opon Imo, I Pad), introduction of same

school uniforms, reclassification of public schools,

introduction of new subjects into the curriculum and

introduction of O meal programme.

Recommendations


recommendations were made to improve on the

reform programmes and correct some anomalies

brought into the public secondary schools in Osun

State, the government should always be conscious of

the implication of her policies and position on schools

and the multiplier effects of such policies. The review

of secondary education curriculum in Nigeria should

be a regular exercise, education summit should come

first before the reforms to intimate the stake holder

about the new reforms about to put in place. It should

be ensured that schools built were securely and

properly fenced with modern facilities and have a lay

down rules and regulations on maintenance of the

building and facilities.

The wearing of same school uniform by the students

of public secondary schools in Osun State should be

modified in a way that it will be easier to differentiate

students of each secondary school across the state.

To achieve this, badges can be introduced; skirts and

trousers of each of the schools can also be

differentiated by using different colours. As this will

help the parents in identifying the school mates of

their children which will help in making sure that the

students stay in their schools and afford the parents

opportunity to be able to monitor their children

movement in and out of school. Students are found of


120

roaming around the towns and cities during the

school hours and with the same set of uniform with

nothing to differentiate their schools a student can

even travel from one town to another.

The Principals and other stakeholders in public

schools should ensure protection and preservation of

the I pad (Opo Imo) by conveying interactive

meetings with teachers, students and parents. On

reclassification of schools, the government should

ensure proper supervision of schools to meet the

objectives of the reclassifications. However, all hand

must be on deck to improve the standard of

secondary education, since the place of secondary

school cannot be rubbished as the bridge between

primary and tertiary education.

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Released by China Policy Institute on December

3rd, 2012. Retrieved on 13th of July 2017 from:

blogs.nothing-ham.ac.uk/chinapolicyinstitute.

http://www.osun.gov.ng/


121

MEETING THE CHALLENGES OF HEADSHIP IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS

Okotoni Comfort Abosede Department of Educational Management,

Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. Nigeria

Abstract

Human and material resources have been major contributory factors to administrative effectiveness in organisations and specifically in educational organisations globally. The government as the major custodian of education in the country has her role to play in bringing about the realisation of education objectives. This major role however has not been left to the government alone to shoulder, as made known in the call for active participation of other stakeholders as spelt out in the National Policy on Education. However, despite the various contributions, gaps still need be filled to make ends meet in the administration of schools. This paper therefore investigated challenges facing headship effectiveness in primary schools in Osun State, Nigeria.It discussedthe ingenuity of headteachers in circumventingthe challenges to effective management of the primary schools in the study area. The descriptive survey research was used for the study. The population comprised 1,205headteachers in Osun State. Using simple random sampling technique, two senatorial districts were selected from the three districts in the State, and twenty schools from each of the selected Senatorial Districts of the Stateas the sample. Frequencies, Percentages and Standard deviations were employed in the analysis. The study concluded that; effective administration of schools in the study area was hampered by inadequate parental cooperation in provision of facilities, and students’ disciplinary problems. These areas need be addressed to mitigate the challenges of primary school administration in Osun State.

Keywords: Headship, Primary Schools, Challenges, Administrative Effectiveness

Introduction

Education remains the most viable instrument for

development of not only individuals, but the society

as a whole. It is akey index of development in all

ramifications- economic, social and political among

others.Primary school education occupies a very

critical and pivotal place in the educational system of

any country, Nigeria inclusive. It is acknowledged as

the key to the success or failure of the whole system

since the rest of the education is built upon it. Its

success or failure depends largely on the

effectiveness of the academic and administrative

leadership of the schools, which is anchored by the

headship. To this end, leadership competence, skills,

capability and styles of the headship to overcome

challenges become paramount.

Leadership is an important factor in any organisation,

suffice it to say it is essential for organizational

success. The importance of headship of schools

cannot be overemphasised, as therein lies the engine

in directing the affairs of the group positively and

purposively in goals attainment.The headship in

primary schools becomes the more important, owing

to the position occupied by primary education.

Primary education with reference to the National

Policy on Education is the education given in

institutions for children of age 6 to 11 plus. The role

of the head teacher in providing and maintaining an

enabling environment for the learner to start

rightthrough the experience of good pre-school and

primary education therefore becomes crucial. This

becomes important realising the fact that the

headteacher has to work with human and material

resources, which may not always be adequate in

supply. Among the goals of primary education are to

mould the character and develop sound attitude and

morals in the child; develop in the child the ability to

adapt to the child’s changing environment; give the

child opportunities for developing manipulative skills

that will enable the child function effectively in the

society within the limits of the child’s capacity among

others.

The role of primary school head teachers as the

leader in bringing the aforementioned goals,


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therefore, is unparalleled. According to House et al,

cited by Sharma, Sadana andKaur, (2013)leadership

is the ‘ability of an individual to influence, motivate,

and enable others to contribute towards the

effectiveness and success of the organisation.’ It

should be realised therefore, that leadership is the

behaviour exhibited by an individual to influence

others to achieve specific objectives in given

organisational situations.

Head teachers are saddled with the responsibility of

managing academic activities as well as

theadministration and supervision of instruction and

welfare of the school generally. The duties of

instructional supervision, welfare of staff and

students, maintenance of the school plant, liaison

between the government and the school, and

maintaining good school-community relations among

others, call for superlative leadership. The enormity

of school leadership was comprehensively articulated

by Lloyd (1981):

Working with a diverse public is tough work.

Supervisory personnel face daily pummelling

from all directions, yet they still need to

retain composure, perspective and openness

of disposition. They must have the energy

and the intelligence to meet their daily

encounters with individuals and groups of

all kinds. Facing pressure is their way of life.

They must accept the pressures and lead the

educational arenas under their jurisdiction.

They must be able to distinguish truly

critical issues from the many routine

ones.They must attack problems, define

them and solve them. They must be forward

positive movers who enjoy working through

the dynamics of human relations in tackling

educational tasks. They must be dedicated to

improving the instruction of boys and girls

in their respective schools or school districts.

In the performance of these roles of headship and

ensuring the smooth running of the school, various

challenges are confronted. Some of these are

enumerated and discussed below:

Challenges of Headship in Primary Schools

These challenges are categorised into two in this

study, namely: Humanrelated challenges and

Material-related challenges.

Human-related

Changes in value system- This has to do with

apparent loss or change in societal values, such as

moral, character and integrity in most public schools.

There are core religious and culture values that are

no longer taught or emphasised in schools. Daily,

teachers and head teachers in particular are

confronted with moral issues in schools.Teachers in

order to cope with economic and social challenges

have resorted to moonlighting while students are

unattended to. Cases have been reported of

embezzlement of school funds, illegal collection of

fees, and molesting of female students by male

teachers. Not only these, there have been lapses in

the discipline of students in response to current

dictates of education laws, whereby teachers have

withdrawn from exercising active discipline of pupils.

The action of parents who have gone to the extent of

challenging teachers and schools’ authorities in the

law court over disciplinary and related issues did not

help the schools and by implication the head

teachers.

Often too, needs arise for school leaders to reconcile

globally accepted values with local values and vice-

versa. The school administrator needs to be

conversant with the rules and limits of authority,

especially in a global society that is constantly on the

beck and call of the law to take its toll in getting even

with authorities where injustice and unfairness are

suspected (Okotoni, 2015).

The head teacher’s major leadership role is in

teamwork with the members of staff. The leadership

functions become impaired by the difficult attitudesof

some staff members. This can be displayed in non-

compliance with given instructions, and could be

traceable to the idea of ‘who knows who’ in the

ministry/affiliated organizations among others. Laws

are often times flagrantly flouted by some staff. Since

there is a limit to the extent of discipline that could be

meted out to the staff by the heads, and at the other

end are employers- the ‘godfathers’ of such staff

members, it becomes a problem to exercise control.

Level of Dedication of Staff-The level of dedication

of a number of staff is dwindling as a result of several

factors such as poor incentives, inadequate

motivation among others, which have dampened staff

morale. In order to make the objectives and goals of

education realisable, dedication is required, but


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unfortunately, the financial and social pressures on

the staff have made many to look for ways of making

ends meet at the expenseof their duties. This is a big

challenge to effective administration of primary

education.

Attitude of Parents- Some parents have little or no

value for the education of their children/wards. This

is displayed in nonchalant attitude of parents to the

development of their children and the school as

manifested the non-payment of PTA levies and some

other charges. It should however be noted that the

running grants from the government in many

instances are inadequate for the schools.

Students’ Attitude- Thedetached posture of pupils to

their studies is another obstacle. This has created

loop holes for examination malpractices with its

negative consequences on academic pursuits and the

society. Not only this, some pupils’ problems are as a

result of their home background (broken homes).

Such pupils have become stumbling blocks to the

smooth running of the schools. They are often

truants, drug addicts, bullies, and very disobedient to

authority. They show and show bad examples to

other pupils.

Government’s Political Stance- The government’s

political stance on educational issues affects

leadership role functions of the heads. For example,

some parents are unwilling to contribute financially

to the education of their children on the basis that the

government has pronounced free education.

Poor Societal Regard for Teachers-There is a

general disregard of the society for teachers.

Teachers are often looked down upon by the society.

The reasons are not farfetched;teachers are

associated with low pay and the accompanying low

social status. The multiplier effect is seen in the

attitude of teachers and head teachers to their duties.

Community’s Lukewarm Attitude- There is a

general apathy on the part of some segments of the

society especially places like Northern Nigeria, where

religion and cultural factors have inhibited active

interest in education. The attitude goes from being

lukewarm to outright opposition to western

education. Such go all out to forestall education in the

area. Certainly such group of people will not

cooperate with the head teachers and schools in their

communities. According to UNESCO (2015), 45% of

Nigeria children aged 6-11 do not attend any primary

school with Northern Nigeria recording the lowest

attendance rate in the country. Furthermore, one out

of every five Nigerian children arereported out of

school (Abdulmalik, 2013). Nigeria holds the world

record of having the highest number of her young

people out of school (All Global Monitoring Report,

2013).

Headship Tasks

Headship tasks include; curriculum and instruction;

staff and student management; communication with

schools board/related agencies, and implementation

of policies; school ventures management as well as

establishment and maintenance of school-community

relations.Many headteachers lack adequate training

in leadership/management. The lapses are

sometimes displayed in conservative attitudesand

inability to influence appropriately. This may not be

unconnected with inadequate experience as there is

hardly training and certification for the role, To

corroborate this, headteachers in Kenya are usually

appointed from among the classroom teachers… and

who have no training at all in school administration

(Mosiori&Thinguri, 2015). This appointment style

may cut across nations. The task of headship is

onerous, as may be observed from the observation

below.

Over the years as a reporter, I have never

seen a good school with a poor principal, or

a poor school with a good principal. I have

seen unsuccessful schools turned around

into successful ones and regrettably

outstanding schools slide rapidly into

decline. In each case the rise or fall could

readily be traced to the quality of the

principal (Lipham, 1981).

These equally apply to the head teachers. In essence

the leader is tagged either for the success or failure of

the school. The headship tasks, therefore, should not

be taken lightly by the school head.

Material-related

Inadequate funding

Education in the country, as in most African countries

is inadequately funded and a far cry from the 26%

annual budget recommended by UNESCO. This has


124

become a limiting factor to the provision of

amenities, facilities and equipment towards the

realisation of the goals of primary education as well

as the welfare of the staff.

Non-conducive Teaching/learning Environment

The teaching/learning environments in many schools

are not very friendly. Basic learning equipment are

virtually absent in these schools coupled with poor

environments that are usually not conducive for

learning. In some schools, students take their lessons

under the trees and some of those that stay in the

classrooms, squat, use their laps as tables and make

do with odd structures for seats. In extreme cases,

classes get postponed indefinitely during bad

weather when schools can no longer hold classes

outside (Okotoni, 2012).

Inadequate Physical Facilities

Vital facilities and equipment that that are needed are

lacking in many schools. Many classroom blocks are

dilapidated, while the staffrooms are not conducive

for the staff. The furniture and conveniences are

nothing to write home about in many instances.

Other Challenges

There are some other challenges confronting the

school heads; some of these are; daily meetings

which entail spending much time on administrative

matters, culminating into distractions from

educational activities- the core of their duties (Bolam,

Dunning &Karstanje, 2000); unannounced change of

school programmes that hinder teaching and

learning; modern technological challenges.


The purpose of the study was to investigate human

and material-related challenges of headship

effectiveness in primary schools in Osun State and

ways of mitigating the challenges confronting

effective running of the schools. To this effect the

following research questions were raised:

1. What are the human and material-related

challenges confronting headteachers in Osun

State primary schools?

2. What are the levels of cooperation of teachers

and parents towards administrative effectiveness

in the schools?

3. What are the factors limiting headship

effectiveness in the study area?

4. What are the measures put in place by the

headteachers in surmounting the challenges?

Methodology

The descriptive survey research design was used for

the study. The population was made up of the

headteachers in primary schools in Osun State,

Nigeria. Simple random sampling technique was used

in selecting two of the three Senatorial Districts and

20 schools from each of the two districts. Forty

schools and consequently the purposive selection of

their headteachers comprised the sample. A self-

designed questionnaire was the main instrument for

collecting data for the study. The instrument was

validated to ensure its content was suitable for

eliciting the desired data. A reliability index of 0.084

was obtained for the instrument using Pearson

Product Moment correlation. A return rate of 95%

was obtained as 38 of the head teachers responded to

the questionnaire.

Results

Research Question One: What are the human and

material-related challenges confronting headteachers

in the study area?


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Table 1: Human and material-related challenges confronting headteachers in the study area

S/N ITEMS S A A D SD F % F % F % F %

1 Staff members are adequate in number for subject area needs

7 18.4 12 31.6 14 36.8 5 13.2

2 Staff members are educationally qualified for teaching subject area

18 47.4 18 47.4 2 5.3 0 0.0

3 Staff members are dedicated to their duties 20 52.6 18 47.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 4 Teachers have been cooperative with one another in

achieving school goals 24 63.2 13 34.2 0 0.0 1 2.6

5 Staff members have been cooperative in achieving academic goals of the school

14 36.8 10 26.3 9 23.7 5 13.2

6 Staff members have been willing in achieving extra-curricular goals of the school

6 15.8 26 68.4 6 15.8 0 0.0

7 There are many students’ behavioural problems in this school

10 26.3 19 50 8 21.1 1 2.6

8 Many students’ disciplinary problems emanate from their homes

10 26.3 25 65.8 2 5.3 1 2.6

9 Students are involved in drugs and drug related problems in this school

4 10.5 5 13.2 18 47.4 11 28.9

10 Cultism has been reported among students in this school

2 5.3 9 23.7 13 34.2 14 36.8

11 Students manifest aggressive behaviours in my school e.g. fighting and bullying

4 10.5 16 42.1 15 39.5 3 7.9

12 Many students are irregular and not punctual in/to school in my school

4 10.5 18 47.4 13 34.2 3 7.9

13 Government’s funding policies affect my schools administration positively

7 18.4 17 44.7 6 15.8 8 21.1

14 Government’s policies on PTA participation affect my schools administration positively

8 21.1 17 44.7 6 15.8 7 18.4

15 I do set goals for staff members for achieving school objectives

9 23.7 25 65.8 1 2.6 3 7.9

16 The welfare of staff is adequately taken care of in my school

8 21.1 21 55.3 7 18.4 2 5.3

17 My school’s environment is conducive for teaching and learning

13 34.2 16 42.1 6 15.8 3 7.9

18 There are dilapidated buildings in my school 14 36.8 7 18.4 10 26.3 7 18.4

19 Staff rooms are convenient for the teachers 7 18.4 12 31.6 18 47.4 1 2.6

20 The smooth running of the school is hampered by funding

7 18.4 20 52.6 4 10.5 7 18.4

21 Classrooms in my school are adequate 14 36.8 16 42.1 5 13.2 3 7.9

22 There are adequate stationery for teaching and administrative purposes.

2 5.3 2 5.3 20 52.6 14 36.8

23 Laboratory equipment and reagents are adequate 8 21.1 10 26.3 11 28.9 9 23.7

24 Sports equipment are adequate 1 2.6 3 7.9 15 39.5 19 50

25 The library in this school is adequately stocked with books, magazines and periodicals

1 2.6 1 2.6 14 36.8 22 57.9

26 I have undergone a course/on –the – job training on leadership

10 26.3 22 57.9 5 13.2 1 2.6


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From Table 1, it can be observed that among the

human related challenges identified by the

headteachers in the study area, staff members not

being adequate in number for subject area needswas

affirmed (19, (50%). Students’ behavioural problems

in the schools were indicated by (29, 76%) in the

strongly agree/agreeresponse.Some of the

behavioural problems were as shown in the Table.

These hindered effective leadership in the schools.

Among the material related challenges faced by

headteachers in the study areaare; inadequate

stationery, sports equipment, inadequately stocked

libraries, and dilapidated buildings. Furthermore, the

smooth running of the schools is hampered by

funding.

Research Question Two: What are the levels of

cooperation of teachers and parents towards

administrative effectiveness of headteachers in the

study area?

Table 2: Ratings of areas of cooperation of teachers, parents and studentsto effective schooladministration by

headteachers

S/N Items Very High High Low Very Low

F % F % F % F % 1 PTA levies payment 0 0.0 6 15.8 18 47.4 14 36.8

2 Provision of facilities for teaching and learning 3 7.9 10 26.3 16 42.1 9 23.7

3 Provision of study materials for their children/ wards 0 0.0 10 26.3 16 42.1 12 31.6

4 Compliance of staff to given instruction 4 10.5 27 71.1 4 10.5 3 7.9

5 Obedience of school staff to rules and regulations 21 55.3 16 42.1 0 0.0 1 2.6

6 Dedication of staff to their duties 27 71.1 8 21.1 1 2.6 2 5.3

7 Teachers’ punctuality to school 30 78.9 7 18.4 0 0.0 1 2.6

8 Attitude of students to studies 1 2.6 11 28.9 19 50 7 18.4

9 Examination malpractice of students 0 0.0 4 10.5 13 34.2 21 55.3

From Table 2, The PTA was rated low in the payment

of school fees and provision of teaching and learning

materials for the schools/ their children and wards.

However, teachers’ cooperation with school

administration in the various schools was high, as

manifested in punctuality to school (37, 97.3%) and

obedience to rules and regulations (37, 97.3%), and

dedication to their duties (35, 92.1%).Attitude of

students to studies was found to be low, examination

malpractice was also shown to be low (4, 10.5%).

Qualitative Analysis

Research Question Three: What are the factors

limiting headship effectiveness in the study area?

The following were identified as the major limiting

factor by each head teacher to his/her effectiveness.

Table 3: Limiting factors to headship effectiveness in

the study area

S/N Variable Frequency Percentage 1. Inadequate funding 14 36.8 2. Inadequate

instructional materials supply

3 7.9

3. Inadequate number of teachers

3 7.9

4. Inadequate cooperation of teachers

2 5.3

5. Parents’ attitude 3 7.9 6. Government policies 4 10.5 7. Lateness and

irregularity in salary payment

7 18.4

8. Government limitations in headship exercise of authority and power

2 5.3


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Inadequate funding was identified as the most

limiting factor (37%)by the head teachers, followed

by lateness and irregularity in salary payment

(18.4%)

Research Question Four: What are the measures

put in place by the headteachers to surmount the

identified challenges?

From the qualitative analysis of headteachers

responses to the open-ended questions, measures put

in place to ensure their effectiveness include the

following:

Table 4: Measures to ensure leadership effectiveness

S/N Variable Frequently used/%

Occasionally

Used/%

Never used/%

1. Organising of meetings for parents as well as organizing of open day

6 (15.8) 28 (73.7) 4 (10.5)

2. Organizing of PTA meetings 31 (81.6) 7 (18.4) 0 (0)

3. Soliciting for funds from the community 9 (23.7) 13 (34.2) 16 (42.1)

4. Discipline of pupils in school 29 (76.3) 9 (23.7) 0 (0)

5. Encouraging parents to provide learning materials for their children/wards

38 (100) 0 (0) 0 (0)

6. Updating parents on school activities/challenges 31(81.6) 7 (18.4) 0 (0)

7. Adoption of democratic leadership style 14 (36.8) 15 (39.5) 9 (23.7)

8. Putting in place students' representative councils 12 (31.6) 19 (50) 7 (18.4)

9. Encouraging effective teaching 38 (100) 0 (0) 0 (0)

10. Firmness in enforcement of school rules and regulation 33 (86.8) 5 (13.2) 0 (0)

11. Involvement of parents in pupils work 9 (23.7) 21 (55.3) 8 (21.1)

12. Regular taking of class attendance 35 (92.1) 3 (7.9) 0 (0)

13. Regular meetings with students/teachers 6 (15.8) 17 (44.7) 15 (39.5)

14. Adequate monitoring of school activities 37 (97.4) 1 (2.6) 0 (0)

15. Offering counseling services to students 4 (10.5) 15 (39.5) 19 (50)

Discussion

The study showed inadequacy in the number of staff

in meeting subject area needs, inadequacy of

instructional materials and stationery as the major

material needs.Staff qualification and dedication of to

duty were positively assessed. Parents had low level

of cooperation towards administrative effectiveness

of the headteachers as manifested in levies payment

and provision of facilities. This aspect of parental

cooperation is not limited to Nigeria, the cost of

construction and maintenance of school facilities was

left to parents under the cost-sharing policy of 1980s

to 2002 in Kenya (Mosiori&Thinguri, 2015).

Transparency in handling the financial matters of a

school will go a long way in motivating them to

contribute actively to the success of the schools.

Regular PTA meetings will help in clarifying

misconceptions in ideas and opinions.

The pupils posed other challenges to administrative

effectiveness through behavioural problems as;

irregularity in attendance and punctuality to school;

aggressive behaviour; drug related issuesand cultism.

No matter the frequency from the responses, such

actions are least expected from the primary level of

education. They remain gangrenes that could leaven

the whole lump over time. It is not surprising that

facilities have been found to influence student

attendance. In a study of 139 Milwaukee public

schools, it was found that when controlled for

socioeconomic status, students’ attendance and

achievement were positively correlated to facility

quality (Lewis, 2001). Therefore more efforts need be

exerted by head teachers in soliciting funds for their

schools to solve quite a number of problems.

Discipline problems will be reduced if students find

school enjoyable and interesting. For instance, when

teachers at Wilson Elementary School in North

Carolina changed their instructional practices to

accommodate a variety of learning styles, discipline

problems decreased dramatically (Gaustad, n.d.).The

teaching styles of the teachers could be looked into,

and appropriate changes made in accordance with

the learning styles of the pupils.


128

The material related challenges were apparent in

inadequacy of instructional materials for teaching

and learning, stationery for administrative purposes,

as well as inadequacy of library materials. The level

of cooperation of parents with school administration

in the study area was found to be low, as manifested

in low level of levies payment and provision of study

materials for their children and wards. However the

staff were recognised to be cooperative in the

achievement of school objectives through compliance

with given instructions, obedience to rules and

regulations, and dedication to duties.

In all, the factors limiting headship effectiveness in

the study area were inadequate funding, followed by

lateness and irregularity in the payment of staff

salaries. The attitude of parents featured prominently

and constituted the most stress causing group of

stakeholders for the head teachers, government

policies that affect PTA participation negatively and

the attitude of students to studies which was

poor.Quite a number of measures however were put

in place to checkmate lapses as reported in the study.

Conclusion

The study concluded that parents’ low level of

cooperation in payment of levies and provision of

facilities to enhance teaching and learning as well as

students’ disciplinary problems negatively affected

effective administration of the primary schools in the

study area.

Recommendations



Parents should be enlightened on the goals of the

school. Policies and programmes put in place for

achieving the goals should be spelt out to them. As

much as possible parents should be carried along in

the school running, and be intimated with the

progress and challenges of the school. This can be

achieved through regular meetings with the

parents.It should be realised that the best possible

programme for pupils in any school can be

accomplished only with the support and help of

understanding parents. Headteachers need to work

closely with the parents in giving and receiving

feedback on the students/wards reports and

progress, school programmes and activities. Regular

educative programmes in forms of seminars and talks

should be offered to pupils to keep them regularly

informed of school policies, rules and regulations.

In terms of government’s political stance, the school

heads may not be in much control of this factor, but

through School Heads’ Associations, and other

appropriate bodies, their feelings may be

communicated to the government as they relate to

the clarification of terms and policies that may affect

school running.

Headteachers should take time to understand the

forces operating on the stakeholders in the education

sector which influence their behaviour and

motivation.The knowledge of this could be used to

induce them to act in the desired way. This should be

used to motivate them towards contribution to the

achievement of school goals. Through the

participatory approach, it is believed that the

interests of the individuals and the organisation will

be adequately taken care of.

Other human-related problems could be tackled by

applying the following methods:

The schoolheadsshould attend leadership training

and development courses- this will enable themto

know and to be able to apply current methods in

educational management.

Material-related problems could be in forms of

physical materials or finances. The financial

problems to some extent could be solved by having a

viable PTA that could handle some projects for the

school. Closely linked to this is the assistance of the

alumni and philanthropists who could donate

physical materials and cash generously.Schools could

embark on some money yielding ventures to sponsor

some projects and meet school needs.


129

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130

COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING, PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES AND POOR STUDY HABIT AMONG

SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN ONDO STATE, NIGERIA

Olowolabi Segun

Department of Guidance and Counselling Faculty of Education

AdekunleAjasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria

Abstract

The recurring problem of low academic achievement among secondary school students has been attributed to many factors among which is poor study habits. The study investigated the effects of cognitive restructuring and problem-solving strategies in the treatment of poor study habits among secondary school students in Ondo State. The study adapted quasi experimental pre-test, post-test control group research design. One hundred and twenty subjects (120) were selected through purposive and stratified random sampling techniques from three secondary schools. One school was selected from each of the three senatorial districts in Ondo State. Samples were assigned to three groups: cognitive restructuring, problem–solving and control groups. Each group consisted of forty subjects. Instrument used for the study was Study Habit Inventory (SHI) adapted from Bakare’s Study Habit Inventory (1977). Three hypotheses were tested at 0.05 alpha level. Data collected were analyzed using analyses of co-variance (ANCOVA). Results of the study revealed that there was significant difference in the study habit of experimental group and control group. The treatment strategies: Cognitive Restructuring and Problem-Solving techniques assisted in improving study habits of the respondents. It also revealed that there was no significant difference in study habit of male and female students exposed to the treatment strategies. Based on the findings, it was concluded that application of Cognitive Restructuring and Problem-solving Strategies are capable of ameliorating poor study habits of secondary school students. Therefore, it was recommended that Teachers, Counsellors, Psychologists, and other stakeholders in education need to embark upon administering cognitive restructuring and problem-solving strategies by training and retraining of stakeholders on the two strategies so as to improve study habits and good academic performance among students.

Keywords: Cognitive restructuring, problem-solving strategy, poor study habit, reading culture.

Introduction

The problem of low academic achievement and

increasing rate of examination malpractices over the

years has indeed become a matter of concern to many

stakeholders in education. A lot of reasons might be

responsible for this ugly trend which include poor

study habits, inability to properly plan and organize

time for study, poor note taking and ineffective

methods of preparing and taking examinations.

Others may be low motivation, lack of information

and interest, dislike for certain teachers and learning

environment, and poor reading habits.

It appears the performance of students in both public

and private examinations is declining, effort by the

government to improve on the performance of

students seems not to have yielded the desired result.

This had brought decline in the performance of

students and has reached an alarming rate as

reflected in the released West African Examination

Council (WAEC) examination result (2014) as

reported in Tribune News Paper of Tuesday 30th

September 2014. Less than 20% of the candidate who

sat for the West African Examination Council (WAEC)

examination scored Credit and above in core subjects

(Mathematics and English Language).

This seeming poor performance and mass failure in

examinations, according to Hussain (2006), is

attributed to students’ poor study habits. Azeez

(2009) in his study found that poor study habits

ranked highest when compared with other factors

responsible for poor academic performance among

students. Similarly, a pilot-study conducted by Anwar

(2014) to investigate the degree of relationship

betweenstudy habits and academic achievement of

senior secondary school students of Lucknow city

ofU.P. (India) found that the academic achievement of


131

the students having good and poorstudy habits

differed significantly in favour of those who has good

study habits. It also revealed that significant number

of students expressed concern on how to plan and

organize time for study, note taking techniques,

learning and remembering strategies, use of library,

preparing and taking examination and how to curb

excessive examination anxiety.

To improve the situation, scholars and researchers

have made numerous suggestions and

recommendations, while some recommended proper

funding, effective supervision of the system (Jackson,

Johnson and Persico, 2015). Others suggested

guidance and counseling technique Omoegun, (2010).

The suggestions given by these scholars therefore

offer a big challenge to counselors and the

professionals in general on how best to tackle the

problems and difficulties associated with study

habits and by extension mass failure and examination

malpractices. It is against this background that this

study attempts to investigate the effects of some

counselling techniques on study habits among

Nigerian students, on the premise that probably this

may serve as solution to remediating mass failure

and examination malpractices.

Study habit according to Mendezabal (2013), is the

degree to which the student engages in regular acts

of studying that are characterized by appropriate

studying routines (e.g. reviews of material, frequency

of studying sessions, and so on.) occurring in an

environment that is conducive for learning. The

concept of study habit comprises of study attitude,

study method and study skill (Roya & Murthy,

2016).Study, when directed to schoolwork is defined

as a chain of systematic behavior pattern acquired

and specifically diverted towards the acquisition of

knowledge with a view to passing examinations and

getting better grades.

Study skills contribute to better learning and

educational achievements. It has been proven that

gender is an important variable in studies concerning

students learning. With the aim to recognize the

differences in studying habits & skills between male

and female students.

There have been a lot of literatures on how to make

students form good study habits. According to Fadun

(2005), students should develop study habit skills;

which could help the students to develop confidence

in his self-worth to attack any assignment no matter

how tough. They help students to control the study

area, develop the necessary courage that requires

active recitation, and review even before the crucial

examinations (Bulama, 2001).

According to Omoegun (2012) the general

understanding in Nigeria these days is that most

people no longer read at all. They do not consider

reading as an important aspect of life. These days,

students prefer to watch movies and home videos.

The introduction of internet technology has not

helped the matter. Instead of reading, most students

spend hours browsing at the cyber cafe, some of them

work overnight at the cafe. This singular act is

reducing the reading culture and study habit. The

situation needs drastic action to arrest the decline in

reading culture which hinders the effective

achievement of the aims and objectives of education.

Mbanefo (2000), observed the following behavioral

problems that are existing in both secondary and

post-secondary institutions: examination

malpractice, insubordination, moral decadence,

stealing, rioting, drug abuse, cultism, rape and

alcoholism. Prominent among these behavioral

problems is examination malpractice otherwise

referred to as cheating in an examination because it

reduces good study habit and makes the students

grow lazy in academic work. Adeyemo (2003),

further explained that the situation is so bad that

many Nigerians and interested stakeholders

including employers of labour have lost confidence in

the value of examination and their results. It may

appear that the society is not doing enough to deter

cheating in the educational institutions. The cost

involved in curbing the practice and to restore

stakeholders’ confidence in these examinations is

huge. Examination malpractice is an acts or actions

that are wrong which are carried out by individuals

or groups with the deliberate intention to cheat or

unfairly gain advantage in an examination.

(Arogunyo, 2007)

It appears that the methods used are becoming

sophisticated with the emergence of electronic

calculator, pocket word processor, and mobile

telephone. Kumar (2002), said that, it seems

everyone is involved in this practice, students,

teachers, who leak out question papers to favour

students, invigilators who are paid to allow cheating

in the hall, or parents/guardians who either give out


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huge sums of money to their children and wards to

purchase questions papers or hire tout to write

public examination for their children/wards.Fajonyo

(2004), investigated the effects of gender on study

habits of students and the study revealed that there

was no significant difference in the study habits of

male and female students.

According to Chineka and Shannon (2006) “if I call

any of the girls that I’m friends with”, said Corey

Conerly at Jackson State, a freshman from Brooklyn,

N.Y., nine out of 10 times, they will be in the library or

with a group of friends doing classwork or studying.

And when it comes to reading books for class, you

will find more guys asking girls about the given

reading assignment and what it was about.

Cognitive modeling is a procedure in which

counselors show people what to say to themselves

while performing a task. Cognitive modeling can be

used with self-instructional training. These

procedures have been used for children who have

attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder, for

controlling anger and hostility, students with

learning disabilities. However, cognitive modeling

with self-guiding verbalization could be used to teach

anger control skills.

Systematic desensitization is one of a variety of

methods used to break down neurotics’ anxiety

response habits in piecemeal fashion. After a

physiological state inhibiting anxiety has been

induced in the patient by means of muscle relaxation,

the patient is exposed to a weak anxiety – arousing

stimulus for a few seconds. If the exposure is

repeated the stimulus progressively loses its ability

to evoke anxiety.

According to Lydon, Healy & O. Callaghan (2015)

desensitization has been used to treat various kinds

of phobias as well as anxiety related to public

speaking. Desensitization is the superior treatment

for phobias and is most appropriate when a client has

the capability or the skills to handle a situation or

perform an activity but avoids the situation or

performs less than adequate because of anxiety. If a

person avoids a situation because of skill deficits,

then desensitization will be inappropriate and

inefficient (Lydon et al, 2015).

The employment of psychological intervention has

been attested to as being a veritable tool to use,

unfortunately, this has been inactive in Nigerian

secondary schools. Among many treatment strategies

which can be used to assist learners who perform

poorly in their studies, especially in English language,

the researcher has identified two strategies, namely

cognitive restructuring (CR) and problem-solving

(PS) to be used to ameliorate the problem. The skills

arising from these two treatments have been noted to

be effective in improving academic performance. To

the knowledge of the researcher, students in our

secondary schools in Ondo State are not equipped

with the learning skills emanating from these two

strategies.

It is clear that lack of cognitive restructuring and a

problem-solving skill required for productive

learning and studying among secondary school

student are a serious problem. The manifestation of

poor approach to studying interferes with the

acquisition of acquiring information/knowledge,

ability to be assertive, development of high self-

esteem, high self-concept, high level of motivation

and psychological adjustment (Roya and Murphy,

2016). To ameliorate the undesirable effects of this

behaviour, this study sets out to employ cognitive

restructuring and problem-solving techniques in

improving the poor study habits among secondary

school students.

Cognitive restructuring and problem-solving

strategies are therapies which emphasize behavioral

change. Both are therapeutic methods developed to

modify learning behaviors. Cognitive restructuring is

an approach, which was developed by Ellis (1996). As

a psychoanalyst, Ellis argued that, the primary causes

of human distress are not unconscious impulses. On

the contrary, Ellis maintained that certain core

irrational ideas are at the root of most of human

misery. The underlying assumption of this theory is

that, a man feels and acts according to his thought.

That is, as you think, so shall you feel and act. This

fact is clearly illustrated in Ellis’ A-B-C’s paradigm. A

basic premise of Cognitive Restructuring therapy is

that, feel and behave and the impact they have on

others. Cognitive restructuring technique has been

clearly shown to be effective in behavior modification

as an active and direct teaching to dispute and

restructure irrational thoughts and beliefs. Its

efficacy in improving self-esteem and positive change

within learners is evident from the review of

literature


133

Cognitive restructuring has its roots in the

elimination of distorted or invalid inferences,

disputing irrational thoughts or beliefs. Examples of

researchers that have used cognitive restructuring

and problem-solving were:Nwaneri (2001) who used

the two strategies to improve organizational climate

behaviour for creativity and innovation among

middle managers. Arogunyo (2007) established the

effect of assertiveness training and cognitive

restructuring on student’s academic self-concept and

attitude towards examination malpractice. Tayo-

Olajubutu (2011) investigated the effect of cognitive

restructuring and self-management strategies on the

discrimination against the girl-child in Ondo State.

The finding of the study confirmed that both

treatment strategies were effective in moderating

and stabilizing family discriminatory behaviour.

Another technique of learning which this study

considered is problem-solving. The propagators of

this theory D’Zurilla and Goldfried (1971) defined the

technique as “a behavioral process, whether overt or

cognitive in nature, which makes available a variety

of potentially effective response alternatives for

dealing with the problematic situation and increases

the probability of selecting the most effective

response as a cognitive activity aimed at changing a

problem from a given state to the goal state. It refers

to directed cognitive processing. Problem-solving is

directed because the problem solver is motivated by

a desire to achieve a goal; it is cognitive because it

occurs within the problem solver and can only be

inferred from the problem solver’s actions. Problem-

solving is a process because information is

manipulated or operated upon within the problem

solver. The general goals in all problem-solving

training, however, is not to provide individuals with

specific solutions to specific problematic situations,

but rather to provide a general coping strategy, so

that they may be in a better position to deal more

effectively with a wide variety of situational

problems. D’Zurilla and Goldfried (1971) stated that

the inability to arrive at an adequate solution in a

problematic situation, may not only serve to upset us,

but may have some negative consequences that will

only create further problems in future.

Rohtak, R. (2015) defined problem solving as the

framework or pattern within which creative thinking

and reasoning take place. It is also a process of

eliminating the discrepancy between the actual and

desired situation (Khan, Hafeez, & Saeed(2012).

Areas where problem solving have been used are:

Orimogunje (2003) who examined the relative

effectiveness of problem- solving and lecture method

on secondary students’ achievement in Chemistry but

the problem-solving strategy assisted students to

think logically and finding solutions to problems.

Olorunfemi (2008) investigated the effectiveness of

self-management and problem-solving strategies in

the improvement of students with poor academic

performance, the result showed that the treatment

strategies were effective in improving academic

performance. Oliha (2014) investigated differential

effectiveness of contingency management and

cognitive restructuring in the reduction of truancy

among secondary school adolescents. The results

obtained indicated significant differences in truant

behaviour of students exposed to treatment

strategies than those in control group. Also,

significant difference existed in truancy treatment

between students exposed to contingency

management strategy and those exposed to cognitive

restructuring.

According to Ahmad (2014) when it comes to study

habits, approach and skills or studying there are

some differences between male and female students.

However, more studies are needed to correlate

different factors with academic achievements of

medical students.

Hypotheses

1. There is no significant difference in the study

habits of students exposed to cognitive

restructuring and problem-solving strategies and

those in the control group.


habit of male and female students exposed to

cognitive restructuring strategy.


habit of male and female students exposed to

problem solving strategy.

Methodology

The study employed a quasi-experimental pretest,

post-test, control-group research design to

investigate the effect of the independent variables

(Cognitive restructuring and Problem Solving

strategies) on the dependent variable (Poor Study


134

Habits). The population of this study consisted of the

entire senior secondary school students in Ondo

State. The sample for the study consisted of one

hundred and twenty (120) students from three

secondary schools in the state.

The sample was selected using multistage sampling

technique. The local government, schools, and

subjects were selected using stratified and simple

random techniques.

The instrument used for this research was Study

Habits Inventory (SHI) adapted from Bakare (1977).

This was used as pretest and post-test for students’

study habits.The study habits Inventory (SHI)

consisted of two sections. Section A consisted of

items that sought information on the personal data of

the respondents (class, age, sex and school) while

Section B contained 45 items measuring various

dimensions of study habit.

The test experts from the Department of Guidance

and Counselling agreed that the instrument had face

validity. For the content validity, the test experts

studied the item and they all agreed that the items

are adequate in measuring the various dimensions of

students’ study habits.

To establish the reliability of this scale, a Cronbach

Alpha Internal Consistent Reliability was employed.

The 45 item-test was administered on some selected

subjects outside the sample group. The value of

coefficient obtained from the test was 0.76. This

coefficient represented a relatively high degree of

stability and suggested that the scale is a relatively

stable instrument; thus, confirming the reliability of

the instrument.

The instrument for data collection was administered

on the subjects in their various schools with the help

of a research assistant, and some of the school

counselors. The subjects in the experimental group

were exposed to the two treatment packages while

those in the control group were not.

The data collected were analyzed using analyses of

co-variance (ANCOVA).

Results and Discussion

Hypothesis 1

There is no significant difference in the study habits

of students exposed to cognitive restructuring,

problem solving strategies and those in the control

group.

In order to test the hypothesis, Scores on study habits

of students in the cognitive restructuring, problem

solving and control group were computed and

compared for statistical significance using Analysis of

Covariance (ANCOVA) at 0.05 level. The result is

presented in Table 1.

Table 1: ANCOVA showing study habits of students

in the cognitive restructuring, problem-solving and

control groups Source SS Df MS Fcal P Ftable

Corrected

Model

10698.665 3 3566.222 39.477 0.000 2.68

Covariate

(Pretest)

473.548 1 473.548 5.242 0.024 3.92

Group 9952.950 2 4976.475 55.088* 0.000 3.07

Error 10479.127 116 90.337

Corrected

Total

21177.792 119

Total 2011653.000 120 *P<0.05

Table 1 showed that Fcalculated(55.088) was greater than Ftable(3.07) at 0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis was rejected. This implies that there was significant difference in the study habits of students exposed to cognitive restructuring, problem solving strategies and those in the control group.

To locate the sources of pairwise significant difference among the treatment groups, ScheffePosthoc Test was used. The result is presented in Table 2.

Table 2: ScheffePosthoc analysis of students’ study

habits by treatment Groups Problem-

Solving Cognitive Restructuring

Control N Mean

Problem-Solving

* * 40 131.92

Cognitive Restructuring

* 40 138.20

Control 40 116.25

*Mean difference is significant at 0.05 level

Table 2 revealed that there was significant difference

between the study habits of students exposed to

problem-solving and cognitive restructuring at 0.05

level of significance. Similarly, the mean difference

between the study habits of subjects in problem-

solving and control, cognitive restructuring and

control was statistically significant at 0.05 level in

each case.


135

Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) was used to

determine the effect of the strategies on the study

habits of the clients. The result is presented in Table

3.

Table 3: Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA)

showing the effect of counseling strategies on study

habits of students Grand Mean = 128.79

Variable

+Category

N Unadjusted

Devn’

Eta2 Adjusted for

Independent

+ Covariate

Beta

Problem-

Solving

40 3.13

.51

2.63

.19

Cognitive

Restructuring

40 9.41 9.59

Control 40 -12.54 -12.22

Multiple R .188

Multiple R2

.035

The result in Table 3 showed that students exposed

cognitive restructuring had the highest adjusted

mean score of 138.38 (128.79+9.59) on study habits.

This was closely followed by those in the problem-

solving group; 131.42 (128.79+2.63) while the

subjects in the control group had the least adjusted

mean score of 116.57 (128.79+(-12.22). This implies

that the use of problem-solving and cognitive

restructuring strategies would enhance students’

study habits. The treatment accounted for about 51%

(Eta2 = 0.51) of the observed variance in students’

study habits.

Hypothesis 2


of male and female students exposed to cognitive

restructuring strategy.

Mean scores of male and female students on study

habits were computed and subsequently compared

the statistical significance using Analysis of

Covariance (ANCOVA) at 0.05 level of significance.

The result is shown in Table 4.

Table 4: ANCOVA showing study habits of subjects in

cognitive restructuring group by gender Source SS Df MS Fcal P Ftable

Corrected

Model

192.991 2 96.496 1.169 0.322 3.23

Covariate

(Pretest)

178.591 1 178.591 2.164 0.150 4.08

Gender 25.660 1 25.660 0.311 0.580 4.08

Error 3053.409 37 82.525

Corrected

Total

3246.400 39

Total 767216.00 40

P>0.05

Table 4 reveals that there was no significant

difference in the study habits of male and female

students exposed to cognitive restructuring strategy

(F = 0.311, P>0.05). The null hypothesis was

accepted. Therefore, there was no significant


students exposed to cognitive restructuring strategy.

Hypothesis 3


of male and female students exposed to problem

solving strategy

In testing the hypothesis, mean scores of male and

female students on study habits exposed to problem-

solving strategies were obtained and subjected to

statistical analysis involving Analysis of Covariance

(ANCOVA) at 0.05 level of significance. The result is

presented in Table 5.

Table 5: ANCOVA showing study habits of problem-

solving group by gender Source SS Df MS Fcal P Ftable

Corrected

Model

189.233 2 94.617 0.986 0.383 3.23

Covariate

(Pretest)

0.008 1 0.008 0.000 0.993 4.08

Gender 187.750 1 187.750 1.956 0.170 4.08

Error 3551.542 37 95.988

Corrected

Total

3740.775 39

Total 699909.000 40

P>0.05

The ANCOVA result in Table 5 revealed that

Fcalculated(1.956) was less than Ftabulated(4.08) at 0.05

level of significance. The null hypothesis was

accepted. This implies that there was no significant


students exposed to problem-solving strategy.

Discussion of findings

The study showed that there was a significant

difference between subjects treated with cognitive

restructuring and problem-solving strategies and

those in the control group. The result from

hypothesis one to a large extent suggest that Study

habits can be deliberately improved in students with

cognitive restructuring and problem-solving

techniques. The finding supported the study of

Kaczkurkin and Foa (2015) which found out that


136

cognitive behavior therapy appears to be efficacious

and effective in the treatment of anxiety disorder.

Moreover, the results were specifically in line with

the studies which showed that creative behaviour can

be improved through such techniques as cognitive

restructuring. The study also revealed that there is no

significance difference in the Study Habit of male and

female subjects exposed to cognitive restructuring

strategy. This implies that the hypothesis was upheld.

The result shows that male in the treated group were

not significantly different with their female

counterparts. This result is very much in agreement

with the research findings of Fajonyomi (2004) who

posits that, there is no significant difference in the

Study Habit of male and female subjects. The result

may be explained in terms of the coping components

of the therapy which provided equal opportunities to

identify and eradicate faulty thoughts and irrational

beliefs about Study Habit irrespective of sex. Ahmad

(2014) studied the differences in the study habits

between male and female Medical students of King

Abdulaziz University, and concluded that there are

some differences between male and female students

in study habits. However, the differences are not

many.The study also revealed that there is no

significance difference between male and female

subjects exposed to problem-solving strategy. This

means that the hypothesis was upheld. In other

words, it can be established that the treatment was

equally effective on the recipients irrespective of sex.

This result confirms the research findings of

Fajonyomi (2004) that when given equal treatment

the effects on both male and female are not different.

This study does not support the findings of Chineka

and Shannan (2006) who found that female students

really study more than male students. The study

revealed that both male and female study hard to

enhance academic performance. This is inconsistent

with a recent nationwide survey that found

differences between male and female students in

study habits.

Conclusion

From the findings of this study, the following

conclusions have been drawn; There was a significant

difference between the subjects exposed to problem-

solving and cognitive restructuring techniques and

the control group in their Study Habit. Thus, the

treatment strategies were effective ways of

improving Study Habit of students. The findings in

the study have been able to prove that there is no

significant difference between male and female

subjects exposed to cognitive restructuring and

Problem solving strategies.

Generally, this conclusion drawn from the findings of

the study indicated that both cognitive restructuring

and problem-solving techniques are effective

strategies which can be utilized by school

administrators and counselors not only to enhance

students study habits but also to improve students’


Recommendation

Based on the findings and conclusions of this study,

the following recommendations were made;

1. There is need for guidance counselors to be

provided in all schools so that they can use their

different strategies in solving students’ problems.

2. There is need for the Government to embark on

enlightenment campaign on how to improve the

reading culture of students.

3. Practicing guidance counselors are enjoined to

use appropriate counseling techniques such as

cognitive restructuring and problem-solving

strategies in solving the problems of their clients.

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139

INTERNALLY GENERATED REVENUE AND SCHOOL DEVELOPMENT IN IBADAN NORTH EAST LOCAL

GOVERNMENT AREA, OYO STATE

1Isiaka, B. A., 2Uthman, R.O. and 3Zubair, O. M. 1,2&3Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education,


Abstract

This study investigated the relationship between internally generated revenue and school development in public secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local Government. Five hypotheses were formulated and used to guide the study.The research was a descriptive survey. Simple random sampling technique was used to select the respondents for this study. Researchers’ self-designed questionnaire titled “Internally Generated Revenue and School Development Questionnaire (IGRSDQ) was used for data collection which was validated by three experts in the Department of Educational Management, University of Ilorin, Ilorin.Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (PPMC) was used for testing all the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The study found that there was a significant relationship between internally generated revenue and school development of secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local Government Area of Oyo State. There was also a significant relationship between Parent–Teacher-Association Levy and School Development of secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local Government Area of Oyo State as well as between Old Student Association Contribution and School Development of secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local Government Area of Oyo State; and also between Community Donation and School Development of secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local Government Area of Oyo State as well as Extra Lesson Fee and School Development of secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local Government Area of Oyo State.Based on these findings, it was recommended that available internally generated revenue should be utilized for expansion of school programmes. This could be from school farms, poultry, school shops, extra mural lessons from where additional funds could be generated to make the provision and maintenance possible and easy.

Keywords: Internally generated revenue, school development, school growth and structure

Introduction

Education is an indispensable tool for personal and

social development. Many countries in the world

view education as a good investment for national

development because it is expected to produce the

required quantity and quality of human resources for

economic growth using the right mix of inputs.

Secondary level of education started in Nigeria as far

back as 1859 with the founding of Church Missionary

Society (C.M.S.) Grammar School in Lagos and the

establishment of secondary schools in other parts of

the country including Abeokuta, Calabar, Ibadan,

Ijebu-Ode, and Ondo. Secondary schools, like any

other organization receive inputs from its

environment, convert or process it and afterwards,

discharge the output to the environment from where

the input is obtained. Secondary education has been a

level of education that is germane in preparing

individual for useful living within the society. It is the

transition level of education between the primary

and tertiary educational system. Amongst the

objectives of this level of education as stated by

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2009) is to provide all

the school leavers equal opportunity for higher

education and diversify the curriculum to cater for

different talents, opportunities and future roles.

Resources allotted for secondary education service

delivery hinges on adequacy or otherwise of fund.

According to Abdulyaqin and Durosaro (2017),

opined that the seeming revenue monopoly by the

government has led to serious underfunding of

secondary schools in Nigeria today which has led to

low productivity of educational products in spite of

the high amount of money vested on education. On

this note, Oladimeji (2017) observed that secondary

school students are still facing challenges of mass

failure, inadequate facilities, inadequate instructional

materials, indiscipline among students and

examination malpractice which are caused majorly


140

by inadequate funding of educational system. The

system wastage experienced reveals that the

objectives of secondary education have not been fully

met because students‟ desire for achievement and

transition to tertiary institutions has become very

low recently. Analysis of 2017 West Africa School

Certificate Examination (WASCE) results revealed

that only 26.01 percent of these students passed with

the National minimum requirement of five (5) credits

including English Language and Mathematics (WAEC,

2017). Adeoye (1983) also envisaged the

aforementioned when he lamented on the outcry by

parents and the media over the decline in standards

of operation of our educational system, the quality of

studentsperformance in West Africa School

Certificate Examination (WASCE) and their

subsequent inability to secure gainful

employment/admission at the completion of their

secondary school career despite the huge inputs into

the system by various stakeholders. Since

expenditure on education is largely regarded as an

investment, there is need for continuous appraisal of

public secondary schools so as to ensure both cost

effectiveness and prudence, which seem appropriate

just as we have in the commercial and industrial

sectors become very low recently.

Ogundele (2001) noted that the contribution of well-

meaning individuals through various sources will be

used for both capital and recurrent expenses. The

scholar also stated that funds that are generated

internally will be used to provide and maintain the

available instructional facilities such as buildings,

instructional facilities, recreational facilities record

keeping and technical equipment without necessarily

depending on the government grants. Oparinde

(2013) also identified the major sources of funds like

tuition fees, examination fee, sales of services, public

private partnership, non-governmental agencies

intervention like State Education Sector Project

(SESP). The author observed that the schools

managers do complain that the generated funds and

the government grants are not adequate to embark

on the provision and maintenance of the necessary

school plants. Oyedeji (2013) noted that the

availability of quality school resourcesis the potent

indicator for measuring the quality of education

provided by the school system. The author observed

that the quality infrastructure provided in the school

system will reduce the problems of overcrowded

class room, aid expansion of educational programmes

engender, high parental patronage to the schools and

enhance teachers’ job effectiveness. The author

therefore called for prudence and honesty in the

utilization of the internally generated revenue for the

provision of the necessary instructional facilities in

the schools so as to enhance quality secondary

education programme.In order to improve the school

facilities in the school system, Bello (2013) identified

the need for public private partnership initiative in

the financing of education in Nigeria. The author

noted that the intervention of the public private

partnership will go a long way in the provision of

necessary infrastructural facilities and effective

academic goals achievement of Nigerian education

institutions will be enhanced.

Erhagbe (2014) stated that internally generated

revenue is the creation of “tangible” and “intangible”

funds within the confines of one’s entity. It is a

combination of all non-governmental monetary

accruals to the institution and may involve diverse

strategies. This means that the funds used in

effectively transforming the institution’s landscape

were not borrowed or realized through direct

source.Sources of generating internal revenue in

schools are proceeds from school activities, industrial

organization, philanthropist, community donations,

old students association contribution, parent

teachers association levy, school fees and extra

lesson.


Education is one of the systems that require proper

funding for its functioning. Undoubtedly, the financial

challenges facing secondary schools have negative

effect on school development. The government as

well as the societal expectation on the school

development is very high because it has a positive

impact on the society. However, education is social

responsibility that everyone should enjoy as a

member of the society and for the fact that

government alone cannot soldier all the

responsibilities of educational provision in Nigeria

and that it had to be paid for by all and sundry. There

is therefore the need for generating revenue

internally for the provision and maintenance of

school facilities for enriching staff welfare and for

improving students’ academic performance in order

to complement government’s efforts in the provision

of education to her citizens. It is assumed that if the

problem of funding is resolved, most of the


141

educational problems will be solved or reduced.

Therefore, it has become necessary to find out if

there is any relationship between internally

generated revenue and school development. Many

researches and researchers have explained internally

generated revenue and school effectiveness within

different locales and institutions in Nigeria. Ogundele

& Morounfoye (2013) noted that the infrastructure

facilities provision is very expensive to purchase. The

stakeholders, principals and parents should therefore

assist the schools in making provision and help in the

maintenance of effective school facilities in order to

ensure administrative effectiveness of the school.

Atolagbe (2006), Ogundele (2001) &Oparinde (2013)

all agreed that the available funds sourced for in the

school are grossly inadequate for secondary schools

facilities provision and maintenance.

The researchers observed that no research work on

internally generated revenue and school

development has been carried out in Ibadan North

East Local Government, Oyo State and this is the gap

the researchers intend to fill.


The main purpose of this study is to investigate


development in public secondary schools in Ibadan

North East Local Government. Specifically, the

purposes are to:

i. investigate the relationship between IGR and

secondary school development in Ibadan North

East Local Government Area.

ii. investigate the relationship between community

donations and school development

iii. examine the relationship between Parent

Teacher Association Levy and school

development

iv. assess the relationship between Old Students

AssociationContributionand school development

v. assess the relationship between extra lesson fee

and school development

Research Hypotheses

The following hypotheses have been formulated in

the study:

Thereis no significant relationship between internally

generated revenue and public secondary schools

development in Ibadan North East Local Government

i. There is no significant relationship between

Parent Teachers Association Levy and school

development in public secondary schools in

Ibadan North East Local Government.

ii. There is no significant relationship between Old

Students Association Contribution and school

development in public secondary schools in

Ibadan North East Local Government Area.

iii. There is no significant relationship between

Community Donations and school development in

public secondary schools in Ibadan North East

Local Government area.

iv. There is no significant relationship between extra

lesson fee and school development in public

secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local

Government Area?

Methodology

A descriptive research design of correlation survey

type was used for this study.Therefore,the population

of this study consisted the principal officers of all 34

public secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local

Government which will be limited to Principal, Vice

Principal (Admin) and School Bursar (School

Accountant). Simple random sampling technique was

used to select 30 public secondary school out of the

whole population.

Researchers’ self-designed questionnaire titled

“Internally Generated Revenue and School

Development Questionnaire” (IGRSDQ) was used for

data collection in this study. Questionnaire allows the

researcher to collect required information quickly

and cheaply from a large number of people at a point

time. The instrument elicited information on the


development. A four point Likert rating scale of

Strongly Agree (SA) = 4, Agree (A) = 3, Disagree = 2

and Strongly Disagree (SD) = 1 was used. Likert scale

technique enables the respondents to indicate the

degree of their beliefs in a given statement.

In order to ascertain the validity of the instrument for

the study, three drafted copies of the instrument

were given to three experts in the Department of

Educational Management, Faculty of Education,

Universityof Ilorin. Their comments, recommen-

dations and suggestions were carefully used to

improve the quality of the instrument.Reliability of

an instrument refers to the extent to which an

instrument gives consistent results on the aspect at

which it tests. In order to determine the reliability of


142

this instrument, the researcher used a split-half

method. Ten copies of questionnaire were

administered to people that share similar

characteristics with therespondents of the study. The

value obtained which was .73 determined the level of

reliability of the instrument.

Results

Hypothesis 1



development in Ibadan North East Local Government

Area secondary schools.

Table 1: Internally Generated Revenue and School

Development

Table 1 shows the relationship between Internally

Generated Revenue and school development. The

table revealed that the calculated r-value is 0.743

while the critical r-value is 0.205. Since the calculated

r-value of 0.743 is greater than the table value of

0.205 at degree of freedom of 88 and alpha level of

0.05. The null hypothesis which stated that there is

no significant relationship between parent teacher

association levy and school development is hereby

rejected. This implies that there was a significant

relationship between Internally Generated Revenue

and school development.

Hypothesis 2

There is no any significant relationship between Parent

Teachers Association Levy and school development in

public secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local

Government?

Table 2: Parent Teacher Association Levy and School

Development

Table 2 shows the relationship between Parent

Teacher Association Levy and school development.

The table revealed that the calculated r-value is 0.743





no significant relationship between parent teacher

association levy and school development is hereby

rejected. This implies that there was a significant

relationship between Parent Teacher Association

Levy and school development.

Hypothesis 3

There is no any significant relationship between Old

Students Association Contribution and school

development in public secondary schools in Ibadan

North East Local Government Area.

Table 3: Old Students Association Contribution and

School Development Variable N Mean SD DF Cal. Value P. Value

Decision

Old Students 90 10.533 4.160 88 0.667 0.205

Rejected

Association

Contribution

School 90 40.722 9.554

Development

Table 3 shows the relationship between Old Students

Association Contribution and school development.

The table revealed that the calculated r-value is 0.667





no significant relationship between old student

association contribution and school development is

hereby rejected. This implies that there was a

significant relationship between Parent Teacher

Association Levy and school development.

Variable N Mean SD DF Cal. Value P. Value

Decision

Internally

generated

revenue 90 33.278 5.145 88 0.743 0.205

Rejected

School 90 45.722 9.754

Development

Variable N Mean SD DF Cal. Value P. Value

Decision

Parent 90 12.278 3.145 88 0.743 0.205

Rejected

Teacher

Association

School 90 40.722 9.554

Development


143

Hypothesis 4

There is no any significant relationship between Community Donations and school development in public secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local Government area.

Table 4: Community Donation and School

Development Variable N Mean SD DF Cal. Value P. Value

Decision

Community 90 9.766 3.547 88 0.695 0.205

Rejected

Donation

School 90 40.722 9.554

Development

Table 4 shows the relationship between community

donation and school development. The table revealed

that the calculated r-value is 0.695 while the critical

r-value is 0.205. Since the calculated r-value of 0.695

is greater than the table value of 0.205 at degree of

freedom of 88 and alpha level of 0.05. The null

hypothesis which stated that there is no significant

relationship between community donation and

school development is hereby rejected. This implies

that there was a significant relationship between

community donation and school development.

Hypothesis 5

There is no any significant relationship between extra lesson fee and school development in public secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local Government Area.

Table 5: Extra Lesson Fee and School Development Variable N Mean SD DF Cal. Value P. Value

Decision

Extra Lesson 90 8.144 3.220 88 0.615 0.205

Rejected

Fee

School 90 40.722 9.554

Development

Table 5 shows the relationship between extra lesson

fee and school development. The table revealed that

the calculated r-value is 0.615 while the critical r-

value is 0.205. Since the calculated r-value of 0.615 is

greater than the table value of 0.205 at degree of

freedom of 88 and alpha level of 0.05. The null

hypothesis which stated that there is no significant

relationship between extra lesson fee and school

development is hereby rejected. This implies that

there was a significant relationship between extra

lesson fee and school development.


Finding from the study revealed that there was a

significant relationship between internally generated

revenue and school development in Ibadan North

East Local Government Area secondary schools. The

findings is in line with Ogundele (2001) who said that

funds that are generated internally will be used to

provide and maintain the available instructional

facilities such as buildings, instructional materials,

recreational facilities and technical equipment.

The study also revealed that there was a significant

relationship between parent teacher association levy

and school development in Ibadan North East Local

Government Area Secondary Schools. This

contributes the view of Igwe (1999) who stated that

parent mandatorily pay levies agreed by the

association for their wards attendance in a particular

schools. PTA helps inthe development of school by

meaningfully contributing to building of classrooms,

hostels library and many other activities.

The study further revealed that there was a

significant relationship between Old Students

Association contribution and school development in

Ibadan North East Local Government Area Secondary

Schools. The implication of this is that old students in

partnership with the school management team can

assist in the development of both human and

material resources in the school. The Old Students

Association meets from time to time, organize and

facilitate workshop and seminars using their

connections. They sometimes build new classrooms

or renovate the existing school buildings.

Furthermore, the study revealed that there was a

significant relationship between community donation

and school development in Ibadan North East Local

Government Area Secondary Schools. This implies

that the community where the school is located can

provide fund for schools to purchase physical

facilities such as classrooms, laboratories and

material for the use of school.

In addition, the study revealed that there was a significant relationship between extra lesson fee and school development in Ibadan North East Local Government Area Secondary Schools. This implies that fund generated from extra lessons can be used to equip the school laboratories and repair equipment and furniture. It can also be used to renovate old school buildings.


144

Conclusion

The study emphasized on internally generated

revenue and school development in Ibadan North

East Local Government Area secondary schools of

Oyo State. The finding of the study is that revenue

generated internally in secondary school has a

significant relationship with school development.

This study has confirmed the fact that adequate

realization and utilization of fund generated

internally in secondary school will have great impact

on developing school physical facilities. The result of

the study established the fact that the school that

generated fund internally and utilizes it effectively

would have good physical facilities in the school.

Recommendations

The following recommendations were made based on

the findings and conclusion of the study.

Available internally generated revenue should be

utilized for expansion of school programmes

such as school farms, poultry, school shops and

extra mural lessons andadditional funds from

these sources could make the provision and

maintenance possible and easy.

School administrators should explore all

revenues through collaboration/partnership

with the philanthropists and Parents Teachers

Association.

There should be capacity building for the training

of stakeholders in the financial management of

the schools. The principal, the vice principal,

bursar and teachers that are dealing with all the

financial matters of the school should be

adequately trained on alternate sources of

funding through seminars, conferences and

workshops.

The ministry of education should provide

adequate financial supervision on all the revenue

generated to provide transparency, honesty and

prudency in the management of those revenue

that are generated internally.

References

Abdulyaqin, A.T. & Durosaro D. O. (2017).

Educational financing. In R. O. Olubor, A. Y.

Abdulkareem, A. T. Alabi & F. Adeyanju (eds.).

Educational management: New perspective.

Lagos: Amifitop Books.

Adeoye, S. (1983).Some aspects of school

management. Ibadan: Board Publishers Ltd.

Atolagbe, A. A. (2006). Funding and educational

facilities of secondary schools in Kwara

State.Unpublished M.Ed.dissertation, University

of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.

Bello, O. T. (2013). Funding and teachers

effectiveness of Kwara State private secondary

schools. Journal of Vocation of Educational

Technology 8(1 45-52)

Erahgbe, E. (2014). University education financing in

Nigeria: Using Oshodin’s strategy to convert

intangible totangible development. In E. O.

Ojeme, & L. I. Salami (Eds.), Transformational

Leadership in the Universityof Benin.A

publication of the Faculty of Education,

University of Benin, Benin City.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2009). National Policy of

Education, Abuja: NERDC

Igwe, L. E. B. (1999). Fundamentals of School

Community Relations Management: Political and

Legal Dimensions. Port Harcourt: Pam Unique

Publishers.

Johnson, W. (2011). Principles of environmental

management. London: Routledge.

Ogundele, M. O. & Morounfoye, S. A. (2013).

Infrastructure facilities development and

administrative effectiveness of Kwara State.

African Journal of Higher Education

Developmental Study 1(1) 32-14.

Ogundele, M. O. (2001). Utilization of internally

generated funds for secondary school plants

development in Offa Local Government Area,

Kwara State. Unpublished M. Ed. Dissertation of


Oparinde, R. O. (2013). Internally generated revenue,

school plant development and internal efficiency

on Colleges of Education in South Western

Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of

Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.

Oyedeji, N. B. (2013). Management: Principles and

Practices. Lagos: ARAS Press.

www.pmnewsnigeria.com/2017/11/02/waec-

releases-novdec-2017-gce-results


145

THE INFLUENCE OF RELIGIOUS BELIEF ON THE PERCEPTION OF YOUTHS’ VOTER EDUCATION AND

ATTITUDE TOWARDS VOTING IN SOUTHWEST NIGERIA.

Yemi-Fadipe B. O. Department Of Social Science Education, Ekiti State University,

Ado Ekiti, Nigeria.

Abstract

The study examined the influence of religious belief on the perception of youths’ voter education and voting in southwest, Nigeria. It investigated the level of voting behaviour of youths and also explored the level of voter education among the youths in Southwest Nigeria. The study adopted descriptive research design of the survey type. The population of the study comprised all undergraduates in public Universities in Southwest Nigeria. The sample comprised 2400 undergraduates in the selected Universities in Southwest Nigeria using multi stage sampling procedure.. A self designed instrument was used for data collection. The reliability of the instrument was determined using test-retest method and a reliability coefficient of 0.86 was obtained. Data collected were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The research questions were answered using frequency counts, percentage scores, mean and standard deviation while the hypotheses were analysed by using 2-way Analyses of Variance, multiple regression and Pearson Product Correlation. The study revealed that there was a significant relationship between youths perception of voter education and their attitudes towards voting. In addition, Religious belief has no influence on the perception of youths attitude towards voting. The study therefore recommended that government should organize voter education programme on media such as television, radio, newpaper and magazine for the youth to enlighten them on voting exercise. National Orientation Agency (NOA) should organize seminars to enlighten youths of different religious groups such as Christianity, Islamic and traditional religions on voter education and the right attitude to voting so as to eradicate religious maginalisation, exploration, protest, inequality and allow cooperation among different religious groups in Southwest Nigeria.

Key words: Voter education, Attitudes, Youths, Religious belief, Voting behaviour.

Introduction

In a democratic society and for a successful election

to take place, youths must know their rights and

responsibilities, knowledgeable and well informed on

how to cast ballots to choose the representatives of

their choice. This appears to be possible through

voter education. According to Awoyele - Kehinde

(2012) voter education is essentially to ensure that

voters can effectively exercise their political will

through electoral process.

Youths require adequate voter education to know the

values and importance of democracy and these

values can easily be transformed to their daily

activities. In the assertion of Oyatomi (2009), the goal

of voter education is to make information available

and accessible to all constituents and campaigns

should seek to achieve universal coverage of

electorates. This effectively requires reaching out to

disadvantaged groups as well as mainstream voters.

It appears that society in general face the problem of

voter education and this has constituted a lot of

problems among the youths in participating in voting

processes in the country. In Nigeria today, it seems

that the youths are now used as tools to foment

trouble most especially on campuses to distabilise

the peace of their institutions as well as the society at

large. They are even used by politicians as thugs

during the electoral process. The negative attitude of

these youths manifests in behaviours like thuggery,

assassination, protest, indolence, intolerance, assault,

defacing of posters, chanting of slogans, threat and

apathy. These acts are considered to jeopardise


146

national development as well as the credibility of the

electioneering processes. This could be attributed to

lack of basic knowledge, as well as inability to

demonstrate some capacities which involve

intelligence and self control.

Through voter education, youths of different social

groups are expected to know the values, attitudes

and importance of democracy that will make them

more enlightened about national integration,

common good and the due process of political

process as well as reduce the high rate of conflicts

among the social groups of youths in which religious

belief is inclusive. Religious belief could be a

determinant of voting behaviour. Southwest Nigeria

practiced three major religions which are

Christainity, Islam and African traditional religions.

These religions especially, christainity and Islam,

have much influence on every policy decisions of the

various levels of government. This is therefore

reflected in the voting behaviour which tends to be

influenced by various religious sects of the

electorates. Isiramen (2010) asserted that voter

education programme enlighten youths to know their

rights and responsibilities to make choice of their

own and also have equal chance of electing their

leaders during voting exercise.

According to Sani (2011) the attitude of youths from

some religious sects scares them from voting. For

instance some muslim such as pudah do not take part

in voting exercise because of the Nigerian voting

procedure that is against their religion. Alamu (2009)

reported that many of the christain clergymen do not

partake in voting exercise, because they believe that

sacred people are to be seclusive and that politicians

are full of deceit while politics is seen as dirty game.

They also claim that it involves bloodletting and have

phobia for voting which also result in lack of

knowledge and information about voter education. In

the assertion of Isiramen (2010) it was revealed that

youths use sectional loyalty to vote based on their

religion. They assume that where majority of certain

ethnic groups are, such ethnic groups belong to a

specific religious group and it also influences their

voting behaviour.

Agwu (2015) posited that loyalty to religion is often

more important than loyalty to the state among the

youths during political process, becomes obvious at

every count of events. It is observed that politicians

do not down play this as significant in the body polity

of Southwest Nigeria. For instance General

Mohamadu Buhari during the 2015 general elections

in Nigeria remarked that the event of election is

purely a political matter and should not in any way

be turned into ethnic, religious or regional issue. In

the assertion of Ajayi and Fashagba (2014)

Southwest Nigeria youths are fond of violence during

electoral process on religious ground by supporting

people who are not of the same religion. They are of

opinion that religion is a means of identifying the

imperfections of a plural society and suggesting

remedies to remove or solve the problems of

equality, marginalization, exploration, internal

colonization and the misused of majority in

democracy and national government in a prejudicial

manner. This will help the youths to better

understand the increasing diversity, including

religion to be better prepared to live in a peaceful,

productive manner with the differing cultural and

religious values in Southwest, Nigeria.

In the observation of Fox and Sandlar (2008) there is

need for an adequate and succinct definition of the

role of religion in the state politics of the country.

Religious leaders among the youths need to be

constitutionally accorded due respect and assigned

official responsibilities in order to give them a sense

of belonging in Nigeria. It is when these clergies begin

to have a consciousness of being state leaders and not

outcast in the society that they would be able to

sincerely work for the interest of the nation, there by

involving in voting exercise. They would also be able

to control their followers towards voting behaviours

and caution them against the act of violence. They

will also have a sense of pride and become less

dependent and attached to selfish politicians who

buy their interest with money and materials. Kukah

(2007) opined that youths voting behaviour are

influenced by various religious sects they belong to as

they assume that certain groups are christains, while

others ethnic group are muslims.


In any democratic system, youths as citizens

discharge their duties, responsibilities and rights by

partaking in voting exercise. It appears that Nigerian

youths are ignorant of these through their attitude

during political processes. Some of the youths

allegedly refused to vote. This seems to be the result

of their lack of basic knowledge, inability to

demonstrate some capacities which involve


147

intelligence and self control during electioneering

process. The youths’ attitude seems to be

characterized by thuggery, bitterness, apathy,

assassination, protest and indolence. Hence, the

ingredients of democracy may not have been able to

thrive after many years of political independence in

Southwest, Nigeria. Some of the youths, owing to

ignorance, vote along religion, ethnicity, and party

identification in which these attitudes have no

reference to rationality. Youths seem to be used as

political touts to foment trouble during political

process, this result in occurrence leads to the

emergence of unpopular candidates who are not

responsible, responsive, accountable, transparent

and accountable to the yearnings and aspiration of

the people. Lack of voter education of the youths

could have make them to have negative attitude

towards voting such as voter apathy, political

violence and political silence.

Therefore, this study investigated the influence of

religious belief on youths voter education and their

attitude towards of voting behaviour in southwest,

Nigeria.

Purpose of study

The study examined the influence of religious belief

on youths voter education and their attitude as

correlates of voting behaviour in Southwest, Nigeria.

It investigated the level of youths voting behaviour in

Southwest Nigeria. It also explored the level of of

voter education among the youths in Southwest

Nigeria.

Research questions

The following research questions have been raised in

the study:

1 . What is the level of youths voting behaviour in

Southwest, Nigeria?

2. What is the level of voter education among the

youths in Southwest, Nigeria?

3. What is the attitude of youths towards voting in

Southwest, Nigeria?

Research Hypotheses

The following research hypotheses have been

formulated in the study:

1. Religious belief has no significant influence on the

perception of youths voter education and towards

voting.

2. Religious belief has no significant influence on the

perception of youths attitude and towards voting.

Research method

The study employed the descriptive research design

of the survey type. The population of the study

comprised all undergraduates in public Universities

in Southwest, Nigeria. The sample consisted of 2400

undergraduates in selected universities in Southwest,

Nigeria using multistage technique. In stage one,

three states such as Ekiti, Ondo and Lagos states were

selected using simple random sampling technique. In

Stage two, two universities were selected in each

state chosen, (one federal University and one state

University) using simple random sampling technique.

In Stage three, 400 undergraduates of the voting age

in 300 level and above were selected in each

University, making the total of 800 undergraduates in

in each state making the total of 2400

undergraduates in the Universities chosen in the

three states selected using purposive sampling

technique. A self- designed questionnaire was used

for data collection. The questionnaire was face,

content and construct validated. The instrument was

subjected to construct validity by administrated it

alongside similar standardised pre-existing

instruments constructed on 30 undergraduates in a

University that was not part of the sample for this

study. The reliability of the instrument was

determined by using Pearson Product Moment

Correlation Analysis and the co-efficient of 0.86 was

obtained which was found to be very reliable. Data

collected were analysed by using descriptive and

inferential statistics. Research questions were

answered by using frequency counts and percentage.

Hypotheses one was tested by using Pearson Product

Moment Correlation, hypotheses two and three were

tested by using Analysis of Variance.

Results

Research Question 1: What is the level of

youths’ voting behaviour in Southwest Nigeria?

In answering the question, respondents’ scores in

frequency counts, percentages, mean and standard

deviation were calculated. To determine the level of


148

youths’ voting behaviour (low, moderate and high),

the low level of youths’ voting behaviour was

determined by subtracting the standard deviation

from the mean score (67.43 – 6.59 = 60.84). The

moderate level was determined by the mean score

(67.43) while the high level was determined by

adding the mean score and standard deviation (67.43

+ 6.59 = 74.02). Therefore, low level of youths’ voting

behaviour starts from 25.0 to 60.84, the moderate

level start from 60.85 to 74.01 and the high level

from 74.02 – 100.0. The level of youths’ voting

behaviour is presented in table 1.

Table 1: Level of Youths’ Voting Behaviour

Levels of youths’

voting behaviour

Frequency Percentage

Low (25.0 – 60.84) 549 22.9

Moderate (60.85 –

74.01)

1803 75.1

High (74.02 – 100.0) 48 2.0

Total 2400 100

Table 1 revealed the levels of youths’ voting

behaviour. The result showed that out of 2400

respondents, 549 representing 22.9 percent of the

respondents agreed that the level of youths’ voting

behaviour is low. Those who agreed that youths’

voting behaviour is at moderate level were 1803

representing 75.1 percent while 48 representing 2.0

percent agreed that youths’ voting behaviour is high.

This showed the level of youths’ voting behaviour

was moderate.

Research question 2: What is the level of voter

education among the youths in Southwest

Nigeria?

In answering the question, the mean score,

percentage and frequency count were used to

illustrate the responses to items 1 - 25 in section B of

the questionnaire. To determine the level of voter

education in Southwest, Nigeria (Low, Moderate and

High), the low level of voter education was

determined by subtracting the standard deviation

score from the mean score (81.14 – 9.61 = 79.53).

The moderate level of voter education was

determined by the mean score of the responses on

youth voter education (89.14) while the high level of

voter education was determined by adding the mean

score and the standard deviation score of the

responses on youths’ voter education (89.14 + 9.61 =

98.75). Therefore, low level of voter education starts

from 25 – 79.53; the moderate level starts from 79.54

– 98.74 and the high level of voter education is from

98.75 – 100.

Table 2: Level of Voter Education in Southwestern

Nigeria

Level Frequency Percentage

Low (25 – 79.53) 168 7.00

Moderate (79.54

– 98.74)

453 18.88

High (98.75 –

100)

1779 74.12

Total 2400 100

Table 2 revealed the levels of voter education. The

result showed that out of 2400 sampled students,

168 representing 7 per cent had low level. Those who

had moderate level were 453 representing 18.88 per

cent while those with high level were 1779

representing 74.12 percent. This showed that the

level of voter education was very high.

Research question 3: What is the attitude of

youths towards voting in Southwest, Nigeria?

In analysing the question, the mean scores,

percentage and frequency count were used to

illustrate the responses to items 1 – 25 in section C of

the questionnaire. The attitude of youths towards

voting in Southwest, Nigeria (negative and positive),

were determined as follows: The positive and

negative attitudes of youths towards voting were

determined by the mean score. The positive attitude

fell above the mean score (65.06) while the negative

attitude of youths towards voting fell below the mean

score (65.06). Therefore, negative attitude of youths

towards voting starts from 25.00 – 65.05 while the

positive attitude of youths towards voting is from

65.06 – 100

Table 3: Youths’ Attitude Towards Voting in

Southwest, Nigeria

Attitude Frequency Percentage Negative (25.00 – 65.05)

467 19.46

Positive (65.06 – 100)

1933 80.54

Total 2400 100

Table 3 revealed the attitude of youths’ towards

voting. The result revealed that out of 2400 sampled

students, 467 representing 19.46 percent had

negative attitude towards voting. Those who had

positive attitude towards voting were 1933

representing 80.54 percent. This showed that most

youths have positive attitude towards voting.


149

Testing of hypotheses Hypothesis 1: Religious belief has no significant

influence on the perception of youths’ voter

education and towards voting.

Table 4: 2-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for Influence of Religious Belief on the perception of Youths’ Voter

Education

Source

Type III Sum of

Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.

Corrected Model 213824.839a 11 19438.622 6160.393 .000

Intercept 2383124.288 1 2383124.288 755248.138 .000

Level 57774.061 2 28887.030 9154.737 .000

Religion 19.098 3 6.366 2.017 .109

Level * Religion 72.728 6 12.121 3.841 .001

Error 7535.140 2388 3.155

Total 1.929E7 2400

Corrected Total 221359.980 2399

a. R Squared = .966 (Adjusted R Squared = .966)

From Table 4, the F-cal value of 3.841 is significant at

0.05 level of significant because the P value of

0.01<0.05. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected,

showing that religious belief has significant influence

on the perception of youths’ voter education.

Hypothesis 2: Religious belief has no significant

influence on the perception of youths’ attitude and

towards voting.

Table 5: 2-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for Influence of Religious Belief on the perception of Youths’ Attitude

and towards Voting

Source

Type III Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Corrected Model 182687.977a 7 26098.282 3187.244 .000

Intercept 1476054.813 1 1476054.813 180262.711 .000

Attitude 51553.373 1 51553.373 6295.939 .000

Religion 38.658 3 12.886 1.574 .194

Attitude * Religion 28.407 3 9.469 1.156 .325

Error 19586.542 2392 8.188

Total 1.036E7 2400



From Table 5, the F-cal value of 1.156 is not

significant at 0.05 level of significant because the P

value of 0.325>0.05. Hence, the null hypothesis is not

rejected; showing that religious belief has no

significant influence on the perception of youths’

attitude and towards voting. This implies that

religion belief does not contribute to the perception

of youth attitude and towards voting.

Discussion

The study revealed that the level of youths voting

behaviour is moderate. This contradicted the opinion

of Kukah (2007) that youths voting behaviour are

influenced by various religious sects they belong to as

they assume that certain groups are Christians, while

others ethnic group are muslims. It also revealed that

the level of youths’ voter education in Southwestern

Nigeria is high. This also supported the assertion of

Isiramen (2005) that voter education programme


150

enlighten youths to know their rights and

responsibilities to make choice of their own and also

have equal chance of electing their leaders during

voting exercise. Moreover, youths’ attitude towards

voting in Southwestern Nigeria is positive. This

contradicted the assertion of Ajayi and Fashagba

(2014) that Southwest, Nigeria youths are found of

violence during electoral process on religious ground

by suppressing people who are not of the same

religion.

The study also revealed that most youths have

positive perception of attitude towards voting while

few had negative perception of attitude towards

voting.

Hassan (2011) therefore suggested that for Nigeria to

achieve good governance and sustain it, citizens must

possess skills, values and manifest the appropriate

behaviour which entails good governance. They

should have voter education, knowledge, voter

disposition and voting skills.

The finding also revealed that religious belief has

significant influence on the perception of youths’

voter education while it has no influence on the

perception of youths’ attitude towards voting in

Southwest, Nigeria. In the view on the perception of

youths’ voter education, political terrain has often

been exploited by politician with appeals to

extraneous sentiments. Religion also plays important

role in mobilisation of youths and eliminate their

unethical attitudes towards voting such as

corruption, embezzlement, assassination, forgery,

cheating, while violence in the name of religion is

centralised to political issue in Nigeria. Sani (2011),

Alamu (2010), and Ajayi and Fashagba (2014) all

agreed that religious belief has significant influence

on the perception of youths’ voter education.

The findings also revealed that religious belief has no

influence on the perception of youths’ attitude

towards voting. This agreed with the view of Fox and

Sandlar (2003) and Isiramen (2010). Agwu (2015)

observed that loyalty to religion is often more

important than loyalty to state among Nigerians

while the significant role religion plays in Nigeria

politics becomes obvious at every count of events the

more reason why major state actors do not down

play it as insignificant in the body polity of Nigeria.


The perception of youths voter education and

attitude towards voting are related. Voter education

promotes peaceful and happy community, social

response-bilities, reduction in poverty high sense of

cooperation and justice within the political system.

The level of youth voting behaviour was also

moderate. Religious belief has influence on the

perception of youths’ voter education as well as the

perception of youths attitude towards voting. Many

of the youths vote base on religion line which has no

reference to rationality.

In view of the implications of the finding of this study,

it is recommended that

The government should organize voter

educational programme in the media, such as

radio, television and newspaper to educate

youths who have not got the opportunity to be

involved in the voter education programme on

voting exercise. These youths will be

knowledgeable on due process and electoral

credibility during political processes.

The National Orientation Agency (NOA) should

organise seminars to enlighten youths of

different religious groups on voter education and

the right attitude to voting so as to eradicate

religious marginalisation, exploitation, rebellion,

protest, in equality and allow cooperation among

different religious groups in Southwest, Nigeria.


151

References

Agwu, E. (2015). The role of religion in Nigeria

politics. Lagos: Concepts Publication Limited.

Ajayi, R. & Fashagba, J. O. (2014). Understanding

government and politics in Nigeria. Omu-Aran:

The Department of Political Science and

International Relations, Landmark University.

Alamu, A. G. (2009). The sins of omission and

commission in Nigerian religious violence:

Dopamu’s hermeneutics as an alternative.

Journal of Religious Studies 5, 12 – 23.

Alamu, A. G (2010) Religion as scape goat in ethno-

political violence in Nigeria. IN H.O Anyanwu &

M.E Udo (eds), Religion and cultural

understanding the dynamism of faith in Africa,

Beijin (pp 103-116) Universal Academic Service.

Awoyele - Kehinde, A. A. (2012), Development and

effect of a participating moral education package

on pre-service teachers’ knowledge of and

attitude to moral concepts in social studies.

Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Department of

Teacher Education, University of Ibadan.

Fox, J. & Sandlar, S. (2003). Quantifying religion:

Toward building more effective ways of

measuring religious influence on state-level

behaviour. Journal of Church and State, 45(2),

559-588.

Hassan, M. T. (2011). Teachers’ view of how civic

education can promote good governance in

Nigeria. Nigeria Journal of Social Studies. 14(1),

67 – 74.

Isiramen, C. O. (2010). Religion and the Nigerian

nation: Some topical issues, Ibadan: En-Joy Press

and Books.

Kukah, M.H. (2010). Democracy and civil society in

Nigeria, Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.

Oyatomi, A.(2009) ASUU-FG face off in who’s

interest? Vanguard, 29.August.6,12-13.

Sanni, A. O., (2011). Folklorising religious poetry

among the Yoruba. The Archival platform

Retrieved 12 June 2011 from http://www

archival platform.org/blog/entry/folk/origin.

http://www/


152

EMPOWERING YOUTHS FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT THROUGH CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN

HOME ECONOMICS

Onyeizu, R. Home Economics Department

School of Vocational and Technical Education, FCT College of Education, Zuba-Abuja.

Abstract

This paper focuses on the career opportunities available in home economics as a veritable tool in empowering youths for social and economic development. It sees the career in home economics as the type geared towards producing self employed and reliant youths. The concept of home economic and the various career opportunities embedded in the course were clarified. The clarification cut across the way the youths can use these skills to empower themselves for both social and economic development of family, community and the entire nation. It was however recommended (among other things) that youths must be encouraged to actively take part in any meaningful skill acquisition programme made available in their community in order to be well equipped for both white collar jobs and self development.

Key words: Home economics, Careers, Youth, Empowerment, Social development and Economic development.

Introduction

The challenges of a changing world can only be met

by programmes that are skill- oriented. Home

economics programme is one of such programmes

that offer several opportunities and privileges that

have stood the test of time. Home economics,

domestic science, or home science is a field of study

that deals with the management of the home and

community. Home economics is that body of subject

matter which has to do with the application of the

natural and social sciences and arts to the problems

of the home and the problems growing out of homes

and their interrelationships.

It is the field of knowledge, primarily concerned with

strengthening family life through: educating the

individual for family living; improving the services

and goods used by families, conducting research to

discover the changing needs of individuals and

families and the means of satisfying these needs,

furthering community, national, and world conditions

favourable to family living"(Quigley, 1974).

Home Economics deals with the relationship between

individuals, families, communities, and the

environment in which they live. Anyakoha & Eluwa

(2014) defined home economics education as a broad

field of study that is primarily concerned with the

improvement of welfare of individuals and families.

Okeke&Anyakoha (2009) opined that home

economics education is concerned with

strengthening and enriching family life through

educating the individual for family living. Home

economics has made life meaningful to many and still

contributing to make life more fulfilled and relevant

in a changing world by providing job opportunities in

different areas of human endeavour.

Home economics education provides the individual

with the basic strategies to overcome poverty by

acquiring adequate skills that will make them self

reliant. It provides adequate skills and knowledge for

the young and old who are interested in self

employment. For developing countries like Nigeria

and the rest of the region, home economics education

makes significant contribution towards family life

and stability

Home economics exposes students to the

fundamental principles of budgeting and financial


153

management, home and resource management,

health and nutrition to name a few, it made

significant strides in educating our people about

preparing foods within budget and eating a balanced

diet. The subject area provides the knowledge, skills

and attitude needed for healthy family life and

community living, which are regarded as integral for

national development. To date, home economics

remains true to its basic mission to "improve

individual and family life amidst changing social,

political, economic and physical conditions" (Gabriel,

1998)

Gabriel (1998) further pointed out that home

economics education has matured into a range of

offerings which include: home ecology, human and

consumer sciences, family resource management,

clothing and textiles, home management, food safety,

family life, food and nutrition.

I strongly believe that home economics has an

extremely important place in our educational system

today. No other academic discipline incorporates in

its curriculum as many pertinent life skills that will

help students succeed independent of their chosen

career paths. Home economics has a lot of benefits

and the knowledge obtained through this programme

will prove valuable throughout one’s lifespan. The

most important aspect of a home economics

education is that students not only learn about

subject matter that has relevance to their present

lives, but will constantly be of use as they continue to

grow.

Home economics education empowers people

through the various career opportunities and makes

them skilful and confidence to shape a more stable

and peaceful future. It is thus the key to building

greener societies. It goes beyond promoting skills for

self employability. It empowers young people and

adults to develop skills for work and life. It also

ensures that all workers are able to play appropriate

roles, both in the workplace and the broader

community, by contributing to environment,

economic and social sustainability. Home economics

is needed more especially in our world today where

there is rapidly increasing consumer debt, poverty,

hunger, unemployment, individual nutrition

concerns, obesity, diet-related illness, ever changing

family dynamics and roles. It does all these through

the various career opportunities embedded in the

course, which youths can use to develop themselves

and the society where they live. Payal (2014) posited

that Social development means investing in people. It

requires the removal of barriers so that all citizens

can journey toward their dreams with confidence and

dignity. It is about refusing to accept that people who

live in poverty will always be poor. It is about helping

people so they can move forward on their path to

self-sufficiency. Social development is about

improving the well-being of every individual in

society so they can reach their full potential. The

success of society is linked to the well-being of each

and every citizen.

To reduce poverty we need to take a social

development approach and invest in our people. By

investing in people we can reduce poverty. We need

to go beyond looking at government to find ways to

develop our most valuable resource, our people. We

need to share responsibility with community

organizations, businesses, universities and

municipalities in the task of improving the well-being

of all. While Economic development is the

development of economic wealth of countries or

regions for the well-being of their inhabitants. (Payal,

2014). The term economic development on the other

hand, implies much more. It is the process by which a

nation improves the economic, political, and social

wellbeing of its people.

Having looked at the meaning of these terms, it is

certain the home economics as a course goes a long

way in helping its graduates to develop both socially

and economically for the well being of themselves

and the society where they live.

Need for youth empowerment and government

efforts so far

As Nigeria policy makers increasingly recognize the

role of entrepreneurship skills development as a

veritable tool in stimulating economic growth and

development, skills- based subjects have been

introduced into all levels of educational system. The

goal being the development of functional skills that

would make youths self-reliant and sufficient in

fighting unemployment and poverty, thereby

contributing to economic and social growth and

development. Sadly, the present economic recession

in Nigeria, has ushered in a worrisome trend among

Nigerian youths, as youth unemployment and

underemployment rates act to jeopardize social

inclusion, cohesion and stability in our state, where

youth militancy, gun violence caused by the


154

proliferation of arms, kidnapping, robbery, and other

social vices have continued to increase each day.

These challenges calls for an examination of the kind

of skills to equip the youths so as to be self reliant

and to contribute meaningfully to the development of

the nation, although Government and its agencies has

made a lot of efforts towards youths empowerment,

among the efforts made were:

National Directorate of Employment (NDE) was

established by the National Directorate of

Employment Act 1989 and charged with

responsibility of tackling all problems of

unemployment in the country.

National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP):

NAPEP was established in 2001 by the Federal

Government of Nigeria. It is responsible for

coordinating and monitoring all poverty eradication

activities in Nigeria. Skill acquisition and vocational

training centres at various states and local

government across the nation. Youth empowerment

focused on creating greater community change that

relies on the development of individual capacity and

ability. Youth Empowerment involves: helping youth

identify, utilize and maximise their potentials,

helping the youth to develop confidence and self-

identity, encouraging youth to grow together in

accountability and finally imbibing in them, the

eagerness to create a change. When the youths are

empowered, they make positive great change in the

society since they make up large amount of

population of any country and are also seen as the

future leaders in the society. Hubert (2011) stated

that there are whole lots of benefit derived from

empowering the youths. Some of these benefits are:

- Youth empowerment facilitates good leadership and

entrepreneurship.

- Youth empowerment is key to attaining meaningful

development.

- It makes the youth to be financially independent.

- The acquisition of those skills helps the youth to be

morally and ethically upright and sound.

- Exposure to peers who are positive role models and

who have shown resilience in the face of adversity.

- Developing positive coping skills and problem

solving skills.

- Helping young people identify their strengths and

personal potential.

- Increasing confidence and developing a sense of

personal agency to influence own future

Empowering youth through career opportunities

in home economics:

Home Economists are concerned with the

empowerment and well-being of individuals, families

and communities, and facilitating the development of

attributes for lifelong learning for paid, unpaid and

voluntary work, and living situations so that more

young people and adults have opportunities to

develop the skills they need for work and life.

(Foster& Black, 2010). Skills acquisition is very

necessary and urgent in our present day

administration, and home economics offers a lot of

these skills through the various career opportunities

which helps the youths to be self reliant, self

employed, while also equipping them with the ability

to be employed and to continue learning and be able

to adjust to changes in the life and workplace, society

and career. Youths can develop themselves through

any of these career skills in home economics so as to

improve the standard of living and also to bring a

positive change in the economic and social well being

of individuals, community and the entire nation as

well.Thus it enables them to fulfil their role as agents

of development, good governance, social inclusion,

tolerance and peace. For those youths who are

graduates and unemployed, they can attain seminars

and workshops that are organized by the home

economist and gain the knowledge so as to equip

them skilfully with knowledge and develop on it

towards self employment, thus influencing current

and future social and economic conditions and

opportunities of the country. The following are the

career opportunities in home economics as stated by

Agwaraonye (2013).

A. Careers in Foods and Nutrition

1. Dietetics: A dietician works in hospitals, helping

with diets for the treatment and prevention of

diseases.

2. Nutrition: A nutritionist can work in a health

department, schools, hospitals and industries.

He/she helps people improve their nutritional

habits and status, so as to keep them in good

health.

3. Food service: People in this career can work as

catering managers, supervisors, stewards, etc.

depending on their qualifications. They work in

hotels, hospitals, schools, airlines, etc.


155

4. Catering: A caterer cooks for people in boarding

schools, hospitals, hotels, offices etc.

5. Hotel Management: This involves running a hotel

as a business. It is also called institution

management.

6. Teaching: Teachers in this area, teach foods and

nutrition.

7. Research: Researchers here, work on foods and

nutrition problems. They discover new ways of

planning and cooking foods etc.

8. Food technology: A food technologist applies the

principles of foods, science and engineering in the

development, production, processing, packaging

and distribution of foods.

B. Careers in Clothing and Textiles

1. Designing: Persons in this career create new

designs for garments (fashion). They are also

designers for fabrics/ textiles, and designers for

clothing accessories. They are Fashion designers.

2. Pattern illustration: The pattern illustrator

develops paper patterns for sale.

3. Beauty care and hairdressing: Beauticians and hair

dressers run salons where they take care of

people’s hair and perform other beauty

treatments.

4. Dressmaking/ tailoring: Dressmakers and tailors

sew garments for people.

5. Dry cleaning and laundering: The dry- cleaners and

launderers dry-clean and launder clothing

articles for people.

6. Modelling: A model works in fashion industries.

He/she wears newly designed dress styles for

people to see and buy.

7. Fashion merchandising: People in this career,

select, buy and sell textiles apparels and other

clothing accessories.

8. Weaving: Weavers construct fibres and yarns into

fabrics or textiles.

9. Fabric Dyeing: People in this career do tie-dyeing

and batik to produce “Adire” and other locally

dyed materials.

10. Teaching: Teachers in this area teach clothing and

textiles.

11. Research: Researchers in this area work on

clothing and textiles.

C. Careers in Home Management, Family Living

and Child Development.

1. Interior decoration/ designing: People in this area

plan and decorate interiors of homes, hotels

hospitals, offices, etc.

2. Institutional Housekeeping: This involves working

in schools, hostels, hospitals and other

institutions as house-keepers.

3. Advertising and promoting: People in this area

work as promoters in industries that manufacture

household equipment, furniture, health and

grooming products, food textiles etc. They tell

people about new products and convince them to

buy. They require special training on the products

they promote.

4. Baby-sitting: A baby sitter can be employed by

parents to care for their children in their absence.

This is an entry-level job.

5. Child care: People in this area work in child-care

centres. These centres are where parents bring

their children for care while they are busy.

6. Social welfare work: People in this career provide

help to troubled individuals and families. They

require higher education.

7. Teaching: Teachers in this area teach home

management, family living and child development,

in schools and colleges.

8. Research: Researchers here work on problems

relating to home management, family living and

child development.

Other Careers include:

1. Home-making: The home-maker manages family

members and the home. He/she maintains a

satisfying setting for family living.

2. Home Economics Extension: Extension agents run

out-of-school-educational programmes for men

and women. Their programmes include foods,

nutrition, child care, home management, clothing

and textiles, etc.

3. Journalism: Home Economists can work for

newspapers, journals, magazines, television and

radio. They are often in-charge of food, clothing,

consumer education and other areas relating to

Home Economics.


156

4. Home Economics Creates learning pathways

providing vocational and learning pathways for

future nutritionists, dieticians, policy advisers,

medical professionals, early childhood educators,

home economics teachers, university lecturers,

food technologists, food writers, food stylists,

health practitioners, researchers, food product

developers, chefs, hotel management, and sports

nutritionists.

Conclusion

Youths unemployment poses a great danger to any

country, since youths of today are expected to take

over and become leaders of tomorrow in order to

fulfil their role as agents of development, good

governance, social inclusion, tolerance and peace.

This paper therefore has enumerated the career

opportunities in home economics and has also tried

to look at the importance of the career opportunities

in home economics as a veritable tool in addressing

challenges of youth unemployment. The paper

concluded that if the youth are engaged actively in

various career opportunities in home economics

through studying the course, or attending seminars

or workshops organised by professionals of this

department, they will definitely contribute

meaningfully to the economic and social development

of the country, and address their aspirations and

challenges, and fulfil the potential and capacity, thus

influence current and future social and economic

conditions and opportunities. Indeed skills,

Knowledge and education are key factors to the full

and effective participation of youth in the processes

of social, economic and political development.

Recommendations

Based on the foregoing, the following


Skills acquisition centres should be established

in every primary and secondary school for the

further development of entrepreneurship skills

in all students, also knowledgeable staff should

be employed to handle the training.

Parents and wards should encourage their

female as well as male children to study home

economics, since the course is very lucrative

and highly skill oriented.

Adequate resources, both human and material

should be provided in home economics

departments at all levels of education for

effective learning of entrepreneurship skills.

Up to date training and retraining should be

provided for teachers and support staff in home

economics and other areas of entrepreneurship

education by government and other

organisations concerned.

Government agencies, the organized private

sector, multinational corporations, public

spirited individuals and non-governmental

organizations must collaborate and adopt

comprehensive strategies that would lead to the

acquisition of appropriate entrepreneurship

skills that are likely to stimulate economic and

social growth.

Youth must be encouraged to actively take part

in any meaningful careers or skill acquisition

made available in their community in order to

be well equipped for both white collar jobs and

self development.

Young people both male and female should be

encouraged to study Home Economics since the

course is very lucrative and highly skill oriented.

Reference:

Agwaraonye (2013) home economics and national

development retrieved from https://www.

wvuphisigs. com on the 16th October, 2017

Anyakoha, E. U. & Eluwa, A M. (2014), Home

management for Schools and colleges awka feb

African pubishers.

Foster, C.& Black, D(2010). Guide to support Home

economics teachers retrieved from

monitoring .onecolo.com >home_economics and

ccea.org.uk>home_ec>ks3_llw_zest on the 17th

of cotober, 2017.

Gabriel, F. (1998). The role and contribution of home

economics to national development. The U.P.

Home Economics Journal. 25(25-33).

Hubert, A. (2011) empowering people driving

change, social innovation in the European union.

Report on the Bureau of European Policy

Advisers, © European Communities, 2011

Reproduction is authorised provided the source

is acknowledged. Printed in France

Nnadi, F.N., Chikaire, J., Atoma, C.N., Egwuonwu, H.A.,

& Echetama, J.A. (2012) Rural Youth

Empowerment: A Panacea to Rural Urban Drift.

A Case Study of Ethiope-east Area of Delta

State Science Journal Publication 109, 9

https://www/


157

Okeke, A. & Anyakoha, E.U. (2009) Strategies for the

Improvement of apprenticeship training in

dressmaking: Unpublished M. Sc. Thesis.

Department of Vocational Teacher Education,

Enugu State University of Nigeria Nsukka,

Enugu.

Payal, G. (2014) Module -4 Socio-economic

development and empowerment Publishing Co,

New York.

Quigley, E E (1974) Introduction to Home Economics,

2nd ed, Macmillan Retrieved from

www.academia.edu.MODULE_-4_socio on the

12th of cotober,2017

Youth and Education retrieved from

http://undesadspd.org/Youth.aspx

facebook.com/

UN4Youthtwitter.com/UN4Youth

http://www.academia.edu.module_-4_socio/

http://undesadspd.org/Youth.aspx


158

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL CONNECTEDNESS IN LAGOS STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS,

NIGERIA

Kolawole A. O.

Department of Educational Management Faculty of Education

Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria

Abstract

This paper examined the relationship between classroom management and school connectedness in Lagos State Secondary Schools, Nigeria. A descriptive survey design was adopted for the study. The population comprised all the public secondary schools in the state. The study involved 1000 students randomly selected from 100 secondary schools. A self- designed questionnaire titled ‘Classroom Management and School Connectedness’ (CMSC) was used for data collection. The instrument was validated by research experts in Educational Management and Tests and Measurements in Ekiti State University – Ado-Ekiti. The internal consistency of the instrument was established through test re-test method and a reliability co-efficient of 0.79 was obtained. Data were collected and analysed using frequency counts and percentage scores. The findings showed that teachers had knowledge of the topics taught in class. Teachers used interactive activities such as group discussions, experiential activities such as role playing to engage students in learning and to make students personalise information. Teachers were flexible with instructional strategies. There were large class sizes which did not allow for teachers individualized assistance and the students’ motivation was considered inadequate. Based on the findings, it was recommended that class size should be manageable and the arrangement should allow for free movement and teachers individualized assistance. Students’ academic accomplishment should be well displayed and rewarded to allow for high school connectedness.

Keywords: Classroom Management, School Connectedness, Experiential Activities, Motivation, Class Size.

Introduction

One of the aims and objectives of the school system is

to ensure effective teaching-learning process. To

accomplish this objective, classroom management

cannot be neglected. Increasing evidence shows that

when adolescents feel cared for by people in their

school and feel like a part of their school, they are

more likely to concentrate in the classroom to

achieve academic excellence. However, it appears as

if specific strategies to increase school connectedness

have not been studied.

According to Ajayi (2010), it becomes imperative for

teachers to be well equipped with appropriate

strategies for managing the classroom to guarantee

effective learning. Classroom management refers to

the wide variety of skills and techniques that teachers

use to keep students organised, orderly, focused,

attentive on task and academically productive during

a class (Blum & Rinehart, 1997). Classroom

management includes routines, rules and

consequences. Wentzel (2004) and Schapps (2003)

opined that classroom management is the term

educators use to describe methods of preventing

misbehaviour and dealing with it if it arises. In other

words, it is the technique teachers use to maintain

control in the classroom.

School connectedness is the belief by students that

adults in the school care about their learning as well

as about them as individuals (Blum,2005). In

education, students engagement has to do with the

degree of attention, curiosity, interest, optimism, and

passion that students show when they are learning or

being taught which extends to the level of motivation

they have to learn and progress in their education.

According to National Research Council and Institute

for Medicine (2004), students’ feelings of being

connected to school seem to be influenced by some

factors such as adult support, peer group,

commitment to education and school environment.

Mafumo (2013) emphasized that teachers can

dedicate their time, interest, attention and emotional


159

support to students. To engage students in the

classroom, teachers prepare lessons that keep

students active during the learning process. The

quality of teachers is very important in classroom

management and school connectedness.

Ajayi (2010) suggested some strategies for successful

classroom management, such as good knowledge of

the learners, good mastery of the subject matter, use

of appropriate methods of instruction, use of

appropriate method of motivation, discipline,

provision of instructional materials, conducive

physical environment, welfare of the students,

welfare of the teachers and manageable class size.

Alonge (2014) explained that some factors can lead

to poor classroom management such as professional

incompetence of teachers, undue familiarity of

teachers and students, moral laxity of teachers, which

prevent them from being role models to students,

lack of effective communication and interaction

between teachers and students and inadequate

preparation for lesson by teachers. Alonge and

Obiweluozor (2015) opined that poor classroom

management could result in very low school

connectedness where students exhibit disciplinary

problems such as absenteeism, disruptive behaviour,

delinquency, lateness and deviant peer group

affiliation. Klem and Connell (2004) stated that

teachers with good classroom management can have

positive influence on students’ lives. The time,

interest, attention and emotional support they give to

students can help them learn and stay healthy.

Wilson and Elliot (2003) emphasised that school

connectedness is an important factor for learning.

Students who feel connected to their school by being

involved in decision making process are more likely

to attend school regularly, stay in school longer, and

have higher grades and test scores. They are less

likely to carry weapons, become involved in violence

or be injured from dangerous activities. They are also

less likely to have emotional problems.

The observed challenges of poor classroom

management such as teachers’ rigid instructional

strategies, large class size, poor motivation of

students, poor communication between teachers and

students among others which may likely cause low

school connectedness exhibited by students in the

areas of absenteeism, disruptive behaviour,

delinquency, lateness and deviant peer group

affiliation among others are of concern to the

researcher, hence ascertaining how true these

challenges are and preferring possible solutions to

ameliorate the challenges led to the study.

Research Questions

The following research questions were raised to

guide the study:

1. Do teachers in Lagos State secondary schools

perform their classroom teaching

responsibilities?

2. Do teachers in Lagos State secondary schools

encourage classroom interaction?

3. What is the condition of the classrooms in Lagos

State secondary schools?

4. Are students adequately motivated in Lagos State

secondary schools?

5. What are the consequences of classroom

management on school connectedness in Lagos

State secondary schools?

Methodology

This study adopted the descriptive research design of

the survey type. The population of the study

comprised all students of Lagos State secondary

schools. It involved a sample of 1000 students

randomly selected from 100 secondary schools in the

state. A self-designed questionnaire titled “Classroom

Management and School Connectedness” (CMSC) was

used for the study. CMSC had three sections. Section

A sought the background information of the

respondents; Section B sought information on

classroom management, while Section C sought

information on school connectedness.

The instrument was validated by research experts in

Educational Management and Tests and Measure-

ments in Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti. The

internal consistency of the instrument was

established through test re-test method and a

reliability co-efficient of 0.79 was obtained. Data

were collected and analysed using frequency counts

and percentage scores

Results

The results of the study were presented as follows:


160

Research Question 1: Do teachers in Lagos State

secondary schools perform their classroom teaching

responsibilities?

Table 1: Performance in Classroom Teaching Responsibilities

Agree Disagree

S/N Items Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

1 Techers have full knowledge of the topics taught in

class

918 91.8 82 8.2

2 Teachers build lessons sequentially on prior lessons 810 81 190 19

3 Teachers are flexible with instructional strategies to

allow for teachable moments

920 92 80 8

4 Teachers use varieties of teaching methods such as

group and project methods to foster critical and

reflective thinking

914 91.4 86 8.6

Average 890 89 110 11

Table1 showed that 91.8% of the respondents agreed

that teachers have full knowledge of the topics taught

in class while 8.2% disagreed. Also, 81% agreed that

teachers build lessons sequentially on prior lessons

and 92% of the respondents agreed that teachers are

flexible with instructional strategies to allow for

teachable moments. Also, 91.4% agreed that teachers

use varieties of teaching methods such as group and

project methods to foster critical and reflective

thinking. On the average, 89% of the respondents

agreed on positive performance of teachers in their

classroom responsibilities while 11% disagreed. This

implies that teachers in Lagos State secondary

schools are performing their classroom teaching

response-bilities very satisfactorily.

Research Question 2: Do teachers in Lagos State

secondary schools encourage classroom interaction?

Table 2: Encouragement of Classroom Interaction

Agree Disagree S/N Items Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

5 Teachers use interactive activities such as group discussion to engage students in learning

890 89 110 11

6 Teachers use experiential activities such as role playing to help students personalise the information

878 87.8 122 12.2

7 Teachers identify every student in class by their names

560 56 440 44

8 Teachers encourage open, respectful communication about differing view points.

582 58.2 418 41.8

Average 730 73 270 27

Table 2 showed that 89% of the respondents agreed

that teachers use interactive activities such as group

discussion to engage students in learning while 11%

of the respondents disagreed. Also, 87.8% of the

respondents agreed that teachers use experiential

activities such as role playing to help students

personalise the information while 12.2% of the

respondents disagreed .However, only 56% of the

respondents agreed that teachers identify every

student in their class by their names while only

58.2% of the respondents agreed that teachers

encourage open respectful communication about

differing viewpoints. On the average, 73% of the

respondents agreed that teachers encourage

classroom interaction while 27% disagreed. This

implies that teachers in Lagos State secondary

schools encourage classroom interaction in the

teaching- learning process.

Research Question 3: What is the condition of

classrooms in Lagos State secondary schools?

Table 3: The Condition of Classrooms


161

S/N Items Agree Disagree

Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

9 My class size allows for teachers individualized

assistance

280 28 720 72

10 My class is well ventilated 370 37 630 63

11 There are adequate furniture for students in my

class

240 24 760 76

12 The arrangement of my class allows for free

movement

300 30 700 70

Average 300 30 700 70

Table 3 showed that only 28% of the respondents

agreed that the class size allows for teachers’

individualised assistance while 72% disagreed. Also,

only 37% agreed that classes are well ventilated

while 63% disagreed. Just 24% of the respondents

agreed that there is adequate furniture for students

in the class while only 30% agreed that the

arrangement of the class allows for free movement.

On the average, only 30% of the respondents agreed

that the condition of the classroom allows for proper

management while 70% disagreed. This implies that

the condition of classrooms in Lagos State secondary

schools is not conducive enough for effective

classroom management.

Research question 4: Are students adequately

motivated in Lagos State secondary schools?

Table 4: Motivation of Students.



13 Teachers establish a reward system such

as written praise or open commendation

for students’ academic achievement

540 54 460 46

14 Teachers engage students in appropriate

leadership positions in the classroom

410 41 590 59

15 Students are involved in descision

making process for setting classroom

rules

220 22 780 78

16 Teachers correct students constructively

when they go wrong

560 56 440 44

Average 430 43 570 57

Table 4 showed that 54% of the respondents agreed

that teachers establish a reward system such as

written praise or open commendation for students’

academic achievement. Also, 41% agreed that

teachers engage students in appropriate leadership

positions in the classroom. Only 22% agreed that

students are involved in decision making process for

setting classroom rules, while 56% agreed that

teachers correct students constructively when they

go wrong. On the average, only 43% of the

respondents agreed that students are adequately

motivated while 57% disagreed. This implies that

Lagos State secondary school students are not

adequately motivated by the teachers.

Research Question 5: What are the consequences of

classroom management on school connectedness in

Lagos State secondary schools?


162

Table 5: Consequences of Classroom Management on School Connectedness



17 I go to school regularly 640 64 360 36

18 I go to school punctually 410 41 590 59

19 I attend lessons regularly 740 74 260 26

20 I always pay attention during lessons 680 68 320 32

21 I score good grades in class 660 66 340 34

22 I do my classwork regularly 690 69 310 31

23 I do my homework regularly 650 65 350 35

24 I always obey school rules and

regulations

740 74 260 26

25 I enjoy attending classes better than

being in the company of my friends

outside the classroom

670 67 330 33

Average 650 65 350 35

Table 5 showed that 64% of respondents agreed that

they go to school regularly while 41% agreed that

they go to school punctually. Also, 74% attend

lessons regularly, 68% pay attention during classes,

66% score good grades in class, 69% do class work

regularly, 65% do homework regularly, 74% obey

school rules and regulations while 67% enjoy

attending classes better than being in the company of

their friends outside the classroom. On the average,

65% of the respondents show positive attitude to

school connectedness while 35% showed negative

attitude to school connectedness. This implies that

students in Lagos State secondary schools are

showing moderate school connectedness.

Discussion

The study revealed that teachers in Lagos State

secondary schools perform their teaching

responsibilities very satisfactorily. They have full

knowledge of topics taught in classes. They use

varieties of teaching methods to foster critical and

reflective thinking among students. This is in line

with Ajayi (2010) who suggested some strategies for

successful classroom management such as good

mastery of the subject matter and use of appropriate

method of instruction.

The study revealed that teachers in Lagos State

encourage classroom interaction as an important

factor in good classroom management. This is in line

with Alonge (2014) who observed that some factors

can lead to poor classroom management such as lack

of effective communication and interaction between

teachers and students. Klem and Connell (2004) also

stated that the time, interest attention and emotional

support teachers give to students can help them to

learn and stay healthy.

The study revealed that the condition of classrooms

in Lagos State secondary schools is not conducive

enough for effective classroom management.

Manageable class size is a condition for effective

classroom management. The class size in Lagos state

secondary schools does not conform with the opinion

of Ajayi (2010) who suggested manageable class size

as one of the strategies for successful classroom

management.

The study also revealed that students in Lagos State

secondary schools are not adequately motivated. For

instance, only 22% agreed that students are involved

in decision making process for setting classroom

rules. This does not go in line with Wilson & Elliot

(2003) who emphasised that students are more likely

to perform well in schools when they are involved in

decision making process.

The study revealed that students in Lagos State

secondary schools only show moderate school

connectedness. For instance, only 41% attend school

punctually and 33 % prefer to be in the company of

friends outside the classroom than attending classes.


163

This is in line with Alonge and Obiweluozor (2015)

who opined that poor class management could result

in very low school connectedness where students

exhibit disciplinary problems such as absenteeism,

lateness and deviant peer group affiliation.



that effective classroom management plays a

prominent role in high school connectedness.When

classrooms are well managed, students will derive

pleasure in coming to school by being punctual to

school, attentive during lessons and well involved in

class activities.

The following recommendations were made for

effective classroom management and high school

connectedness:

1. Teachers should improve on their classroom

teaching responsibilities by being more flexible

with instructional strategies.

2. Teachers should encourage classroom

interaction in the teaching-learning process by

identifying every student in class by their

names and encouraging open, respectful

communication about differing viewpoints.

3. The condition of classrooms should be made

conducive enough with good ventilation,

adequate furniture and well arranged

manageable class size for effective classroom

management.

4. Students should be adequately motivated by

involving them in appropriate leadership

positions and decision making process for

setting classroom rules.

5. Punctuality and regularity of students at school

should be encouraged for improved school

connectedness.

When these recommendations are in place for good

classroom management it will enhance high school

connectedness and students will derive pleasure in

coming to school by being more regular, punctual,

attentive and well involved in class activities.

References

Ajayi, l .A.(2010). Issues in School Management. Lagos:

Bolabay Publications.

Alonge, H. O. (2014). “Management of students

disciplinary problems”. A paper presented in a

workshop for Sacred Heart Sisters at

Presentation National School, Ugbekun, Benin

City.

Alonge, H. O. & Obiweluozor, N, (2015). Strategies for

managing indiscipline among secondary school

students in Nigeria. International Journal of

Educational Foundations and Management; 9(1):

77-85.

Blum, R. W. (2005). A case for school connectedness:

The Adolescent Learner; 62(7): 16-20.

Blum, R. W. & Rinehart, P.M, (1997). Reducing the

risk: Connections that make a difference in the

lives of youth. University of Minesota. Division of

General Paediatrics and Adolescent Health.

Klem, A. M. & Connell, J.P. (2004). Relationships

matter: Linking teacher support to student

engagement and achievement. Journal of School

Health; 74(7): 262-272.

Mafumo, J. (2013). School connectedness: Exploring

the concept in Zimbabwean schools. Academic

Research International: Social Sciences and

Humanities; 4(2): 558-575.

National Research Council and the Institute of

Medicine (2004). Engaging schools: Fostering

high school students’ motivation to learn.

Washington, D.C: National Academic Press.

Schapps, E. (2003). The role of supportive school

environments in promoting academic success.

Sacramento, CA: California Department of

Education Press.

Wentzel, K. R. (2004). Understanding classroom

competence: The role of social-motivational and

self-processes. Advances in Child Development

and Behaviour; 32: 213-241.

Wilson, D. & Elliot, D. (2003). “The interface of school

climate and school connectedness: An

exploratory review and study”. Paper presented

at the Wingspread conference on school

connectedness: Strengthening health and

educational outcomes for teens. Racine,

Wisconsin.


164

PRINCIPALS' MANAGERIAL SKILLS AND TEACHERS' ATTITUDE TO WORK IN PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS

IN AKOKO SOUTH WEST LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF ONDO STATE

Osifila G.I. Department of Educational Management

Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Ondo State

Abstract

This study investigated the relationship between principals' managerial skills and teachers' attitude to work in public secondary schools in Akoko South-West Local Government Area of Ondo State. The research design adopted for this study was the descriptive of the survey type. The population of the study comprised of all the principals and teachers in public secondary schools in Akoko South West Local Government of Ondo State. The sample of 5 principals and 90 teachers were selected using simple random sampling technique. A questionnaire instrument titled "Principals' Managerial Skills and Teachers' Attitude to Work Questionnaire (PMSTAWQ)" was used to collect data. Two research questions and two hypotheses were postulated to guide the study. The research questions were analyzed using percentage, while the hypotheses were tested using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (PPMCC). The findings of the study revealed that: there was a significant relationship between principal’s interpersonal skill and teachers’ attitude to work and also a significant relationship was established between principal’s supervisory skill and teachers’ attitude to work. Based on the findings of the study, it was recommended that: School principals should endeavour to relate well with their teachers so as to keep them motivated; seminars, workshops and conferences should be organized for school principals on how to enhance their managerial skills.

Background to the Study

Todays’ educational institutions are more complex

and sophisticated requiring erudite leadership due to

global economic competitiveness, as leaders are

confronted with unpredictable challenges, which

require different degree of leadership management.

Effective management of teachers may be assumed to

be achievable through leadership behavior, which

promotes their commitment and productivity.

Although, employees’ performance can be highly

affected by many factors arising from within and

outside school context.

In an educational system, the principal and teacher

are the enabler and motivator. Secondary schools are

formal public organizations charged with the

responsibility of preparing the younger ones after

their primary school career for useful living within

any society and equipping them for higher education

(Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2013). Attainment of

these goals requires a commitment from highly

qualified and motivated teachers.

The problem of principal-teachers relationship has

been an issue of great concern to stakeholders in

education. Ofoegbu (2004) stated that this concern

stem from the performance of secondary school

students in external examinations which have been

worrisome to parents, administrators and the general

public. He further asserted that the yardstick for

measuring standard of education and administrative

responsibility is students’ performance in internal

and external examinations.

The conduct of the school and the quality of their

products are seen by some as a reflection of the level

of administrative performance of their principals.

This is in reflection of the quality of interpersonal

relationship, level and degree of supervision,

monitoring of delegated functions, instructional

activities in the school, planning of school

programmes and routine administration in the

school.


165

In the context of secondary school administration, the

principal is seen as the executive head who develop

and implement the educational programmes of the

school. The principal keep school records as well as

create a conducive teaching and learning atmosphere

in school. Dale and Fox (2008) asserted that the

success of any school, whether public or private

depends largely on the extent to which individual

talents and efforts are harnessed towards co-

operative endeavours. The success he stressed lies on

motivation and commitment of the members to

group goals and objectives. Hence, the attitude of

teachers/staffs is a characteristic component of

teacher personality. An attitude is a framework that

affects how a person thinks and acts about the world.

If a teacher has a negative attitude towards

education, his job or students, it may influence his

performance as an educator (Spector, 2012).

The quality of teaching is a function of the love,

dedication and devotion of the teacher towards the

subject and students. The principal managerial skill is

also a huge determinant that determines the range at

which the teachers/staffs will be of positive influence

on students. The quality of any teaching programme

cannot rise above the quality of its teachers

In the school system, principal managerial skill is a

tool in the hands of the principals as the executive

head in staff personnel administration. No matter the

size of the school, whether big or small, the principal

cannot execute all the functions alone; he needs to

explore his leadership responsibility to his staff for

effective school administration.

Currently, observations have shown that most

principals have not been realizing the lofty goals set

for their respective schools. This failure has been

attributed to poor managerial skills relating to

interpersonal relationship and supervision of

teaching and non-teaching activities I the school.

Poor managerial attitude may be responsible for

frosty relationship between principals and teachers,

laxity among staff and ineffective implementation of

school programmes. Therefore, the study examined

principal’s managerial skills and teachers’ attitude to

work in public secondary schools in Akoko South

West Local Government Area of Ondo State.

Literature Review

Managing teachers is that part of school management

which is concerned with teachers at work and their

relationship within the educational enterprise.

Omebe (2001) is of the view that well managed

teachers will always look for better ways to do their

teaching job; they are more quality oriented and

more productive. Management of teachers can be

through the adoption of these management

strategies: Supervision, in-service training and

involvement in decision making process.among

others. Hence, any teacher that enjoys the influence

of the above named strategies is bound to give all his

best in discharging his or her duty because he would

derive the satisfaction of being a teacher.

Sipho (2007) in a study on the managerial role of the

principal in whole school evaluation in the context of

disadvantaged schools in Kwazulu-Natal at the

University of South Africa reveals that the managerial

role of the principal includes: instructional

management and support; providing leadership,

facilitating meaningful change; supervision,

evaluation, building and maintaining a winning team,

developing human resources; staff appraisal;

monitoring the implementation of educational

policies, monitoring of learner progress; managing

curriculum and instruction and promoting a positive

school climate.

Positive interpersonal relationships at work have an

advantageous impact on both organizational and

individual variables. Research has demonstrated that

friendships at work can improve individual employee

attitudes such as job satisfaction, job commitment,

engagement and perceived organizational support

(Zagenczyk, Scott, Gibney, Murrell, & Thatcher,

2010). In addition, employee’s negative work

attitudes can be mitigated when leaders and peers

act as confidantes to discuss bad and unpleasant

work experiences (Morrison, 2009; Song & Olshfski,

2008). Valued work relationships can influence

organizational outcomes by increasing institutional

participation, establishing supportive and innovative

climates, increasing organizational productivity and

indirectly reducing the intent to turnover (Crabtree,

2004; Ellingwood, 2004; Song & Olshfski, 2008). In a

study of government workers in South Korea and the

United States, Song and Olshfski (2008) found that in

both countries friendships between superiors and

subordinates positively affect work attitudes.

Supervision in school is defined as helping teachers

exercise their right, and their responsibility, to

promote continued growth (Nolan & Hoover, 2008).


166

Blasé and Blasé (2004) view supervision as a

combination of supervisory beliefs and educational

philosophies with the purpose of building trust,

empowering teachers, and fostering reflection. They

maintained that supervision should be inquiry

orientated, and it should encourage teachers’ voices

as well as acknowledges the context and complexity

of teaching (Blasé and Blasé, 2004).

Supervision is considered a key to success in schools.

Ebmeier (2003) produced research that linked

teacher efficacy to supervision. He defined efficacy as

an individual’s belief about his or her own

capabilities to achieve a certain end. According to his

work, supervision activities that teachers felt were

supportive of their roles included providing feedback,

encouragement, emotional support, reinforcement, as

well as modeling experiences. If more classroom

observations occurred, teachers felt they had more

efficacies. Using scales to measure a principal’s

supervision, a principal’s support of teaching, and

teacher’s satisfaction with working conditions, the

conclusions drawn from the data determined that a

principal supervisory behaviors and the efficacy

beliefs of 28 teachers in that principal’s school were

remarkably similar (Ebmeier, 2003).

To guide the study, two research questions and

hypotheses were formulated and postulated

respectively.

Research Questions

1. Would principal’s interpersonal skill influence

teachers' attitude to work?

2. Would principal’s supervisory skill influence

teachers' attitude to work?

Research Hypotheses


principals' interpersonal skill influence teachers'

attitudes to work


principals' supervisory skill influence teachers'

attitudes to work.

Methodology

The research adopted a descriptive type of research

design which looks into the quality of interpersonal

relationship and secondary school effectiveness It is a

research based on information gathered through

questionnaire. The target population for this study

was teachers and principals’ from 17 public

secondary schools in Akoko South West Local

Government Area of Ondo State.

The sample of the study was taken mainly from 10

public secondary schools in Akoko South West Local

Government Area of Ondo State. A simple random

sampling technique was adopted. This involved

writing out the names of all the schools in sheets of

paper and 10 were randomly selected. From each of

the school selected, 12 teachers comprising six males

and females each were picked. Thus, the total sample

was 120 teachers and 10 principals. However, 95

useable questionnaire were retrieved and used for

analysis.

A questionnaire instrument titled; “Quality of

Interpersonal Relationship and Secondary School

Effectiveness Descriptive Questionnaire (QIRSSEDQ)”

was designed and used. The questionnaire contained

two sections. Section A contained information on the

participant’s characteristics, such as gender, length of

experience and education qualification, while section

B was designed to collect information based on the

variables contained in the research questions and

hypotheses. Data so collected were analysed using

frequency distribution and percentage

Presentation of Results

Research Question 1: Would principal's

interpersonal skill influence teachers’ attitude to

work?


167

Table 1: Principal’s Interpersonal Skills and Teachers’ Attitude to Work

S/N Statement Agreed Disagreed

No. % No. %

1.Principal's behaviour will likely influence teachers'

attitude to work

95 100 - -

2. Cordial relationship between the principal and the 28 29.5 67 70.5

teachers will not influence the teacher's attitude

to work

3. Principals’ interpersonal skill is the best to engender 92 96.8 03 3.2

positive attitude from teachers

4. When there is a good atmosphere that encourages 93 97.9 02 2.1

creativity and initiatives, teachers are likely to be

more committed

5. Effective use of teachers capability will improve their 81 85.3 14 14.7 attitude to

work

As shown on Table 1, 95 participants (100%) agreed

to the statement that principal's behaviour will likely

influence teachers' attitude to work. Also, 28

participants (29.52%) agreed that cordial

relationship between the principal and the teachers

will not influence the teacher's attitude to work

while, 93 participants (97.9%) agreed that when

there is a good atmosphere that encourages creativity

and initiatives, teachers are likely to be more

committed.

Research Question 2: Would principal's supervisory

skill influence teacher's attitude to work?

Table 2: Principal’s Supervisory Skills and Teachers' Job Attitude to Work

S/N Statement Agreed Disagreed

No. % No. %

6. Adequate supervision is effective in monitoring

the teachers’ attitude to work

90 94.7 05 5.3

7. Regular supervision of teachers performance at 23 24.2 72 75.8

work will not influence their attitude to work

8. Without supervision, teachers do their work 40 42.1 55 57.9

effectively

9. Principals' supervisory skills is not the best to 41 43.2 54 56.8

engender positive attitude to work

10. When teachers are properly supervised, they may 68 71.6 27 28.4

likely change their attitude to work

As shown on table 2, 90 participants (94.7%) agreed

to the statement that adequate supervision is

effective in monitoring the teachers’ attitude to work.

Also, 40 participants (42.1%) agreed that without

supervision, teachers do their work effectively while

68 participants (71.6%) agreed that when teachers

are properly supervised, they may likely change their

attitude to work.


between principal’s interpersonal skill and teachers’

attitude to work.

Table 3: Relationship between Principal’s

Interpersonal Skill and Teachers’ Attitude to Work

Variables N df P. r.cal r.tab

Principal’s Interpersonal Skill

95 93 0.05 0.577 0.205

Teachers’ Attitude to Work

Significant at 0.05


168

The results presented on table 3 revealed that the

calculated r value (r.cal) 0.577 is greater than the

table value (r. tab) 0.205 at 0.05 level of significance.

This signifies that a significant relationship exists

between principal’s interpersonal skill and teachers’

attitude to work. The tested hypothesis is therefore

rejected.


between principal’s supervisory skill and teachers’

attitude to work.

Table 4: Relationship between Principal’s

Supervisory Skills and Teachers’ Attitude to Work Variables N df P. r.cal r.tab

Principal’s Supervisory Skill

95 93 0.05 0.615 0.205

Teachers’ Attitude to Work

Significant at 0.05

The results as presented on table 4 showed that a

significant relationship exists between principal’s

supervisory skill and teachers’ attitude to work. This

is because the calculated r value (r. cal.) which is

0.615 is greater than the table value (r. tab.) 0.205

obtained at 0.05 level of significance. On this basis

therefore, the null hypothesis tested is rejected.


Hypothesis one which states that there is no

significant relationship between principal’s inter-

personal skill and teachers’ attitude to work was

rejected. This infers that the interpersonal skill of

principal influences the teachers’ attitude to work.

This finding supports the positon of other researcher.

Positive interpersonal relationships at work have an

advantageous impact on both organizational and

individual variables. Research has demonstrated that

friendships at work can improve individual employee

attitudes such as job satisfaction, job commitment,

engagement and perceived organizational support

(Zagenczyk, Scott, Gibney, Murrell, & Thatcher,

2010). In addition, employee’s negative work

attitudes can be mitigated when leaders and peers

act as confidantes to discuss bad and unpleasant

work experiences (Morrison, 2009; Song & Olshfski,

2008). Also, In a study of government workers in

South Korea and the United States, Song and Olshfski

(2008) found that in both countries friendships

between superiors and subordinates positively affect

work attitudes.

Hypothesis two which states that there is no

significant relationship between principal’s super-

visory skill and teachers’ attitude to work was

rejected. It was found that a significant relationship

exists between principal’s supervisory skill and

teachers’ attitude to work. The finding is in line with

Ebmeier (2003) who undertook research that linked

teacher efficacy to supervision. He defined efficacy as

an individual’s belief about his or her own

capabilities to achieve a certain end. According to his

work, supervision activities that teachers felt were

supportive of their roles included providing feedback,

encouragement, emotional support, reinforcement, as

well as modeling experiences. If more classroom

observations occurred, teachers felt they had more

efficacies. Using scales to measure a principal’s

supervision, a principal’s support of teaching, and

teacher’s satisfaction with working conditions, the

conclusions drawn from the data determined that a

principal supervisory behaviors and the efficacy

beliefs of 28 teachers in that principal’s school were

remarkably similar.

Conclusion

From the findings of the study, it is concluded that a

significant relationship between principals’

managerial skills and teachers’ attitude to work with

reference to interpersonal relationship and

supervision. This is because all the variables of

principals’ managerial skills tested are significantly

related to teachers’ attitude to work. Thus, it is

imperative that school principals are equipped with

these managerial skills through on the-job-training to

further enhance the performance of teachers under

them by engendering a positive attitude towards

work in the school system.

Recommendations

1. School organization should pay more attention

to the attitude and behaviours their employees

and its leadership style so as to create pleasant

experience for all categories of employees.

2. The principals may also need more training on

leadership style as this may aid their

supervisory and interpersonal skills to do more

on job attitude of teachers.

3. This finding has implications for the

development of loyal employees and incentive

strategy. In view of this, principals should make

effort to reach out to every member of the

school organization irrespective of their


169

demographic profiles. This can help in making

them better committed to the organization.

4. Star performers among teachers should be

recognized and compensated accordingly in

order to encourage a culture of good attitude

and commitment.

5. Aligning the personal needs of the employees

with those of the organization can be helpful in

the development of loyal workforce and

performance driven system.

6. One strategy for engendering valued

interpersonal relationships at work is to involve

teachers in the decision making process through

committee system.

7. Finally, school principals should invest more in

uplifting their managerial capacity as this will

enhance staff management practices..

References

Blasé, J. & Blasé, J. (2004). Handbook of instructional

leadership: How successful princip-als promotes

teaching and learning (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks,

CA: Corwin Press.

Ebmeier, H. (2003). How supervision influences

teacher efficacy and commitment: An

investigation of a path model. Journal of

Curriculum and Supervision, 18, 110-141.

Crabtree, S. (2004). Getting personal in the workplace:

Are negative relationship squelching? London:

Hopkins Ltd.

Dale, J., & Fox, M. (2008). Leadership style and

organizational commitment: Mediat ing effect of

role stress. Journal of Managerial Issues, 20(1),

109-130.

Ellingwood, S. (2001). The collective advantage.

Retrieved from http//www.gallupjournal.com.

GMJarchive.


education. Lagos NERDC Press.

Morrison, R. L. (2009). Are women tending and

befriending in the workplace? Bolton: Maveric

Press

Nolan, J. F. & Hoover, L. A. (2008). Teacher supervision

and evaluation: Theory into practice (2nd ed.).

Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Song, S., & Olshfski, P. (2008). Friends at Work: A

comparative study of work attitudes in Seoul

City Government and New Jersey State

Government. Administration and Society, 40(2),

147-169

Ofoegbu, F. I. (2004). Teacher motivation as an

essential factor for classroom effectiveness and

school improvement. College Student Journal, 3

(1), 54–69.

Spector, P. E. (2000). Industrial and organizational

psychology: Research and practice. New York, NY:

John Wiley & Sons.

Zagenczyk, T. J., Scott, K. D., Gibney R, Murrell, A. J., &

Thatcher, J. B. (2010). Social influence and

perceived organizational support: A social

networks analysis. Organizational Behavior and

Human Decision, 111(2), 127-138.


170

PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT AND ACADEMIC STAFF PRODUCTIVITY IN COLLEGES OF EDUCATION IN

SOUTHWEST NIGERIA

1Adebayo, F. A. and 2Ayegbusi, E. T. 1Department of Educational Management

Faculty of Education Ekiti State University, Ado Ekiti

2National Teachers’ Institute, Department of Education, Oye Study Center,

Ekiti State, Nigeria

Abstract

The study investigated the relationship between personnel management and academic staff productivity in Colleges of Education in Southwest Nigeria. The study was a descriptive research design of the survey type. The sample was selected using multistage, simple and purposive random sampling techniques. The sample for the study was 660 respondents comprising 600 academic staff and 60 head of departments from 6 Colleges of Education. Two research instruments were used to collect data for the study. These are Personnel Management Questionnaire (PMQ) completed by the Academic staff of the Colleges of Education and Academic Staff Productivity Questionnaire (ASPQ) completed for the Academic staff by their Heads of Department. The research instruments were validated and test – retest method was adopted to ensure the reliability of the instruments, which yielded coefficients of 0.83 and 0.75 for PMQ and ASPQ respectively. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data collected. Hypotheses generated were tested at 0.05 level of significance. The study revealed that there was significant relationship between the personnel management and academic staff productivity in Colleges of Education in southwest Nigeria. The study revealed that the most important predictor variable of academic staff productivity in Colleges of Education in southwest Nigeria was the personnel training. Based on the findings, it was recommended that the personnel managers (Provost, Deans and Head of Departments) should embark on efficient and effective personnel training programs, ideal recruitment process, good motivational packages that will no doubt increase the level of academic staff productivity.

Keywords: Personnel management, Academic staff productivity, Colleges of Education

Introduction

An effective personnel management is the bedrock of

sustainable productivity in an organization.

Personnel management is the part of management

process which is concerned with people at work and

with their relationships within an enterprise (Onah,

2009). Personnel management entails the process of

managing the human resources in terms of planning,

recruiting, training, motivation, communication

pattern, retention measures, conflict management,

discipline and evaluation for sustainable

productivity.

In Nigeria, College of Education is one of the tertiary

institutions purposely established to train teachers

that will teach at lower and upper basic schools. The

shortage of qualified and required number of

teachers in post- independence called for the

government intensive efforts to increase the number

of teachers by introducing different teacher training

programmes like Pivotal Teachers Training

Programme, Advanced Teachers Training

Programme. In a bid to further boost the teachers

training programme, government decided to

establish more Colleges of Education in many parts of

the country.

Colleges of Education are to produce highly

motivated, conscientious and efficient teachers,

encourage the further spirit of enquiry and creativity

in teachers, help teachers to fit into social life of the

community and the society at large and enhance their

commitment to national goals, provided with the

intellectual and professional background adequate

for their assignment and make them adaptable to

changing situations, enhance teachers’ commitment

to the teaching profession (NPE, 2004).

The human resources in Colleges of Education

comprise academic staff, non-academic staff, and


171

students. Academic staff and non-academic staff

constitute the personnel in Colleges of Education.

Academic staff have very strong role to play for the

attainment of Colleges of Education objectives. The

activity of academic staff with other resources in the

college will determine the level of productivity

(Ubom 2001).

Personnel management is the field of management

which has to do with planning, organising, and

controlling various operative activities of procuring,

developing, maintaining and utilizing a labour force

in order that the objectives and interest for which the

company is established are attained as effectively and

economically as possible and the objectives and

interest of all levels of personnel and community are

served to the highest degree (Hamid & Manahi 2016).

Hence, there is the need for efficient and effective

coordination of personnel and other resources for the

attainment of the management goals. The study of

Bolarinwa & Kolawole (2015), revealed that there is

significant relationship between personnel

management and productivity. The study insisted on

good welfare packages, adequate remuneration and

good communication system to enhance the level of

teacher productivity.

Productivity can be defined as the balance between

all factors of production that give the greatest returns

for the smallest efforts. According to Dwumah,

Akuoko, & Ofori – Dua (2015) productivity refers to

the amount of products or services produced with the

resources used. Also, productivity is defined as a ratio

of a measure of output to a measure of some or all the

resources used to produce this output. Defined in this

way, one or a number of input measures can be taken

and compared with one or a number of output

measures.

Essentially, productivity is a ratio used to measure

how well an organization (or individual, industry,

country) converts input resources (labour, materials,

machines, etc.) into goods and services. Management

productivity in a time period is usually measured as

quantity of products or services produced/Amount of

resources used. Thus, productivity varies with the

amount of production relative to the amount of

resources used (Ubomi, 2001; Dwumah etal, 2015).

Productivity may be measured at various levels:

organizational, unit, product line, or any other level

that is logical. When attempts are made to include all

inputs and all outputs in a system the measure is

called Total Productivity Measure (TPM). It was

further explains that the inputs used in a process can

be hours of labour, units of capital and quantities of

raw materials compared with the consequent output.

Partial productivity measures are established by

developing ratios of total output to one or more input

categories. For example, labour productivity will be

calculated as total output/labour input. Productivity

can be increased in a number of ways: increase

production using the same amount of resources,

increase production using smaller amount of

resources, reduce the amount of resources used

while keeping the same production or increasing it

and allow the amount of resources used to increase

as long as production increases. To attain

improvement in productivity, there has to be

productivity improvement objectives. These

objectives can be expressed and results could be

measured in terms of one or more of these basic

yardsticks: quantity, quality, time, or the monetary

value. He added that the objectives set should be

specific (Dwumah etal, 2015).

Ovwigho (2008) viewed productivity as output

generated from a given input (resources) within a

period which is summed up as; Output/ Input =

Productivity. It involves efficient use of productive

resources like labour, capital materials. Productivity

is believed to be high when more goods and services

are obtained with a given amount of resources.

The research of Festus & Ajakaye (2016) revealed

that there was a direct link between motivation,

commitment and productivity based on aspects like

training, work experience, work knowledge, culture

and tradition, leadership styles and the

understanding of information systems. The study of

Owojori & Asaolu (2010), pointed out the problems

of personnel management in Universities which

include inadequate finance, violent trade unionism

among staff, personnel and management

disagreement on policy matters, lack of trust as a

result of communication gap, dictation from political

class. The study recommended improved allocation

of funds to school for proper maintenance of

equipment and facilities, staff and management good

rapport, effective staff participation in decision

making, regular seminar, conferences and workshop

to develop personnel on their normal routine to

boost the personnel level of productivity.


172

Productivity is defined as the balance between all

factors of production that give the greatest returns

for the smallest efforts. According to Anyadike

(2013) productivity refers to the amount of products

or services produced with the resources used. The

research of Ajayi, Ekundayo & Togunloju (2016),

revealed that leadership behaviour and availability of

school facilities were significantly related to teachers’

productivity. The study recommended regular

seminars, workshops, conferences and symposia for

the secondary school teachers in order to enhance

their productivity. The study of Omojola (2016)

revealed that the level of human resources

management and the level of productivity of

academic staff in southwest universities were

moderate. The study also revealed that human

resources management and productivity of academic

staff were significantly related.


The purpose of this study was to investigate the level

of personnel management in Colleges of Education.

The study examined the level of academic staff

productivity in Colleges of Education. It examined the

relationship between the personnel management and

academic staff productivity in Colleges of Education.

The study determined the best predictor among the

personnel management practices and academic staff

productivity in Colleges of Education in Southwest

Nigeria

Research Questions

The following research questions were raised to

guide the study:-

(1) What is the level of personnel management

practices in Colleges of Education?

(2) What is the level of academic staff

productivity in Colleges of Education?

(3) Is there any relationship between personnel

management and academic staff

productivity?

(4) Which of the variables of personnel

management is the best predictor of the

academic staff productivity?

Research Hypotheses

For the purpose of this study the following research

hypotheses were formulated:

(1) There is no significant relationship between

personnel management and academic staff

productivity.

(2) Personnel management variables will not

significantly predict academic staff

productivity.

Methodology

The study made use of descriptive research design of

the survey type. The study made use of personnel

management variables that comprise personnel

planning, personnel recruitment, personnel training,

personnel motivation, personnel retention policy,

personnel decisional participation, personnel

communication pattern, personnel conflict

management, personnel discipline and personnel

evaluation with the academic staff productivity.

The population for the study comprised all academic

staff in public Colleges of Education in Southwest

Nigeria. The Southwest states include Lagos, Ogun,

Osun, Oyo, Ondo and Ekiti. The sample of this study

was made up of 660 respondents comprising 600

academic staff and 60 Heads of departments selected

from six Colleges of Education with the use of

purposive, proportionate and simple random

sampling techniques.

Two sets of research instruments were used for the

study. The first instrument was tagged ‘Personnel

Management Questionnaire’ (PMQ), while the second

instrument was tagged ‘Academic Staff Productivity

Questionnaire’ (ASPQ). The first instrument was

filled by academic staff of the selected Colleges of

Education, while the second instrument was filled by

the head of the department.

The two instruments namely the “PMQ” and “ASP”

were given to the experts in Educational

Management and Tests, Measurement and Evaluation

in Faculty of Education in Ekiti State University, Ado

Ekiti for validation. Test – retest method was adopted

to ensure reliability of the instruments with the

coefficient of (r) 0.83 and 0.75 respectively. Data

collected for the study were analyzed using

descriptive and inferential statistics. Hypotheses

were tested at 0.05 level of significance.

Results

Question 1: What is the level of personnel

management practices in Colleges of Education?

Table 1: Level of personnel management practices

in Colleges of Education


173

Levels of personnel

management


Low (50.00 – 120.20) 130 21.7

Moderate (120.21 – 167.60) 377 62.8

High (167.61 – 200.00) 93 15.5

Total 600 100.0

Table 1 presents the levels of personnel management

practices in Colleges of Education. The result shows

that out of 600 respondents sampled, 130

representing 21.7 percent had low level. Those who

had moderate level were 377 representing 62.8

percent while those with high level were 93

representing 15.5 percent. This shows that the level

of personnel management practices in Colleges of

Education was moderate.

Question 2: What is the level of academic staff

productivity in Colleges of Education?

Table 2: Level of academic staff productivity in

Colleges of Education

Levels of academic staff productivity


Low (15.00 – 30.18) 18 30.0

Moderate (30.19 – 51.17) 33 55.0

High (51.18 – 60.00) 9 15.0

Total 60 100.0

Table 2 presents the levels of academic staff

productivity in Colleges of Education. The result

shows that out of 60 respondents sampled, 18

representing 30 percent had low level of academic

staff productivity. Those who had moderate level

were 33 representing 55 percent while those with

high level were 9 representing 15 percent. This

shows that the level of academic staff productivity in

Colleges of Education was moderate.



between the personnel management practices and

academic staff productivity in Colleges of Education

Southwest Nigeria.

Table 3: Relationship between personnel management practices and academic staff productivity in Colleges of Education Southwest Nigeria

Variable N Mean SD

rcal rtable

Personnel

management 600 143.90 23.699

0.574*

0.195 Academic Staff

Productivity 600 40.68 10.50

*p<0.05

Table 3 revealed that the relationship between

personnel management practices and academic staff

productivity is statistically significant at 0.05 level r =

0.574, p< 0.05. Thus the null hypothesis is rejected.

This implies that there is significant relationship

between personnel management and academic staff

productivity.

Hypothesis 2: Personnel management practice

variables will not significantly predict academic staff

productivity in Colleges of Education Southwest

Nigeria.


174

Table 4: Multiple Regression analysis of personnel management variables and academic staff productivity

in Colleges of Education Southwest Nigeria

Model

Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients

T Sig. B Std. Error Beta (β)

(Constant) 22.544 5.251 4.293 .000

Personnel motivation .304 .166 .390 1.837 .072

Personnel communication pattern .257 .344 .330 .745 .460

Personnel planning .149 .098 .146 1.519 .135

Personnel Training .456 .366 .518 1.248 .218

Personnel recruitment .450 .153 .494 2.930 .005

Personnel retention measures .174 .106 .212 1.645 .106

Personnel evaluation .098 .116 .119 .843 .403

Personnel decisional participation .111 .118 .133 .947 .348

Personnel discipline .009 .117 .011 .081 .936

Personnel conflict management pattern

.149 .099 .181 1.502 .140

*p<0.05

Dependent Variable: Academic staff productivity

Multiple R = 0.811

Multiple R2 = 0.658

Adjusted R2 = 0.589

F = 9.433

Probability = p<0.05

The following regression can be derived from Table

4.

Y = a + b1X1 + b2X2+ b3X3+ b4X4+ b5X5+ b6X6+ b7X7+

b8X8+ b9X9+ b10X10

Where

X1 = Personnel motivation

X2 = Personnel communication pattern

X3 = Personnel planning

X4 = Personnel training

X5 = Personnel recruitment

X6 = Personnel retention measures

X7 = Personnel evaluation

X8 = Personnel decisional participation

X9 = Personnel discipline

X10 = Personnel conflict management

bi = (i=1-10) Regression Weight

Coefficients

a = Constant (other variables other than

X1-X10)

The multiple regressions relationship between the

dependent and independent variables can therefore

be given as follow:

Y = 22.544 + 0.304X1 + 0.257X2+ 0.149X3+ 0.456X4+

0.450X5+ 0.174X6+ 0.098X7+ 0.111X8+ 0.009X9 +

0.149X10

Table 4 shows that personnel management variables

significantly predict academic staff productivity

(F10,49=9.433*, p<0.05). The null hypothesis is

rejected. This implies that personnel management

variables will significantly predict academic staff

productivity.

The table reveals that there is a significant positive

multiple correlation between the predictor variables

(personnel motivation, personnel communication

pattern, personnel planning, personnel training,

personnel recruitment, personnel retention

measures, personnel evaluation, personnel decisional

participation, personnel discipline, personnel conflict

management pattern) and academic staff

productivity (r=0.811, p<0.05). This implies that all

the predictor variables are factors that can exert

influence on academic staff productivity in Colleges

of Education. The value of the coefficient of

determination (r2=0.658) indicates that all the

predictor variables jointly accounted for 65.8% (r2 X

100) of the total variance in academic staff

productivity in Colleges of Education while the

remaining 34.2% unexplained variation is largely due

other variables that can account for academic staff

productivity in Colleges of Education.

The regression result in the table reveals that the

most important predictor variable that contributed to

the total variance in academic staff productivity is

personnel training (β = 0.518). This was closely

followed by personnel recruitment (β = 0.494),

personnel motivation (β = 0.390), personnel

communication pattern (β = 0.330), personnel


175

retention measures (β = 0.212), personnel conflict

management patterns (β = 0.181). personnel

planning (β = 0.146), personnel decisional

participation (β = 0.133) and personnel evaluation (β

= 0.119). The variable with the least contribution to


is personnel discipline (β = 0.011). The calculated F-

ratio (9.443) was significant at 0.05 level of

significance. This implies that the predictor variables

jointly provide a significant explanation for the

variation in the academic staff productivity in

Colleges of Education.

Discussion

The study revealed that the level of personnel

management in Colleges of Education of Southwest

Nigeria is moderate. It implies that the personnel

managers (Provost, Deans and Head of Departments)

are managing the academic staff appropriately, to

perform their legitimate duties in teaching, research

and community services. What could be responsible

for this finding might be the fact that both personnel

managers and the academic staff in Colleges of

Education of Southwest Nigeria still get on well

irrespective of the other areas that might need

attention. The finding is in line with the outcome of

the work of Ajayi & Ekundayo (2009), Omojola

(2016), Hamid and Manhi (2016) that the personnel

managers are managing the academic staff

moderately.

The study revealed that the level of productivity of

academic staff in Colleges of Education in Southwest

Nigeria is moderate. This implies that academic staff

are performing creditably in the aspect of teaching,

research and publication, and community services.

The finding may be due to the fact that without

academic staff making positive contribution in these

areas, they may not be promoted and their job

security will be at stake, because it would be

tantamount to unproductivity on their side. The

finding is corroborated with the outcome of the

research of Milind and Rajashree (2015), Omojola

(2016), Ajayi, Ekundayo & Togunloju (2016).

The study showed that there is significant

relationship between personnel management and


in Southwest Nigeria. This implies that proper

personnel management will have positive impact on

the academic staff productivity. What may be

responsible for this finding is the fact that the

Colleges of Education objectives may not be

attainable without efficient and effective personnel

management system. This finding is in agreement

with the study of Owojori and Ashaolu (2010),

Anyadike (2013), Festus and Ajakaye (2016), and

Hamid & Manahi (2016) that personnel management

and academic staff productivity were related.

The finding showed that most important predictor

variable of academic staff productivity in Colleges of

Education in Southwest Nigeria is the personnel

training, followed by personnel recruitment,

personnel motivation, personnel communication

pattern, personnel retention measures, personnel

decisional participation and personnel evaluation

while personnel discipline is the least in the rank

order. With the F- ratio of 9.443 which implies that

the predictor variables jointly provide a significant

explanation for the variation in the academic staff


Nigeria. The finding showed that there are still other

variables apart from those examined in this study

that could further responsible for variation in the


in Southwest Nigeria.

Conclusion

Based on the findings of the study, the following

conclusions were drawn that: the level of personnel

management in Colleges of Education was moderate;

the level of academic staff productivity in Colleges of

Education in Southwest Nigeria was moderate; there

was significant relationship between personnel

management and academic staff productivity in

Colleges of Education in Southwest Nigeria; the most

important predictor variable of academic staff


Nigeria was personnel training.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, it is

recommended that:

1. Personnel managers need to embark on efficient

and effective personnel training programme that

could take the forms of workshop, conferences,

seminar, refresher courses, educational advancement

and among others for staff development and

sustainable productivity. Training of the newly

employed academic staff should be mandatory for

sustainable productivity.


176

2. The personnel managers’ needs to adhere strictly

to the standard procedure stipulated for the

academic staff recruitment process. Such process

needs to consider the vacant posts, applicant

performance merit, qualification merit and areas of

specialization merit.

3. Personnel managers needs to intensify effort on

academic staff motivation that could be inform of

regular payment of salary, regular promotion

exercise, good performance reward, commendation,

staff get together, among others needs in order to

sustain productivity in Colleges of Education in

Southwest Nigeria.

References

Ajayi, I.A. & Ekundayo, H.T(2009). Towards effective

management of university education in Nigeria,

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177

INSTITUTIONAL MANAGEMENT AND STUDENTS’ ADMISSION AS DETERMINANT OF STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC

PERFORMANCE IN COLLEGES OF EDUCATION IN SOUTHWEST NIGERIA

1Ajayi, I.A and 2Idowu, E.K 1Department of Educational Management

Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University Ado-Ekiti

2Department of Curriculum Studies and Instruction College of Education, Ikere- Ekiti

Abstract

The study investigated Institutional management and students’ admission as determinant of students’ academic performance in Colleges of Education in southwest Nigeria. The sample for the study consisted of 600 lecturers. A questionnaire was designed and used to collect data from six out of twelve public Colleges of Education in South west Nigeria using proportionate stratified random sampling technique. Also, Inventory on Final Year Students’ Academic Performance (IFYSAP) was used to collect information on the final year students’ results for 3 consecutive academic sessions i.e.2013/2014, 2014/2015 and 2015/2016. Data collected were analysed using simple percentages, mean and standard deviation, Pearson Product Moment Correlation and Multiple Regression. All hypotheses formulated were tested at 0.05 level of significance. Findings from the study showed that institutional management and students’ admission were significantly related to students’ academic performance in public Colleges of Education in Southtwest Nigeria. Based on the findings, it was recommended that the institution management should ensure regular conduct of academic board meetings to discuss matter related to academic activities and prompt approval and release of students’ results as this will improve teaching and learning process. In view of the fact that students to be admitted into college system matters a lot for quality maintenance, managers of Colleges of Education should continue to maintain the standard process of admitting students and ensure that only qualified students would be admitted and processed for better academic output.

Key words: Institutional management, Students’ admission and Academic performance

Introduction

The seemingly decline in quality of education in

Nigeria has been a major issue to various education

stakeholders who have continued to express

concerns over the poor academic performance of

Nigerian students at virtually all levels of academic

engagements most especially Colleges of Education.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013), stated that the

goals of tertiary education shall be to contribute to

national development through high level of relevant

manpower training; to develop and inculcate proper

values for the survival of the individual and society;

to also develop the intellectual capacity of individuals

and to acquire both physical and intellectual skills

which enable individuals to be self-reliant and useful

members of the society. Basically, the main objective

of Colleges of Education is to produce quality and

competent teachers for primary and junior secondary

schools.

There is general concern about standard of

education in Nigeria. This concern emanates from the

fact that the level of performance of students at all

level of education most especially in Colleges of

Education in Nigeria is dwindling with the passage of

time. Adelabu (2013) lamented that Nigerians have

sacrificed quality education on the altar of quantity

and mass education. He stressed further that the poor

performance of students in Colleges of Education is

pronounced throughout the 3 year academic

programmes. Right from the first year to the third

year of the programmes, many students performed

woefully in mid-semester test and semester’s

examinations. Also, a close observation of academic

activities in Colleges of Education has shown that

many students failed to adequately prepare for their

examinations unlike in the olden days when students

showed great zeal before and during examination.


178

This lack of adequate preparation may negatively

affect their academic performance.

Institutional management is the management of

different programmes and activities which aims at

the realisation of the prime goals of every educational

institution. Management could be better

conceptualised as the “executive function” of

educational leadership, whose primary task is to

develop strategies for achieving the school’s core

targets, including the desired student results (Card

&Krüger, 2005). In this sense, “institutional

management is combination of educational leaders

whose actions (both in relation to administrative and

educational tasks) are intentionally geared to

influencing the school’s primary processes and,

therefore, ultimately improve students’ achievement

levels” (Witziers, Bosker and Krüger, 2003).

Every college of education is expected to have a

functioning and efficient Institutional management

which is essential in every educational institution.

For ensuring success of any educational programme,

adequate attention must be given to the leadership

and its approach. There have been observed cases of

non-functional quality assurance units in some

Colleges of Education in Nigeria, as some Colleges of

Education management pay less attention to the

upgrading of their quality assurance units. These

units are responsible for ensuring high standards and

good practices in the teaching, learning and

assessment processes are recognised and rewarded

as problems are rapidly identified and addressed.

Poor implementation of feedback from the quality

assurance unit by the management of some colleges

of education has call for urgent attention. Experience

has shown that the Management of some colleges of

education in Nigeria do not expedite actions on the

report of the Quality Assurance unit rather they are

busy complaining about lack of resources to fully

implement recommendations of the unit.

There are also instances of some Colleges of

Education Management who are in the habit of

recruiting academic staff without following due

process. Recruiting staff has become a significant

issue in higher educational institutions as many

academic staff recruited appears to have been

performing below expectation due to the fact that

some were employed through temporary

appointment and later regularised rather than

subjecting them to thorough interview at the point of

appointment. This may have negative effects on

students’ academic performances as quality teaching

may not be jeopardised.

It seems some Colleges of Education Academic Board

members do not meet regularly to address issues

relating to academic matters that may affect the

students. For instance, the delay in releasing

students’ results by the school authorities may

prevent the students from registering for their failed

courses and this may eventually leads to students

spending extra year in the Colleges. In some cases,

students also complain that they do not have access

to their semester results in their departments. This

may not allow students to know their level of

performance and how to work harder for better

grades.

In some cases, lecturers complain that Management

do not give enough time for marking and recording of

examination scripts. This may not give room for

thorough job, thereby resulting to loss of students’

scripts while in a hurry to collate scripts to meet the

deadline set by the Management. The delay in

Academic Board meetings may not also afford

students with disciplinary cases such as examination

malpractices, extortion, stealing, sexual harassment

among others, to know their fate and keep on

attending classes with uncertainty about their

studentship.

The type of students to be admitted for a programme

matters a lot for quality to be maintained. As a policy,

admission into NCE programme requires a minimum

of five passes with three credits at a sitting or four

credits at two sittings in the SSCE, GCE, RSA or City

and Guilds as entry requirements. However, Olusanya

(2002) observed that some institutions as a way of

attracting students do lower their standard by

adopting unconventional procedure like internal sale

of forms for admission other than the nationally

accepted JAMB procedure. Others equally admit

students without the minimum entry qualification.

This trend no doubt, is bound to have adverse effect

on the process of implementation of the NCE

curriculum on admission.

Certain academic requirements must be met before a

candidate is considered for admission into any

chosen course of study in any tertiary institution in

Nigeria. One of the main reasons for such


179

requirements is to ensure that set academic

standards are maintained. For the National

Certificate of Education (NCE) programme, the

admission requirements vary according to the

courses of study available within the academic

departments of each of the specializing school in the

college. Observation has shown that system of

admitting students into the Colleges of Education

appears to be faulty as some of the Colleges of

Education do lower their standard by adopting

unconventional procedure like internal sales of forms

for admission other than the Unified Tertiary

Matriculation Examination (UTME). The National

Commission for Colleges of Education has a policy of

admitting students into NCE programme with a

minimum of three credits at a sitting or four credit at

two sittings in O’ Level examination. In some cases,

students with less than the number of minimum

credit passes required for admission are admitted

and allowed to remedy their deficiencies before

graduation. The preparation for O’ Level result to

redeem their deficiencies may not allow the

concerned students to concentrate on their normal

academic progammes in school which may lead to

poor academic performance. The persistence

occurrence of these make it doubtful if institutional

management and students’ admission were

effectively carried out in the Colleges of Education. It

is against this background that the study examines

institutional management and students’ admission in

Colleges of Education in Southwest Nigeria.


The purpose of this study is to investigate

institutional management and students’ admission in

Colleges of Education in Southwest Nigeria with a

view to making suggestion for better academic

performance of students. In order to accomplish this

purpose, the following research questions and

hypotheses were raised and generated.

Research Hypotheses


institutional management and students’



qualitative students’ admission and students’


Methodology

Research Design

The descriptive research design of the survey type

and Expo-facto were adopted in the study.

Population

The population of this study consisted of all the

academic members of staff of the 12 public Colleges

of Education in Southwest, Nigeria. The public

Colleges of Education were made up of 4 Federal

Colleges of Education and 8 State Colleges of

Education.

As at the time of the study, there were 1650 academic

members of staff in Federal Colleges of Education and

2680 academic members of staff in State Colleges of

Education making a total number of 4330 academic

members of staff.

Sample and Sampling Techniques

The sample for this study consisted of 600 academic

members of staff from the selected Colleges of

Education in Southwest, Nigeria. Two stages were

involved in the selection of sample. Proportionate

stratified random sampling technique was used to

select 4 out of 8 State Colleges of Education and 2 out

of 4 Federal Colleges of Education in Southwest,

Nigeria. Simple random sampling technique was

used to select 100 academic members of staff from

each College of Education making the total number of

600.


Two instruments were used to collect data for the

study. These instruments are Questionnaire on

Institutional management and Students Admission as

determinant of students’ academic performance

(QIMSASAP) and an “Inventory on Final Year

Students’ Academic Performance (IFYSAP). The

QIMSASAP was divided into two sections (A & B).

Section A which contains 4 items elicits information

on the demographic data of the respondents while

section B contains 60 items on Institutional

management and Students Admission and students’

academic performance in the Colleges of Education.

The rating technique was based on a- 4 point Likert

type scales ranging from strongly agree (SA) with 4

points to Strongly Disagree (SD) with 1 point as

shown below:

Strongly Agree (SA) - 4 Points

Agree (A) - 3 Points


180

Disagree (D) - 2 Points

Strongly Disagree (SD) -1Point

The IFYSAP consisted of two sections (A & B).

Section A which contained 3 items elicits information

on the demographic data of the schools while section

B is meant to collect information on the final year

students’ results for 3 consecutive academic sessions

i.e.2013/2014, 2014/2015 and 2015/2016.

Validity of the Instruments

Face and content validities of the instruments were

subjected to screening by experts in the areas of

Educational Management and Tests and

Measurement and thereafter pretested, yielding a

reliability coefficient of 0.813.

Data Analysis

The data collected were analysed using inferential

statistics, such as Pearson Product Moment

Correlation and Multiple Regression. All were tested


Results

The results of the study were presented in line with

the hypotheses

Hypothesis 1


institutional management and students’ academic

performance.

In testing the hypothesis, scores relating to

institutional management and students’ academic

performance were computed using Questionnaire on

Institutional management and Students academic

performance (QIMSASAP) and an “Inventory on Final

Year Students’ Academic Performance (IFYSAP)

respectively. These scores were subsequently

subjected to statistical analysis involving Pearson

Product Moment Correlation at 0.05 level of

significance. The result is presented in Table below

Table 1: Institutional management and students’


Variables N Mean SD rcal rTable

Institutional

Management

6 25.89 2.24

0.819*

0.707

Students’

Academic

Performance

6 1.42 0.19

*p<0.05 (Significant Result)

Table 1 shows that rcal (0.819) was greater than rTable



significant relationship between institutional

management and students’ academic performance.

Hypothesis 2

There is no significant relationship between students’

admission and students’ academic performance.


students’ admission and students’ academic

performance were computed using Questionnaire on

Students admission and Students academic

performance (QIMSASAP) and an “Inventory on Final

Year Students’ Academic Performance (IFYSAP)

respectively. These scores were subjected to

statistical analysis involving Pearson Product



Table 2: Students’ admission and students’ academic

performance


Students’

Admission

6 14.75 2.09

0.719*

0.707

Students’

Academic

Performance

6 1.42 0.19

*p<0.05 (Significant Result)

Table 2 shows that rcal (0.719) was greater than rtable



significant relationship between students’ admission

and students’ academic performance.

Discussion


relationship between institutional management and

students’ academic performance. This implies that

good institutional management will facilitate good

academic performance and vice-versa. Good

institutional management in the area of regular

conduct of academic board meetings and clear

process for staff recruitment will facilitate good

academic performance of students. On the other


181

hand, irregular academic board meetings may lead to

delay in release and approval of student results

which may prevent them from registering for their

failed courses and thereby affecting their

performance. Also when competent lecturers are not

recruited, effective service delivery and positive

improvement in students’ academic performance

may not be achieved.

The finding of this study is in agreement with Mumo

(2004) and World Bank (2008) who posited that

retention and the quality of education depends

primarily on the way schools are managed, the

capacity of schools to improve teaching and learning

based on the quality of the leadership provided by

the institution management and students’ discipline.

Moreover, it aligns with Ayot and Briggs (1992) that

academic achievement of students depends on

effective leadership. This finding contradicts the

outcome of the study carried out by Ross and Gray

(2006) that the path of school management to

students’ achievement was not statistically

significant. It also contradict the finding of Becker

(2007) that there was no direct relationship between

management roles and students’ achievement.

It was revealed that there was significant relationship

between students’ admission and students’ academic

performance. If the students admitted into the

system are qualified and undergo better

transformation process, good output in terms of

academic performance is expected. This implies that

when qualified and competent students are admitted

into Colleges of Education, the academic performance

will be good and when less-qualified students are

admitted through unconventional method rather

than accepted Unified Matriculation Tertiary

Examination (UTME), such students may perform

poorly in academic activities. This finding agrees with

the result of Ibe-bassey (1988), who stated that

admission points and the different entry

qualifications, which are the results of prior or

previous academic performance are likely to affect

the students’ future academic performance. The

finding contradicts that of Ringland & Pearson (2003)

that there was no significant difference between

diploma and direct A-level students and their

subsequent academic performance. Mlambo (2011)

also reported that there was no significant difference

in the academic performance among students due to

differences in the admission criteria employed.


It was concluded that institutional management and

students’ admission were important factors in

students’ academic performance. The institution

management should therefore ensure regular

conduct of academic board meetings to discuss

matter related to academic activities and prompt

approval and release of students’ results as this will

improve teaching and learning process.

In view of the fact that students to be admitted into

college system matters a lot for quality maintenance,

managers of Colleges of Education should continue to

maintain the standard process of admitting students

into the college in accordance to NCCE admission

guidelines as this would ensure that only qualified

students would be admitted and processed for better

academic output.

References

Adelabu, E.I. (2013). Nigeria education: Methods and

planning. Lagos: Simarch Nigeria Ltd.

Ayot, H.O. & Briggs, H. (1992). Economics of

Education. Nairobi: Educational Research and

publications.

Becker, B.E. (2007). Strategic human resources

management: Where do we go from here?

Journal of Management, 32, (3) 898-925.

Card, D. & Krueger, A.B. (2005). "Would the

elimination of affirmative action affect highly

qualified minority applicants? Evidence from

California and Texas." Industrial and Labor

Relations Review 58 (3): 416-433.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). New National

Policy on Education Abuja NERDC press.

Mlambo, V. (2011). An Analysis of Some Factors

Affecting Student Academic Performance in an

Introductory Biochemistry Course at the

University of the West Indies. Caribbean

Teaching Scholar. 1(2):79–92.

Mumo, S. N. (2004). Department of Education

Administration Management Planning and

Curriculum Development. PAC/M/508.

Olusanya, S.O. (2002). Standardizing curriculum in

technical teacher preparation in Nigeria: issues,

problems and options for the 21st century.

Journal of Education and National Development

(4)146-152.


182

Ringland, C. & Pearson, S.A. (2003). Graduate entry to

medical school: Testing some assumptions.

Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences.

University of Newcastle, Australia.

Ross, J.A. & Gray, P. (2006). School Leadership and

Student Achievement: The Mediating Effects of

TeacherBeliefs. Canadian Journal of Education,

29 (3), 798-822.

World Bank (2000). Higher Education in Developing

Countries: Peril and Promise. Washington, D.C.

International Bank for Reconstruction and

Development; 2000. Available: www.

macrothink.org/jse 12

Witziers, B., Bosker, R.J., &Krüger, M.L. (2003).

Educational leadership and student achie-

vement: The elusive search for an association.

Educational Administration Quarterly, 39 (3),

398-425.

http://www.macrothink.org/jse%2012

http://www.macrothink.org/jse%2012


183

THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL RELATED VARIABLES ON THE BASIC SCIENCE STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC

PERFORMANCE IN JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN ONDO STATE, NIGERIA.

Ogunyebi, Tunji Henry Department of Integrated Science

College of Education Ikere, Ekiti state.

Abstract

This paper examined the influence of School related variables on Basic science students’ academic performance in Ondo State, Nigeria. The study adopted a descriptive research design of survey type. Four null hypotheses were generated and tested at 0.05 level of significance. The sample consisted of 240 Junior Secondary School Students in Ondo State, Nigeriachosen through multistage random sampling technique. A self-constructed questionnaire was used in collecting data for the study. The data were analyzed using inferential statistics of t-test. The study found out that there was a significant difference between the performance of students from large sized and small sized schools in Ondo State, Nigeria. The study further revealed that boarding and single sex schools performed better than day and co-educational schools respectively. Based on this finding, it was recommended among other things that government, parents and teachers should work towards improving the standard of education in our various schools in the state.

Keywords- Performance, Variables, School-related, Determinant.

Introduction

Now that Nigeria is struggling to be self-reliant and

independent technologically, more attention has to

be paid to the educational sector in terms of teaching,

learning and performance of students in sciences,

especially in Basic Science which serves as a pivot

upon which other sciences rotate. The importance of

Basic Science cannot be over stressed. All students

must learn and pass it at the Junior Secondary School

level before they can advance to the senior level. In

recent times, most parents are of the opinion that the

standard of education in secondary schools is not

very encouraging. In terms of achievement, Ekundayo

(2013) reported that performance is largely affected

by a range of statistical indicators including the

student-staff ratio, qualification of teachers, years of

experience of the teacher and the school

environment. Despite the importance of Basic Science

to mankind and the efforts of researchers to improve

on its teaching and learning, the performance of

students in the subject remains low in Nigeria.

Among the factors responsible for the poor outcomes

and achievement in sciences are poor attitudes and

laboratory inadequacy, poor science background,

school size and type among others (Khattri&Kane,

1997). The achievement in science has been widely

reported and student’s interest and ability in science

is a function of the cognitive, affective and features of

the environment (BoeKaerts&Corno, 2009).

In a study conducted by Hu (2008), he examined

educational aspirations and secondary access by

students in large sized and small schools. Using 10th

graders as a baseline population, the study found that

lower percentage of large sized students had

aspirations for high schools and interest in science

compared to their small sized counterparts. Some

factors could be responsible for the differences due to

size, which include; availabilities of resources like

books, computers, and well-equipped laboratories,

lack of social amenities among others.The rate and

degree of failure by secondary schools students both,

in the day and boarding schools in external

examination is now at an alarming rate. Considering

the concern of the parents and guardians for their

children’s performance and the fact that there is a

sharp increase in the number of schools and students,

Adu and Oshati (2014) said that there is a need to


184

continuously evaluate the trends in the performance

of the students. How could one expect candidates to

perform well in schools that lack required variables?

Emunemu and Adu (2014) opined that an institution,

which lacks essential resources, should not expect to

reasonably achieve its desired objectives. More so, it

is also important that the environment must be a

challenging one, if it is to arouse the inherent

qualities and faculties of the students.Currently,

many single sex and boarding Secondary Schools are

emerging and most of the parents are taking their

wards from day to boarding schools perhaps on the

basis that boarding secondary schools provide

quality education, have better supervision, higher

parental commitment, motivation, and good

methodology which may lead to positive aspiration

and commitment on the side of the students.

Other factors according to Cardak and Vecci (2013)

are students’ enrollment and attendance in school as

a result of background variables like socio-economic

factors coupled with students’ environment

determines their performance. He opined that

students that come from high SES are those that can

mostly attend a boarding school where they are

believed to be exposed to simulative environment

and taught with rich instructional aids, pictures, and

motivating facilities which promote good

performance rather than abstract teachings. In

contrast, Ryan (2014) gave a contrary opinion that

there are some unobserved factors (like motivation,

ambition, aspiration, and attitudes towards

homework) these factors may depend on individual

parents and students, not necessarily dependents on

the type of schools attended. In a study carried out by

Akinloye and Adu (2015), they pointed out many

other factors that determined and have positive or

negative impacts on academic performance of

students in large, small, day, boarding, single or co-

educational secondary schools, include teaching

equipment and facilities, method of teaching, learning

environment, wages motivation packages, among

others.

In view of these, we should therefore continue to

seek variables which would improve students’

mastery of the subject as well as their academic

performance in schools. The school is a social and

learning agent that provides the environment upon

which a child may be formally educated in order to

attain educational goals. Since the teaching and

learning situation in schools seem to be a function of

the atmosphere or some variables in the school, the

researcher considers school related variables as a set

of unique characteristics of a school which tend to

distinguish one school from another. The school

variables in this study include; the school size, school

type (co-educational/single) and school structure

(day/boarding). Hence, the school related variables

remain the important area that should be studied and

well managed to enhance students’ academic

performance. Therefore, this study intends to

investigate the influence of school related variables

on students’ academic performance in Basic Science.


The poor performance of Secondary School Students

in Basic Science has been widely reported. It has also

been observed that physical facilities especially

classrooms are inadequate in many schools as a

result of overcrowding in most schools (Emunemu

and Adu, 2014). It is noticeable as well that most

schools are highly populated that teachers’

supervision may be difficult. A visit to many schools

shows different attention given to students in day

and boarding schools. Another area of concern which

prompted this study is the lukewarm attitude of

government to the conditions of schools both co-

educational and single. These situations seem to have

diverse effects on the effective teaching and learning

of Basic Science. It is against these mentioned

observations that this research was carried out to

investigate the influence of school size, structure and

type on students’ academic performance in Basic

Science. However, one cannot shun the fact that, in

schools some students are affected by depression or

deprivation of needs, lack of access to educational

materials, and some schools been deprived from

well-equipped laboratories, libraries, experienced

teachers among others. These situations seem to be

hindering effective teaching and learning processes

especially in basic science in schools in Ondo State,

Nigeria. Therefore it is necessary to examine the

difference in the science students’ academic

performance in this zone.

Research Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were generated and

tested;


185

1. There is no significant difference between the

academic performance of students in large sized

secondary schools and small sized secondary

schools.


academic performance of students in day

secondary schools and boarding secondary

schools.


academic performance of students from single

(girls) secondary schools and co-educational

secondary schools.


academic performance of students from single

(boys) secondary schools and co-educational

secondary schools.

Research Design

The descriptive research design of survey type was

employed in carrying out this study. The research is

non-experimental and therefore variables were not

manipulated. This makes descriptive survey suitable

for this study.

Population

The population of the study consisted of all Basic

science students in public secondary schools in Ondo

State, Nigeria, who are in the second years of the

study (JSS2). They are made up of boys and girls from

day, boarding,co-educational and single-sex public

secondary schools in the State.

Sample and Sampling Techniques

The sample for this study will consist of 240 Junior

Secondary School II Basic Science students randomly

selected from three local governments in Ondo State,

Nigeria through multistage, purposive and stratified

random sampling techniques.The first stage involved

the selection of one local government each from the

three senatorial districts in the state through simple

random sampling. Forty students were randomly

selected from six schools, thus, a total of 240 students

participated in study.

Research Instrument

A self-designed questionnaire called School Variable

Questionnaire (SVQ) was used for this study. Part A

was designed to collect information on background

characteristics of respondents. Part B consisted items

on environmental and psychological traits. The

methods used in validating the instrument were face

and content validity. Expert judgments were used to

determine both. A test-retest reliability of the

instrument was carried out on 40 junior secondary

schools two students who were not part of the

sample. The scores obtained from the two

administrations of the questionnaire within an

interval of two weeks were correlated by using

Pearson Product Moment Correlation. A reliability

coefficient of 0.72 was obtained. The instrument was

found to be suitable for data collection.Copies of the

questionnaire were distributed by the researcher and

school counselors to a sample of 240 students in six

schools. Copies of the questionnaire were collected

back immediately after completion. The end of the

session results were collected from the principal of

the schools. The data generated were analyzed using

t-test for the hypotheses. The hypotheses were tested


Results

H1: There is no significant difference between

academic performance of students from large sized

schools and students from small sized schools.

In testing this hypothesis, the mean total score and

standard error obtained on academic performance of

students from large sized schoolsand those from

small sized were subjected to t-test analysis at 0.05

level of significance.

Table 1: The t-test showing academic performance of students from large sized and small sized schools in

Ondo State.

Variables N Mean SD df t-cal t-table Result Large sized school Small sized school

140 100

23.89 24.59

3.28 3.16

238

2.724

1.96

Significant at p<0.05


186

Table 1 shows that the mean score of respondents

from large sized schools is 23.89 with standard

deviation of 3.28, while the mean score of

respondents from small sized schools is 24.59 with

standard deviation of 3.16. The t-calculated is 2.724

while the t-table is 1.96. Thus the t-calculated is

greater than the t-table value; therefore, the null

hypothesis is rejected.


academic performance of students from day schools

and boarding secondary schools.


standard errors obtained on the academic

performance of students from day schools and those

from boarding schools were subjected to t-test

analysis at 0.05 level of significance.

Table 2: The t-test showing academic performance of students from day schools and boardingsecondary schools in

Ondo State.

Variables N Mean SD df t-cal t-tab Result

Day Schools

Boarding Schools

130

110

13.63

27.33

16.24

10.40

238

4.39

1.96



from day schools is 13.63with standard deviation of

16.24, while the mean score of respondents from

boarding school is 27.33 with standard deviation of

10.40. The t-calculated is 4.39 while the table value is

1.96. .Thus, the t-calculated is greater than t-table

value, and therefore, the null-hypothesis is rejected.

This implies that there is a significant difference

between academic performance of students from the

day schools and boarding schools in Ondo State.


academic performance of students from single (girls)

schools and students from co-educational schools.



students from single (girls) schools and those from

co-educational schools were subjected to t-test


Table 3: The t-test showing academic performance of students from single (girls) and co-educational schools in

Ondo State.

Variables N Mean SD df t-cal t-table result

Single(girls) school

Co-educational schools

90

150

39.43

32.50

13.04

15.11

238

2.18

1.96


Table 3 shows that the mean score of respondents from single(girls) schools is 39.43with standard deviation of 13.04, while the mean score of respondents from co-educational schools is 32.50with standard deviation of 15.11. The t-calculated is 2.18 while the t-table is 1.96. Thus the t-calculated is greater than the t-table value; therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected. This implies that there is significant difference between academic performance of students from single (girls) schools and co-educational schools.


academic performance of students from single (boys)

schools and students from co-educational schools.



students from single (boys) schools and those from

co-educational schools were subjected to t-test


Table 4: The t-test showing academic performance of students from single(boys) and co-educational schools in

Ondo State.

Variables N Mean SD df t-cal t-table Result Single(boys)schools Co-educational schools

100 140

24.59 23.89

3.16 3.28

238

2.724

1.96



from single (boys) schools is 24.59 with standard

deviation of 3.16, while the mean score of

respondents from co-educational schools is 23.89


187

with standard deviation of 3.28. The t-calculated is

2.724 while the t-table is 1.96. Thus the t-calculated

is greater than the t-table value; therefore, the null


significant difference between academic performance

of students from single (boys) schools and co-

educational schools.

Discussion

The finding of the study revealed in hypothesis1 that

there is significant difference between academic

performance of students from large sized schools and

small sized schools. This can be traced to the fact and

findings of Boekaerts and Corno (2009) who shared

the view that school size determines attentions by

teachers and more concentration by students. Also

students’ interest and ability in science is a function

of the cognitive, affective and features of the

environment and school size.The study also revealed

in hypothesis 2 that there is a significant difference

between academic performance of students from the

day schools and boarding schools in Ondo State.This

is in accordance to the submission of Cardak and

Vecci (2013) who stated that students that attend

boarding schools where they are exposed to

simulative environments and under close supervision

of teachers and the principals with motivating

facilities tend to perform better than other

counterparts who may not have adequate attention of

their parents. This was also supported by Emunemu

and Adu (2014) who share the opinion that higher

academic performance in boarding schools are

attributed to some factors already stated in the study

which day schools are deprived of, due to lack of

adequate funding which hinder academic

performance. It was therefore; found from the study

that boarding schools perform better in Basic Science

than day schools in Ondo state.

The study also revealed in hypothesis 3 that there is

significant difference between academic performance

of students from single (girls) schools and co-

educational schools. This can be traced to the facts

and finding of Ekundayo (2013) who shared the view

that performance is largely affected by a range of

statistical indicators including the student-staff ratio,

qualifications and the school environment where the

girls are not distracted by their opposite sex,

therefore concentrate better in Science learning and

relate better with same sex.The study further

revealed that there is significant difference between

academic performance of students from single (boys)

schools and co-educational schools. This can be

traced to the facts and finding ofAkinloye and Adu

(2015), they pointed out many other factors that

determined and have positive or negative impacts on

academic performance of students in large, small,

day, boarding, single or co-educational secondary

schools, include teaching equipment and facilities,

method of teaching, learning environment where the

boys are not distracted by their opposite sex,

therefore concentrate better in Science learning and

relate better with same sex.

Conclusion

Based on the findings of this study, it could be

concluded that students in the small sized schools

perform better in Basic Science than their

counterparts in large sized schools based on

population which may result in overcrowding in large

schools and better concentration in small sized

schools. It could also be concluded from the study

that students in boarding schools are better in Basic

Science due to facilities, better supervision by

teachers and principals. In addition, it was revealed

from the study that students in single schools

perform better due to non-distraction by the opposite

sex and ability to relate better with same sex.

Recommendations

Based on the findings, the researcher considers the

following recommendations necessary:

1. Government should provide adequate facilities

especially classroom in large sized schools to

cater for overcrowding so that enough attention

is given to students for conducive and

motivational environment.

2. Government should organize orientation programs

to sensitize all students on gender equity and

positive effects of interaction between different

genderfor effective performance.

3. Government should introduce and encourage most

academic activities in boarding schools to day

schools especially extra moral classes.

4. Teachers in this state of study should be

encouraged with attractive enumerations and

packages for their serious involvements in

teaching in order to enhance dedication of

teachers and students motivation.


188

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Variables as determinants of students’

academic achievement in Senior Secondary

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Akinloye, G.M and Adu, E.O (2015): Comparative

analysis of Students performance in Economics

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State Nigeria. Journal of Social Science, 44 (23):

144-151.

Boekaerts, M., &Corno, L. (2005): Self-regulation in

the classroom: A perspective on assessment and

intervention.Applied Psychology: An

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Cardak, B.A and Vecci, J. (2013), Catholic School

effectiveness in Australia: A reassessment using

selection on observed and unobserved variables,

Economics of education, Review, 3f (Dec): 34-35.

Ekundayo, B.S (2013): A Comparative Analysis of

Student Performance in Economics in Private and

Public Secondary Schools in Kogi State, Nigeria.

M.edDissertation.Department of Arts and Social

SciencesEducation.Nigeria: University of Lagos.

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selected elements of school culture on students’

academic performance in south-western

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(GJDS), 11(1): 58-77

Hu, S. (2008): Educational aspirations and

postsecondary access and choice: Students in

urban, suburban, and rural schools compared.

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epaa/v11n1

Khattri, N. and Kane, M.B. (1997): Students at risk in

poor, rural areas: A review of the

research.Journal of Research inRural Education,

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http://epaa.asu.edu/%20epaa/v11n1

http://epaa.asu.edu/%20epaa/v11n1


189

TWO VARIANTS OF COOPERATIVE STRATEGY AS DETERMINANTS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’

LEARNING OUTCOMES IN SOCIAL STUDIES IN EKITI STATE, NIGERIA

1Ajitoni S. O. and 2Ogunjemilua A. A. 1Department of Arts and Social Science Education

University of Ibadan 2Department of Social Studies

College of Education, Ikere Ekiti

Abstract

Social Studies is taught in junior secondary school to equip learners with knowledge and skills to tackle problems in the society through concepts of togetherness, comradeship, cooperation, among others for individual and national development. The poor application of Social Studies knowledge, and skills, has led to the gradual erosion of those values among youths. To correct this, earlier studies focused largely on the inculcation of knowledge in Social Studies using various strategies but neglected the life skill acquisition aspect. This study, therefore, determined the effects of two variants of cooperative strategy (Jigsaw and Group Investigation) on students’ learning outcomes in Social Studies in Ekiti State, Nigeria. The moderating effects of academic ability was also examined. The social interdependence theory provided the framework, while the pretest-posttest control group quasi-experimental design was adopted using a 3x3 factorial matrix. Participants were 349 junior secondary two students (174 male and 175 female). Treatment were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. Instruments used were Social Studies achievement (r=0.79), Academic ability (r=0.78) tests, Life skills assessment (r=0.84) scale and instructional guides. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, Analysis of covariance and Bonferroni post-hoc test at 0.05 level of significance.There were significant effects of treatment on students’ achievement in (F(2,331)=11.01, partial η2=0.06), attitude to (F(2,331)=6.40, partial η2=0.02) and life skills (F(2,331)=7.60, partial η2=0.04) in Social Studies. Academic ability had a significant main effect on life skills (F(2,331)=3.36, partial η2=0.02).Treatment and academic ability was significant on life skills (F(2,331)=3.13, partial η2=0.04), but not on achievement. Group investigation and jigsaw strategies were effective in improving students’ achievement, attitude and acquisition of life skills in Social Studies in Ekiti State, Nigeria. These strategies should be adopted by Social Studies teachers.

Keywords: Jigsaw and group investigation strategies, Achievement, Life skills, Ekiti state, Nigeria

Introduction

Social Studies occupies an important position in the

school curriculum because the subject has been

recognised as an effective tool for citizenship

education in Nigeria. It is also a subject that equips

the learners with critical thinking and problem

solving skills which enable them to tackle problems

and issues that may arise in their socio-economic life.

When students offer Social Studies, they draw on

thinking skills and knowledge from the entire school

curriculum as they construct an understanding of

their social world and seek to solve the problems it

presents. As a result of this, the Federal Ministry of

Education (FME) in Nigeria categorised Social Studies

as one of the core subjects in junior secondary school

curriculum as encapsulated in the National Policy on

Education (FGN, 2013).

The objectives of Social Studies education are in line

with the philosophy and aims of Nigerian Education.

The philosophy and aims are on the development of

high competencies required for solving human’s

diverse environmental problems for better and

effective social living. Specifically, the three major

relationships which exist between human beings and

their environment in order to bring about positive

acceptable values within the society. The teaching of

Social Studies is therefore, directed towards building

a virile Nigeria nation which will forge unity

irrespective of ethnic diversity. It is also directed


190

towards promoting citizenship and values education

in addition to skills development (Adeyemi and

Ajibade, 2011). To develop in students’ positive

attitude of togetherness, comradeship, and

cooperation towards a healthy nation, the inculcation

of appropriate values of honesty, integrity, hard

work, fairness and justice at work and play as one’s

contribution to the development of the national goals

(Adaralegbe, 1980). These virtues were said to be

essential in making citizens capable of contributing to

the “building of a free and democratic society, a just

and egalitarian society; a great and dynamic

economy; and a land of bright opportunities for all

citizens (FGN, 2013). This is in line with the national

goals and aspirations in Education. The above virtues

are essential for national development and they are

all embedded in Social Studies.

As noted by Akpochafo, (2001), in spite of the

immense benefits to be derived from the inclusion of

Social Studies in the school curriculum, there seems

to be a poor handling of the subject in the secondary

schools. Abdu-Raheem (2011) observed that the

objectives of Social Studies are yet to be achieved as a

result of poor teaching and lack or inadequacy of

instructional materials to motivate students. The

researcher also observed that performance of

students in relation to Social Studies objectives is

found to be very low most especially ability of

students to process information adequately without

bias in order to be able to solve problem of the

society. Also it has been observed that the teaching of

Social Studies is one of the reasons the society is still

bedevilled by indiscipline and social vices. Such vices

as excessive materialism leading to armed robbery,

smuggling, lack of respect for constituted authority

and elders, impersonation, corruption, laziness and

irresponsibility by holders of public office among

others, are common occurrences in the country. Most

Social Studies classes are structured around a

textbook. Social Studies teachers have traditionally

relied on large group instruction, independent seat-

work, and objective tests as their principal methods

of instruction (Slavin, 1991). In other words, Social

Studies teachers use mostly the lecture method for

imparting knowledge. Under the lecture method, the

teacher, simply becomes a master that provide and

transfer information in the classroom, while the

learner becomes a mere listener without actively

being involved in the process of teaching and

learning. Thus, in order for Social Studies to perform

its function properly, instructional strategies must be

centered on methods that teach a student to seek the

truth.

In preparing the young people for life, it was found

that it was not just enough to fill them with

knowledge according to UNICEF (1997), there is need

to equip them with psycho-social competences that

would enable them make informed choices and

decisions, solve problems, think critically, build

healthy relationships and manage their life in a

healthy and productive manner (KIE, 2008).To equip

the youth with these psycho-social competences

researchers like Amiran (2012) and Powell (2004)

recommended the introduction of life skills education

in the curriculum. Life skills are abilities for adaptive

and positive behaviour that enable us to deal

effectively with the demands and challenges of

everyday life (WHO, 1997), in other words they emp

psychosocial competency. They are a set of human

skills acquired via teaching or direct experience that

are used to handle problems commonly encountered

in daily human life. UNICEF (2004) has expanded the

concept and defines life skills as a large group of

psycho-social and interpersonal skills, which can help

young people, make informed decisions,

communicate effectively, and develop coping and

self-management skills. UNICEF (2004) further

explains that; life skills are not a domain or a subject,

but cross cutting applications of knowledge, values,

attitudes and skills, which are important in the

process of individual development and lifelong

learning. They are not just a set of skills, nor are they

equal to survival skills, livelihood skills, or vocational

skills but part of these skills. According to UNESCO

(2008) life skills are both concrete and abstract. The

concrete skills can be learned directly as a subject.

For example, a learner can take a course in laying

bricks, carpentry or baking and learn that skill. The

others are abstract, psycho-social life skills such as

self-confidence, self-esteem and skills for relating to

others or thinking critically.

WHO (1997) list 10 core psychosocial life skills that

should be acquired in the context of fulfilling the

basic rights of children. They are: decision making,

problem solving, creative thinking/lateral thinking,

critical thinking/ perspicacity, effective

communication, interpersonal relationships, self-

awareness/ mindfulness, assertiveness, empathy,

equanimity, coping with stress, trauma and loss and


191

resilience. The 10 life skills are anchored on

UNESCO’s four pillars of learning: learning to know,

do, live together and be (Maclong-Vicencio, 2010).

For this study, decision making, problem solving,

critical thinking, effective communication,

interpersonal relationships, self-awareness and

coping with stress skills were investigated. These 7

skills out of the 10 skills were selected because these

skills are about the thinking processes and

behaviours students will use as they learn Social

Studies contents and work with others to deepen

their understanding of the contents. The 7 skills are

not only contributing to a well-prepared workforce of

the future but also give all individuals life skills that

help them succeed (NSTA, 2011).

The researcher observes that inappropriate

strategies of disseminating Social Studies contents at

all levels could be the major cause of vices such as

political thuggery, election manipulation and rigging,

robbery and acts of vandalism. The purpose of Social

Studies is defeated if it becomes too formal and

largely descriptive rather than informal and

analytical, an experience that could give students

opportunities to gain insight into the sources of and

reasons for things around them. The ultimate goal of

Social Studies is to nurture in learners’ good

citizenship with full emphasis on the development of

those rational habits of mind and humane attitude

that should enable individual learner make informed

decisions about social and personal matters (Osho,

1986). This however, will depend largely on the

teacher’s ability to set specific objectives, harness

resources and employ effective strategies for

teaching.

The development of skills required for making Social

Studies contents relevant to the growth and

development of both the individual and the society

calls for appropriate strategies and most importantly,

strategies to ensure its effective teaching. Such

pedagogy is characterised by a facilitative and

conversational approach. This type of approach can

improve students' communication skills, academic

achievements, improve life skills such as problem

solving and critical thinking and intellectual

development. It can create a cooperative learning

environment and lead to a more positive self-concept

(Davies, 2011). The majority of teachers interviewed

in several studies revealed that learners need to get

involved in taking action that makes a difference to

others. They need to experience being part of the

solution rather than remaining passive observers and

listeners. They need to know and understand that

values are only realised when they are reflected in

one's actions. This can be achieved if the schools

provide opportunities for students to develop skills

by using structures and practices that support

learner centred learning strategy such as cooperative

learning (Stronge, Ward, and Grant, 2011, Adeyemi,

Boikhutso and Moffat, 2003).

Therefore, it is clear that new strategies are needed

to provide a much better understanding and

retention of Social Studies concepts, attitude and

development of life skills. Cooperative learning is

such a strategy that is an important part of today's

education. Kagan (1994) and Parchment (2009)

contended that one of the highest goals of education

is to provide students with the experience that will

allow them to structure their own future social and

physical environments in positive ways, including

their own continuing education. Over several decades

the discussion and research on cooperative learning

(CL) in the classroom and its effects on the

pedagogical and cognitive development of students

have been extensive (Parchment, 2009). It has been

concluded from a great deal of research related to the

cooperative learning strategy, that it is more effective

in enhancing learning outcomes compared to those

achieved by peers in classes with the traditional

instructional strategy (Kincal, Ergul and Timur, 2007;

Gok, Dogan, Doymu§ and Karagop, 2009). In

forefronts of this strategy is; Learning Together,

Student Teams, Group Investigation, Let's Ask and

Learn Together, Jigsaw and Reading-Writing-

Presentation (Doymu§, §im§ek and §im§ek, 2005).

Understanding what cooperative learning is and

which strategy to use and when to use it is critical in

order to maximize students’ potential and academic

success. This study examined the quantitative

difference in achievement, attitude and life skills in

two strategies of cooperative learning, jigsaw and

group investigation (GI).

Jigsaw is a research-based cooperative learning

strategy developed by Elliot Aronson in 1971. In this

strategy, the class is divided into heterogeneous

groups to work on small problems that the group

collates into a final outcome (Lestik and Plous, 2012).

For instance, an in-class activity is divided into topics.

Students are then split into groups with one member


192

assigned to each topic. Working individually, each

student learns about their topic and presents it to

their group. Next, students gather into their groups.

Each member presents again to the topic group. In

same-topic groups, students reconcile points of view

and synthesise information. They create a final

report. Finally, the original groups reconvene and

listen to presentations from each member. The final

presentations provide all group members with an

understanding of their own material, as well as the

findings that have emerged from topic-specific group

discussion (Aronson, 2012). Within this cooperative

paradigm the teacher learns to be a facilitating

resource person, and shares in the learning and

teacher process with the students instead of being

the sole resource. Rather than lecturing to the

students, the teacher facilitates their learning, in that

each student is required to be an active participant

and to be responsible for what s/he learns (Aronson,

2014). According to Francis (2013), the strategy

leads to students being tolerant of diverse

viewpoints, to consider others’ thoughts and feelings

in depth, and seek more support and clarification of

others’ positions, irrespective of the ethnic or

religious background and gender of other person.

Jigsaw provided the field of education with various

sub-Jigsaw strategies by the alterations in practice.

There are different versions of Jigsaw strategy

available; Jigsaw I (Aronson et al., 1978), Jigsaw II

(Slavin, 1986), Jigsaw III (Stahl, 1994), Jigsaw IV

(Holliday, 1995), Reverse Jigsaw (Hedeen, 2003) and

Subject jigsaw (Doymus, 2007). Jigsaw and Jigsaw II

differ from each other only in that Jigsaw II allows

group competition. The same is valid for Jigsaw III,

too. However, it is different from Jigsaw I and II since

the process in it is evaluated by forms. Later, Jigsaw

IV was developed by Holliday in 2000. Its difference

from Jigsaw I, II, and III is that some quizzes are given

to students in order to check the learning in expert

and home groups which includes re-teaching missing

parts in the subject at the last step and the parts of

the units which are not taught are added to the

process of instruction again. The reverse jigsaw

strategy also resembles the original jigsaw strategy in

some way but has its own objectives to be fulfilled.

While the jigsaw strategy I, II, III and IV focus on the

student’s comprehension of the instructor’s material,

the reverse jigsaw strategy focuses on the

participant’s interpretations such as perceptions,

judgements through a very active discussion. This

strategy was mainly created to cater for the higher

class students. The subject jigsaw strategy follows the

same jigsaw stages but with some differences of

practices. The uniqueness of this variant to others, is

that after the evaluation processes, the students who

were found to have deficiencies regarding the topics

were allowed to be sent to their groups to cover their

deficiencies. Thus allow re-studied and correction of

their deficiencies in their groups. After the re-studied

the groups were given an examination again together

with their peers regarding the sub-heading in which

they were weak. Following this, individual

evaluations were done. Subject jigsaw strategy also

allowed mixed ability that is it permits

heterogeneous grouping. In this study, Subject Jigsaw

strategy was used.

Researchers have found jigsaw strategy to be

effective at enhancing students’ cognitive, affective

and psychomotor domains. Shan-Ying (2014) found

that jigsaw cooperative learning strategy benefits

students’ academic achievement and knowledge

retention in terms of the increase in mean scores and

the decrease in standard deviation of scores in

Economics. Oguzhan (2014) study revealed a

significant difference in the students in jigsaw group

and control groups in terms of achievement after the

application of the strategy. Mbacho and Changeiywo

(2013) study showed that there is no statistically

significant gender difference in mathematics

achievement when students are taught using jigsaw

cooperative learning strategy. Maxfield (2011) Jigsaw

had a significantly effect on student problem-solving

skills. Garcha and Kumar (2015) found that students

taught using cooperative learning (Jigsaw strategy)

on critical thinking dispositions of secondary school

students achieved significantly higher critical

thinking dispo-sitions as compared to traditional

method.

Francis (2013) observed that when compared with

direct teaching strategy, jigsaw has several benefits

or advantages. First and foremost, most teachers find

jigsaw easy to learn because teacher is not the sole

provider of knowledge which makes most teachers

enjoy working with it because it can be used with

other teaching strategies. However, Francis (2013)

adds that there can be some obstacles when using the

jigsaw strategy. One common problem is student

dominance. In order to reduce this problem, each

jigsaw group has an appointed leader. Students


193

realise that the group is more effective if each student

is allowed to present one’s own material before

questions and comments are made. Dominance will

be eventually reduced because students will realize it

is not in the best interest of the group. Another issue

according to Francis (2013) is that of bright students

becoming bored. Francis (2013) suggested that

bright students should be encouraged to develop the

mindset of a teacher. By being a teacher a boring task

can be changed into an exciting challenge.

One of the most important strategies of learning and

strengthening students' interaction is the Group

Investigation. The popularity of group investigation

in teaching has been beyond the reasonable doubt for

many years (Harmer, 2011). Johnson and Johnson

(1994) defined group investigation as ''a small group

that has two or more individuals who; interact with

each other, are interdependent, define themselves

and are defined by others as belonging to the group,

share norms concerning matters of common interest

and participate in a system of interlocking roles,

influence each other, find the group rewarding, and

pursue common goal.'' In this strategy, the class is

divided into several groups that study in a different

phase of a general issue. The study issue is then

divided into working sections among the members of

the groups. Students pair up the information,

arrangement, analysis, planning and integrate the

data with the students in other groups. In this

strategy, the teacher’s general role is to be the leader

of the class and ensure that students comprehend the

explanations (Knight and Bohlmeyer, 1990; Akgay

and Doymu, 2007) and to make the students aware of

resources that may be helpful while carrying out the

investigation (Ojo, 2015). Studies show that group

investigation develops a host of abilities and skills

which are very important for academic and general

purposes (Caruso and Woolley, 2008). According to

Hansen (2006) working in groups and cooperating

with each other is the best strategy to improve

learning and overall skills. As group investigation

involves many students working together, it might

help decrease students' fear and anxiety in the class.

This strategy according to Harmer (2007) has its own

merits, as follows: it dramatically increases the

number of talking opportunities for each student, as

there are many students in the group, personal

relationships become less problematic and also there

is a greater chance of different opinions and varied

contributions than in pair investigation.

Several studies have been done on the effects of

group investigation strategy on students’ learning

outcomes on different subjects. Tan (2004)

concluded that neither group investigation strategy

and whole-class instruction was found to be more

effective than the other in geography. Parchment

(2009) found that group investigation was more

effective strategy of instruction than jigsaw strategy

and the traditional strategy in living environment

(LE) class in social studies. In another study, Amosun

and Oyakhire (2009) on the effects of graffiti

cooperative learning strategy (GCLS) and group

investigation (GI) on Social Studies achievement

found that there is significant main effect of

treatment on the academic performance of students.

Amosun and Oyakhire (2009) concluded that those

taught with cooperative learning strategies

performed better. Koc, Doymu, Karacop and Slmekl

(2010) revealed that group investigation was

significant on students’ achievement in chemical

kinetics in Chemistry. Şimşek (2012) found that

group investigation strategy has a significant effect

on increasing students' academic knowledge in

citizenship lessons. Saktiyani (2015) found that

group investigation is more effective than direct

instruction to teach speaking in the tenth grade

students.

However, researchers like Othman and Murad

(2015), Payne and Monk-Turner (2006) had

observed that group investigation has few

limitations. It sometimes affects the performance of

the weakest members as those who are good in the

group dominate the tasks carried out (Payne and

Monk-Turner, 2006). Moreover, it could be deduced

that because of the diversity of levels in the same

class, and in the same group as well, students might

become dependent (Hyland, 2006). Some members

may prefer to relax and stay silent”, “some do not like

to investigate” and ''group investigation is a waste of

time as students talk about external things and they

cannot reach any agreement'' (Othman and Murad,

2015). In order to overcome these limitations,

researchers like Hyland (2006) argues that teachers

should monitor and facilitate the communication

among the students of the same group as this would

provide them with the best atmosphere to use their

skills and improve it. Accordingly, Glanz (2004)

states that teachers should be careful not to put top

students with low level ones in the same group as

those with low levels will not participate and


194

completely depend on others. Moreover, teachers

should always move around the class when students

investigate in groups to encourage all students to

work together and help each other in the same group

(Lush, 2009; Othman and Murad, 2015).

Academic ability level is another moderator variable

in this study. This variable is selected in that jigsaw

and group learning strategies under investigation

possess mixed ability level as one of their features. It

has also been observed that students are not the

same especially at the rate at which values, moral and

skills in Social Studies are being learnt and

developed. This is to say that, there is disparity in the

ability to perform specific skill. Ability level is the

degree of the exhibited capability of a student to

learn and comprehend a concept as well as solve

problems in it (Peterson, 1980; Danjuma, 2015).

According to Olibie and Ezeoba (2014) ability level is

defined in terms of students’ relative achievement of

the curriculum among others in a class. It is often

categorised as low, medium and high ability. In this

study, the participants (students) will be classified

into academic ability levels (low, medium and high)

after the pretest, as measured by the academic ability

test given to the students. According to Ofonime

(2007), students with marks from 0% to 39% will be

grouped as low-level ability level students; those

within 40% to 69% as middle-level ability students

and those with 70% and above as high-level ability

students. According to Danjuma (2015) and Ashilley

(2001), low level ability students are said to be the

group of students who perform poorly in tests and

examinations, are easily distracted, less able to set

about tasks in an organised manner and less able to

control their own basic impulses and their destines.

On the other hand, the high-level ability students

were referred to by Collia (2002) as those students

who did not ascribe their fate to luck or to vagaries of

chance but rather to their own personal decisions

and efforts.

Some authors suggest that prior ability is

significantly related to academic achievement

(DeBerard, Spielmans, and Julka, 2004; Stumpf and

Stanley, 2002). Ayodeji (2009) and Okobiah (2012)

also suggested that differences in low- and high-

achieving students are closely linked to instructional

methods used in delivering the curriculum. Some

studies have also shown that method of instruction

can influence the performances of low achieving

students, (Adesoji, 1992, 2008 and Iroegbu, 1998).

This implies that the students’ ability to understand

social concepts and phenomenon may largely

determine their achievement in a Social Studies

curriculum depending on the method of instructional

delivery. Aiyedun (1992) found that academic

ability influences mathematics achievement. The

result confirms that students with high academic

ability had a mean score which is significantly greater

than that obtained by students with low academic

ability. It is against these background that the

researcher determined two variants of cooperative

strategy as determinants of secondary school

students’ learning outcomes in Social Studies in Ekiti

state, Nigeria. The study also examined the influence

of academic ability on dependent measure.

Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses will be tested in the

study at 0.05 level of significance.

Ho1: There is no significant main effect of

treatment on students’

a. achievement in social studies

b. life skills in social studies

Ho2: There is no significant main effects of

academic ability on students’



Ho3: There is no significant interaction effects of

treatment and academic ability on students’



Scope of the Study

The study covered all Junior Secondary Schools Two

(JS II) in Ekiti State. Three senatorial districts of Ekiti

State were used. Three local government areas were

randomly selected from the three senatorial districts

of Ekiti State. Nine schools were purposively selected

from the three local government areas selected.

Intact class of Junior Secondary School II Social

Studies students in each of the nine schools were

randomly assigned to the experimental groups and

control group. The study focused on two variants of

cooperative instructional strategy as determinants of

students learning outcomes in Social Studies in Ekiti

state, Nigeria. The study focused on four Social

Studies concepts. They are marriage, culture, social

institution, cooperation and social attitude. The study

also determined the moderating effects of gender and


195

academic ability on students learning outcomes in

social studies.

Methodology

Research Design

This study adopted the pretest-posttest control group

quasi-experimental design. This is because there was

manipulation of independent variable.

Selection of Participants

Participants comprised Junior Secondary School II

students in Ekiti state. Three local government areas

were randomly selected from the senatorial districts

of Ekiti State. Nine senior secondary schools were

purposively selected. Intact class of Junior Secondary

School II Social Studies students in each of the nine

schools was randomly assigned to the experimental

groups and control group. The choice of JSS II

students is considered more appropriate because the

students would have been exposed to some basic

social concepts in Social Studies curriculum. Besides,

those students would have enough time for the

experiments since they are not preparing for any

examinations.

Criteria for the selection of school

The criteria used for the selection of school is as

follows

i. must be government-owned secondary schools,

co-educational schools, and

ii. availability of Social Studies teachers in JS 2

Selection of Social Studies Concepts for the Study

Concepts selected for this study are based on the

contents of Social Studies approved by the Federal

Ministry of Education (FGN, 2013) and the Nigerian

Education Research and Development Council

(NERDC, 2009) for the revised edition of the themes

for Social Studies. The topics are: Culture and

identity, Cooperation, Social institution and Social

attitudes.


The followings research instruments were used to

collect data for the study

(1) Social Studies Achievement Test (SSAT)

(2) Life Skills Assessment Scale (LSAS)

(3) Academic Ability Test (ABT)

(4) Instructional Guide for Jigsaw Learning

Strategy (IGJLS)

(5) Instructional Guide for Group Investigation

Learning Strategy (IGCILS)

(6) Instructional Guide for Conventional Method

(IGCM)

(7) Evaluation Sheet for Assessing Research

Assistants’ Performance (ESARAP)

Social Studies Achievement Test (SSAT): The

instrument was developed by the researcher, and it

consists of two sections. Section A seeks

demographics information of the participants such as

name, school, gender and age. Section B contained 26

multiple choice items with five options A – E which

cut across all the topics that were covered in the

study. The topics are culture and identity,

cooperation, social institutions and social attitudes.

The instrument was designed to measure the

student’s achievement in Social Studies. The test was

scored manually; one mark was awarded for each

correct option and zero for wrong option. This means

that the total mark obtainable is 26. The instrument

was presented to the project supervisor, two

lecturers in the Arts and Social Sciences Education

Depart-ment, University of Ibadan and two lecturers

from the School of Educational Social Studies

Department of the College of Education, Ikere Ekiti

for face and content validity. The test items were

administered on a sample representative of junior

secondary school class two students who are not to

be used for the study to determine the reliability

coefficient. The reliability coefficient was established

using Kuder Richardson (KR 20) which gave 0.79.

Life Skill Assessment Scale (LSAS): The Life Skills

Scale was adapted from the University of Pretoria,

Library Service (2012) Life Skill Assessment Scale.

The instrument was modified by the researcher from

5-point Likert response scale to 4-point and also

some of the items were reconstructed in order to be

suitable for the level of the participants in the study.

The instrument consists of 25 items in the form of

statements in-built on a 4-point Likert response scale

of strongly agree (SA), Agree (A), Strongly Disagree

(SD) and Disagree (D). It has both positive and

negative items. The 25 test items have been arranged

in such a fashion that the one test item pertaining to

each dimension being measured are arranged one

after the other. The scoring for positive items was

based on 4, 3, 2 and 1 for Strongly Agree, Agree,


196

Disagree and Strongly Disagree respectively, which

was reversed for negatively worded items. The Life

Skills Assessment Scale (LSAS) measures five (5)

dimensions of Life Skills as indicated as follows: Self

awareness, effective communication, interpersonal

relationships, creative thinking/critical thinking,

decision making/problem solving, coping with

emotions and coping with stress. The scores obtained

under each dimension represent the level of life skills

in the respective domain and summation of all the

score obtained under each of the five dimensions

would evolve as a global score for life skills. The

instrument was presented to the project supervisor,

two lecturers in the Arts and Social Sciences

Education Department, University of Ibadan and two

lecturers from the School of Educational Social

Studies Department of the College of Education, Ikere

Ekiti for face and content validity. The test items

were administered on a sample representative of

junior secondary school class two students who are

not to be used for the study to determine the

reliability coefficient. The reliability and an internal

consistency of LSAS was determined through

Cronbach alpha which gave 0.84.

Academic Ability Test (AAT): This test was adopted

from the joint publication of New South Wales

Department of Education and Training and Council

for Educational Research (ACER) General Ability

Tests (AGAT) (2007). AAT is a series of tests designed

to assist teachers of students aged seven to sixteen

years (approximately Year 2 to Year 10) in their

assessment of students’ general reasoning ability.

AAT assesses students’ reasoning skills in three

areas: verbal, numerical and abstract (visual) Test.

The test made up of forty (40) items. In the studies

carried out by Adekunle (2005), and Abimbade in

Ehikhamenor (2012), it was observed that this test

has the capacity to discriminate between high and

low ability participants. The maximum score a

student can obtain is 100%. Students who score 60%

and above were grouped into high academic level

group; 40% to 59% were assigned to middle ability

level group while students who obtained less than

39% were placed in low academic ability level group.

ACER General Ability Tests (AGAT) was adapted to be

used for the study, the researcher re-validated the

test to ascertain its suitability for the study. The test

items were administered on a sample representative

of junior secondary school class two students who

are not to be used for the study to determine the

reliability coefficient. The reliability coefficient was

established using Kuder Richardson (KR 20) which

gave 0.79.

Methods of Data Analysis

Data collected were analysed using Analysis of

Covariance (ANCOVA) with the pretest scores used as

covariates. The Estimated Marginal Mean (EMM) was

used to determine the magnitude of the mean scores

of the different groups. The Bonferroni Post-hoc was

used to determine the sources of such significant

differences, and graphs were used to interpret

significant interaction effects. All the null hypotheses

were tested at P < .05 level of significance.

Results

Ho1a: There is no significant main effect of

treatments on students’ achievement in Social

Studies


197

Table 1: Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of Post-Achievement by Treatment and Academic Ability

Source Type III Sum

of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Partial Eta

Squared

Corrected Model 1728.724a 9 192.080 12.840 .000 .254

Intercept 11965.914 1 11965.914 799.859 .000 .702

PreAcheivement 1.360 1 1.360 .091 .763 .000

Treatment 441.276 2 220.638 14.749 .000* .080

Academic ability 60.389 2 30.194 2.018 .134 .012

Treatment * Academic ability

40.373 4 10.093 .675 .610 .008

Error 5071.448 339 14.960

Total 147081.000 349


* Significant at p≤ 0.05

Table 1 showed that there was a significant main

effect of treatment on students’ achievement in Social

Studies (F(2,339) = 14.749; p≤0.05, partial η2 = 0.080).

The effect is 8.0%. This means that there was a

significant difference in the mean post-achievement

scores of students in Social Studies. Thus, hypothesis

1a was rejected. In order to determine the magnitude

of the significant main effect across treatment groups,

the estimated marginal means of the treatment

groups was carried out and the result is presented in

Table 2

Table 2: Estimated Marginal Means for Post-Achievement by Treatment and Control Group

Treatment Mean Std. Error

95% Confidence Interval

Lower Bound Upper Bound

Jigsaw Strategy (JS) 21.39 1.358 18.721 24.064

Group Investigation Strategy

(GIS) 22.33 .394 21.558 23.109

Conventional Strategy (CS) 17.71 .723 16.282 19.128

Table 2 revealed that the students in Group

Investigation Strategy (GIS) treatment Group 2 had

the highest adjusted post-achievement mean score in

Social Studies (22.33), followed by Jigsaw Strategy

(JS) treatment Group 1 (21.39), while the

Conventional Strategy (CS) control Group had the

least adjusted post-achievement mean scores in

Social Studies (17.71. This order can be represented

as GIS > JS > CS.

Table 4.3: Bonferroni Post-hoc Analysis of Post-Achievement by Treatment and Control Group

(I) Treatment (J) Treatment

Mean

Difference (I-

J) Std. Error Sig.

95% Confidence Interval for

Difference


Jigsaw Strategy (JS) Group Investigation

Strategy (GIS) -.941 1.416 1.000 -4.348 2.467

Conventional Strategy (CS) 3.687 1.536 .051 -.008 7.383

Group Investigation

Strategy (GIS)

Jigsaw Strategy (JS) .941 1.416 1.000 -2.467 4.348

Conventional Strategy (CS) 4.628* .853 .000 2.577 6.679

Conventional Strategy (CS) Jigsaw Strategy (JS) -3.687 1.536 .051 -7.383 .008

Group Investigation

Strategy (GIS) -4.628* .853 .000 -6.679 -2.577

Table 3 revealed that students exposed to Group

Investigation Strategy (GIS) werenot significantly

different from their counterparts taught using Jigsaw

Strategy (JS) and but significantly different from


198

those taught using Conventional Strategy (CS) in their

post-achievement scores in Social Studies.

Furthermore, the students exposed to jigsaw strategy

were not significantly different from those taught

using conventional strategy. This implies that group

investigation strategy was the main sources of

significant differences in treatment.

Ho1b: There is no significant main effect of

treatment on students’ life skills in Social Studies

Table 4: Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of Post-Life Skills by Treatment and Academic Ability

Source

Type III Sum

of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Partial Eta

Squared

Corrected Model 11830.279a 9 1314.475 17.021 .000 .311

Intercept 16794.210 1 16794.210 217.465 .000 .391

PreLifeSkills 685.668 1 685.668 8.879 .003 .026

Treatment 938.587 2 469.293 6.077 .003* .035

Academic ability 490.288 2 245.144 3.174 .043* .018

Treatment * Academic

ability 1367.259 4 341.815 4.426 .002* .050

Error 26180.025 339 77.227

Total 1616620.000 349



Table 4 showed that there was a significant main

effect of treatment on students’ life skills in Social

Studies (F(2,339) = 6.077; p≤0.05; η2 = 0.035). The

effect size is 3.5%. This means that there was a

significant difference in the mean post-life skills

scores of students in Social Studies. Hence,

hypothesis 1b was rejected. In order to determine the

magnitude of the significant main effect across

treatment groups, the estimated marginal means of

the treatment groups was carried out, and the result

is presented in Table 5.

Table 5: Estimated Marginal Means Post-Attitude by Treatment and Control group

Treatment Mean Std. Error



Jigsaw Strategy (JS) 70.75 1.636 67.535 73.970

Group Investigation Strategy

(GIS) 70.76 .853 69.082 72.437

Conventional Strategy (CS) 59.46 3.124 53.311 65.602

Table 5 reveals that students in the Group

Investigation Strategy (GIS) treatment Group II had

the highest adjusted post-life skills mean score to

Social Studies (70.76), followed by the Jigsaw

Strategy (JS) treatment Group 1 (70.75), while

students in the Conventional Strategy (CS) control

Group had the least adjusted post-life skills mean

score to Social Studies (59.46). This order can be

represented as GIS > JS > CS.


199

Table 6: Bonferroni Post-hoc Analysis of Post-Attitude by Treatment and Control Group

(I) Treatment (J) Treatment

Mean

Difference (I-

J) Std. Error Sig.b


Differenceb


Jigsaw Strategy (JS) Group Investigation

Strategy (GIS) -.007 1.821 1.000 -4.388 4.374

Conventional Strategy

(CS) 11.296* 3.581 .005 2.681 19.911

Group Investigation

Strategy (GIS)

Jigsaw Strategy (JS) .007 1.821 1.000 -4.374 4.388


(CS)

11.303* 3.256 .002 3.470 19.136


(CS)

Jigsaw Strategy (JS) -.007 1.821 1.000 -4.374 4.388

Group Investigation

Strategy (GIS) -11.303* 3.256 .002 -19.136 -3.470

Table 6 reveals that students exposed to Group

Investigation Strategy (GIS) were not significantly

different from their counterparts taught using Jigsaw

Strategy (JS) but significantly different from those

exposed to Conventional Strategy (CS) in their post-

life skills scores in Social Studies. Furthermore, the

students exposed to jigsaw strategy were not

significantly different from those taught using

conventional strategy. This implies that group

investigation strategy was the main sources of

significant differences in treatment.

Ho2a: There is no significant main effect of academic

ability on students’ achievement in Social Studies

Table 1 showed that there was no significant main

effect of academic ability on students’ achievement in

Social Studies (F(2,339) = 2.018 p>.05, partial η2 =

.0112). Therefore, hypothesis 3a was not rejected.

Ho2b: There is no significant main effect of

academic ability on students’ attitude to Social

Studies

Table 4 shows that there was no significant main

effect of academic ability on students’ life skills in

Social Studies (F(2,339) = 2.17, p>05, partial η2 =

0.013). Thus, hypothesis 3b was not rejected

Table 5: Estimated Marginal Means Post-Life Skills by Academic Ability

Academic ability Mean Std. Error



Low 66.83 .673 65.501 68.150

Medium 69.98 1.172 67.669 72.282

High 64.17 3.319 57.640 70.695

Table 5 revealed that medium academic ability level

students had the highest adjusted post-life skills

mean score in Social Studies (69.98), followed by low

academic ability level students (66.83), while their

high academic ability level counterparts had the least

adjusted post-life skills mean score in Social Studies

(64.17). This order can be represented as Medium >

Low > High.


200

Table 7: Bonferroni Post-hoc Analysis of Post-Life Skills by Academic Ability

(I)

Acadenic_ability (J) Acadenic_ability

Mean

Difference (I-

J) Std. Error Sig.


Difference


Low Medium -3.150* 1.362 .064 -6.428 .127

High 2.657 3.383 1.000 -5.482 10.797

Medium Low 3.150* 1.362 .064 -.127 6.428

High 5.808* 3.530 .303 -2.686 14.302

High Low -2.657 3.383 1.000 -10.797 5.482

Medium -5.808* 3.530 .303 -14.302 2.686

Table 6 reveals that medium academic ability level

students were significantly different from their low

and high academic ability levels counterparts in their

post-life skills scores in Social Studies. Furthermore,

the low academic ability level students were not

significantly different from their high academic

ability level counterparts. This implies that medium

academic ability was the main sources of significant

differences in academic ability level.

Ho3a: There is no significant interaction effect of

treatment and academic ability on students’

achievement in Social Studies

Table 1 showed that there was no significant two-

way interaction effect of treatment and academic

ability on students’ achievement in Social Studies

(F(4,339) = 0.675, p>.05, partial η2 = 0.008). Thus, the

null hypothesis 5a was not rejected.

Ho3b: There is no significant interaction effect of

treatment and academic ability on students’ life skills

in Social Studies

Table 4 showed that there was a significant two-way

interaction effect of treatment and academic ability

on students’ life skills in Social Studies (F(4,339) =

4.426, p≤0.05, partial η2 = 0.050). The effect size is

5.0%. Thus, the null hypothesis 3b was rejected. This

implies that treatment and academic ability when

taken together had effect on students’ life skills in

Social Studies. In order to disentangle the interaction

effect, Figure 1 presents the interaction in line graph.

The interaction is disordinal.

Fig. 1: Treatment and Academic Ability on Students’ Life Skills in Social Studies

Discussion

Main Effect of Treatment on Students’

Achievement in Social Studies

The results revealed a significant main effect of

treatment on students’ achievement in Social Studies.

The magnitude of achievement scores in Social

Studies favoured the group investigation learning

group followed by the jigsaw and the conventional

groups. This may be attributed to the fact group

investigation learning and jigsaw strategies allowed

active participation of students, increase their self-

confidence, and developed communication skills. The

result of the effectiveness of group investigation

learning strategy is in support of the assumptions of

social interdependence theory that the way social

0

50

100

Jigsaw Strategy (JS) Group Investigation Strategy (GIS) Conventional Strategy (CS)

Low Medium High


201

interdependence is structured determines how

individuals interact, and this in turn determines

outcomes (Susan, 2005). The results on group

investigation learning strategy is in align with

Parchment (2009) who identified group investigation

as the most effective method of instruction in the

teaching of Social Studies. This result is in support of

the findings of Amosun and Oyakhire Larry (2009);

Koc, Doymu, Karacop and Simsek (2010); Mayasari

(2012); Ojo (2015) and Okur-Akgay and Doymu§

(2012) who in their separate studies found that there

was a significant main effect of group learning

strategy on the academic performance of students in

Social Studies, chemical kinetics, writing organization

of analytical exposition text, Biology and general

physics course respectively. The finding of this study

disagreed with Tan (2004); Tan, Sharan, and Lee

(2007) who reported that group investigation was

not more effective than the whole-class method on

eighth-grade geography students in Singapore.

The result of the effectiveness of jigsaw strategy over

the conventional strategy is in support of the

assumptions of social interdependence theory that

positive interdependence was created when group

members take on complementary roles such as

checker, recorder, elaborator, time keeper, reporter

and group leader (Woolfolk, 2010). The result of the

current study lends credence to the findings of Chu

(2014) who found that jigsaw cooperative learning

method benefits students’ academic achievement and

knowledge retention in terms of the increase in mean

scores and the decrease in standard deviation of

scores. The finding is in agreement with the findings

of Sezek (2013) who indicated that jigsaw was more

successful than teacher-centered learningin teaching

classification of invertebrate animals in biology

courses. The results of the effectiveness of jigsaw

strategy disagreed with Gocer (2010) who in his

study found no statistical significant difference

between jigsaw strategy and traditional whole-class

method

The least effectiveness of the conventional strategy

on students’ achievement score in Social Studies as

compared with the other treatment groups may not

be unconnected with the fact that the strategy is

teacher-centred and where students were not

actively involved in the learning process but only

listen to the teacher as he or she delivers the content

of his/her prepared lesson note. This supports the

assertion of Ajitoni (2005) who referred to this

strategy as minimal students’ participation where

teachers’ talk dominated classroom interaction.

Main Effect of Treatment on Students’ Life Skills

in Social Studies

The result revealed that the treatment had significant

main effect on Junior Secondary School students’ life

skills in Social Studies. The result obtained showed

that students exposed to the group investigation

learning strategy obtained the highest life skills mean

scores, followed by the jigsaw strategy and then the

conventional strategy. These findings allude to the

findings of Saktiyani (2015) who indicated that group

investigation is more effective than direct instruction

to teach speaking in the tenth grade students.

Marialuisa and Alessio (2013) who found that co-

operative learning and in particular the group

investigation strategy, can be effective in triggering

positive intercultural sensitivity.

The findings also show that jigsaw strategy was more

effective than conventional strategy. This buttresses

the findings of a number of other studies such as

Maxfield (2011) who found that jigsaw had a

significantly effect on student problem-solving and

critical thinking dispositions respectively.

Main Effect of Academic Ability on Students’

Achievement in Social Studies

Academic ability was found to have no significant

main effect on students’ achievement in Social

Studies. This support the claim of Alant (2004) who

says that students of varying ability levels performed

differently depending on the type of method of

instruction. The findings are in consonance with

those of Danjuma (2015); Olibie and Ezeoba (2014);

Brown (2014) indicated that there was no significant

difference in the academic achievement among low,

medium and high abilities in Physics, Social studies

and Business Education.

Main Effect of Academic Ability on Students’ Life

Skills in Social Studies

Academic ability was found to have a significant main

effect on students’ life skills in Social Studies. It was

observed that medium academic level students had

better life skills scores than their high and low level

counterparts. This implies that the treatment

favoured the medium academic ability group. This

may be attributed the fact that the medium academic

level students cannot put in extra effort to attain


202

better achievement. They are, therefore, contented to

remain average. For this reason, they content

themselves with the classroom learning without

trying to access other information (Eledea, 2002;

Awe, 2003). This significant effect of academic ability

on students’ life skills corroborates the findings of

Abdullahi (1995) who found that the academic ability

predicted objective measure of their academic

achievement in Mathematics.

Two-way Interaction Effects of Treatment and

Academic Ability on Students’ Achievement,

Attitude and Life Skills

The result of the findings showed that the interaction

effects of treatment and academic ability had no

significant effect on students’ achievement in Social

Studies while interaction effects of treatment and

academic ability was found to be significant on

students’ attitude to and life skills in Social Studies.

Conclusion

Based on the findings of this study, it was established

thatgroup investigation learning and jigsaw

strategies were found to improve students’

achievement, attitude and life skills in Social Studies

as compared with the conventional strategy.It was

also observed that gender has no influence on

students’ achievement and life skills in Social studies,

but has influence on students’ attitude to Social

Studies.Academic ability was found to have no

influence on students’ achievement in and attitude to

Social Studies. Academic ability had effects on

students’ life skills in Social Studies.

Recommendations

View of the findings of this study, the following

recommendations were made

1. In order to improve students’ achievement and

acquisition of life skills in Social Studies teachers

should adopt group investigation and jigsaw

strategies.

2. Academic ability of the students are important

factors that influence students’ achievement and

life skills in Social Studies. It is therefore,

important for teachers to take into cognizance

the effect of those two variables during the

teaching and learning situation in Social Studies.

3. Government should organise a form of re-

training programmes for the in-service and pre-

service teachers in the effective use of group

investigation and jigsaw strategies through

organisation of seminars, workshops, and

conferences for Social Studies teacher at Junior

Secondary School level. This would help them to

effectively apply these two strategies in teaching

of Social Studies especially life skills.

References

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RESOURCE AVAILABILITY AND INTERNAL EFFICIENCY OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS

1Ayodele, J. B. and 2Ogbiye, C. A. 1Department of Educational Management,

Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti 2Department of Social Science Education,

Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti

Abstract

The study investigated resource availability and internal efficiency of secondary schools in Ekiti State. The research design was descriptive of the survey type. The population of the study comprised all the public secondary schools in Ekiti State, Nigeria. The sample consisted of 320 respondents comprising 300 teachers and 20 principals selected using multistage sampling procedure. At the first stage, simple random sampling technique was used to select nine local government areas in Ekiti State. At the second stage, 20 secondary schools were chosen from the selected local government areas using proportional stratified random sampling technique. The third stage involved random selection of 15 teachers from each of the selected schools, and purposive random sampling was used to select the principals of the selected schools. A validated instrument titled ‘Resource Availability Questionnaire (RAQ)’ and an inventory were used for data collection. Data collected were analysed using cohort analysis, simple percentage and frequency count. Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistic was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance. The findings showed that the level of resource availability was moderate, while the internal efficiency was high in secondary schools in Ekiti State. The study revealed that there was a significant relationship between physical resource availability and internal efficiency of secondary schools in Ekiti State. Based on the findings, it was recommended that government should ensure adequate provision and equitable distribution of physical resources to schools where resources are not adequately available. Likewise, the schools should make optimal use of the physical resources provided, so as to ensure effective teaching and learning.

Keywords: Cohort analysis, Internal efficiency, Physical resources, Resource availability.

Introduction

Education is a requisite tool for personal and social

development. The recognition and acceptance of

education as the foundation for all forms of

development have gingered individual’s interest and

demand for education. All nations in the world view

education as a veritable investment for national

development and as such invest enormous amount of

time, energy and money in providing qualitative

education for their citizenry. The resultant effect is to

produce the required quantity and quality of human

resources for the economic growth using the right

mix of inputs.

According to Fafunwa (1974), education is the

greatest legacy a society can boast of and the only

powerful instrument for all forms of development. He

explained further that education is the aggregate of

all the processes by which a child or an adult

develops his abilities, attitudes and other forms of

behaviours of positive values to the society in which

he lives. He further noted that government’s

investment in education is anchored on the premise

that the end justifies the means and the principle of

prime beneficiaries.

The availability of educational resources is very

important because of its roles in the achievement of

educational objectives and goals. The extent to which

an educational institution attains her objective could

be related to the educational resources available.

Over the years, there has been increased provision of

educational opportunities and the cumulative effects

of economic and socio-political instability in the

country have necessitated the proper planning of

government investment in education (Ibukun,

Oyetakin & Akinfolarin, 2012). The objectives of

qualitative education are achieved with the provision

of available resources in right quantity and quality

with effective utilisation and management of the


205

resources in schools. It is not how much resources

are allocated, but also how well the available

resources are effectively utilised to enhance the

development of education. Educational resources, in

this context, refer to the forms of material resources

such as infrastructures like land, buildings

(classrooms, laboratories, library, and office space for

staff), equipment (markers, chalk, blackboard as well

as overhead projectors.

There is seemingly low productivity of educational

products in spite of the high amount of money vested

on education (Olubor, 2004). Nigerians expect the

secondary school system to be efficient in a way that

a given quantity of output is obtained with minimum

input; but anecdotal observations of secondary

schools’ operation in Nigeria reveal that there are

elements of inefficiency in the system. The system

wastage experienced could imply that the objectives

of secondary education have not been fully met

because students’ desire for achievement and

transition to tertiary institutions has become very

low recently.

It is not a gainsaying that secondary

education is unique in the educational development

of a child, being the link between primary and

tertiary education. The knowledge, skills, values, and

traits which an individual acquires at this stage will

complement those acquired at the primary level and

when these are combined will prepare such an

individual for tertiary education. Just as the physical

and social development of the average child is beset

with many problems, so the development of

education in any given society is hampered by a

variety of problems. In spite of the role of secondary

education, Omoregie (2005) reported that the system

is riddled with crises of various dimensions and

magnitude all of which combine to suggest that it is at

crossroad. An examination of secondary education in

Nigeria reveals the following challenges that are

plaguing it and undermining the achievement of its

objectives, which include inadequate funding,

inadequate and decay infrastructural facilities,

inadequate and low quality teachers, negative

attitudes of teachers, indiscipline of students,

examination malpractices, inappropriate curriculum,

among others.

In an effort to improve access to secondary education

in Nigeria, the Federal Government introduced the

Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme, the

policy has been revised in 2004 to reflect the

provision of the constitution concerning the basic

education programme of the government, which

seeks to prepare youths for useful life in higher

education and the society. This policy is very

significant towards the realisation of the Millennium

Development Goals (MDGs) and Education for All

(EFA) goals, because it has over the years raised

student enrolment. However, it did not pay

consideration to the limited resources in schools. The

immediate consequence of which has been a strain

and pressure on the existing resources. A number of

factors have been linked to efficiency in secondary

schools, and one such factor is education resources.

Efficiency is defined as the optimal relation

between inputs into the system and outputs got

from the inputs injected into the system. A system

or an activity is said to be efficient if it can produce

maximum output with a given quantity of input or

a given quantity of output with minimum quantity

of inputs. Efficiency is more concerned about the

inputs and process of production. Efficiency is the

ability to produce the desired effect with minimum

of effort, expense or waste. The criterion of

efficiency demands that, of two alternatives having

the same cost, one might be chosen which will lead

to a greater attainment of the organisational

objectives. It also demands that, of two alternatives

leading to the same degree of attainment, one

might be chosen which entails the lesser cost. On

one hand, efficiency involves the maximisation of

output if inputs are considered as fixed; and on the

other hand, the minimisation of inputs, if outputs

are considered as fixed.

Efficiency could be measured in two ways, which

are external efficiency and internal efficiency.

External efficiency means the extent to which the

educational system meets the broad social,

economic, cultural and political objectives of the

community of which it is a part. External efficiency

compares the costs of education to the benefits of

education that are external to educational

production, such as higher productivity and

earning in post-schooling work. It provides a

measure of the profitability of investment in

education (Babalola, 2003).

Internal efficiency is the relationship between the

outputs and inputs of an education system. The

internally efficient educational system is one,


206

which turns out graduates without wasting any

student-year or without dropouts and repeaters

(Akinwumiju, 1995). The inputs of education can

be summarised as teachers, materials, and

buildings and these are all used to transform one

set of outputs such as primary school leavers into

another set of output such as secondary school

graduates (Olubor, 2004). In the words of Ayodele

(2005), internal efficiency of education measures

the extent to which the resources allocated to the

system are being utilised to realise the objectives

for which the system has been established. This

calls for the measurement of the inputs and

outputs of the system; that is, measurement in real

terms in relation to the resource cost of wastage or

in terms of the flow of students through the

system.

The outputs of the educational system are the

graduates from that system. In order to measure

internal efficiency in education, there is need to do a

cohort analysis. The cohort analysis simply tells the

history of a particular level of education to the time

the group of students left the level. As such, it can

show to what extent the educational system is able to

use its raw materials (students) in the production of

output (graduates). In this regard, the cohort analysis

would show the flow rate in the system such as the

promotion rate, repetition rate and the dropout rate

of students. If the system is able to see the students

through the system in the shortest possible period,

then the system is efficient.

It appears that where the resources are adequately

provided, the system may be efficient than where the

resources are not adequately provided. It is against

this background that the study considered it

necessary to examine how resource availability

relates to the internal efficiency of secondary school

education system in Ekiti State.

The following research questions have been raised in

the study:

1. What is the level of resource availability in public

secondary schools in Ekiti State?

2. What is the internal efficiency of public secondary

schools in Ekiti State?

Research Hypothesis

The following research hypothesis has been

formulated in the study:

There is no significant relationship between physical

resource availability and internal efficiency of

secondary schools in Ekiti State.

Methodology

The study adopted the descriptive research design of

survey type. The population of the study consisted

7,387 public secondary school teachers and

principals in Ekiti State. Three hundred and twenty

respondents (comprised of 300 teachers and 20

principals) were drawn from 20 secondary schools in

Ekiti State, using multistage sampling procedure. The

first stage involved the use of simple random

sampling technique to select three Local Government

Areas each from the three senatorial districts. The

second stage involved the use of proportionate

random sampling technique to select 20 public

secondary schools. At the third stage, stratified

sampling technique was used to select 15 teachers

from each of the 20 schools. An inventory and an

instrument titled ‘Resource Availability

Questionnaire (RAQ)’ were used for data collection.

Test-retest method was used to determine the

reliability of the RAQ, and coefficient of 0.78 was

obtained which was considered high enough for

reliability. Cohort analysis was used to analyse the

flow of students for a period of four sessions

(2011/2012—2014/2015) in senior secondary

schools, to determine the internal efficiency of each

school. Data collected were analysed using

descriptive (frequency counts and percentages) and

inferential statistics (Pearson Product Moment

Correlation) was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05

level of significance.

Results

Research question 1: What is the level of resource

availability in public secondary schools in Ekiti State?

Table 1: Level of resource availability in Ekiti State

secondary schools

Levels of resource availability


Low (33.3 – 44.14) 11 3.7 Moderate (44.15 – 87.95) 276 92.0 High (87.96 – 100) 13 4.3

Total 300 100

Table 1 revealed the levels of resource availability, in

public secondary schools in Ekiti State. The result

showed that out of 300 respondents, 11, representing


207

3.7%, agreed that there was low level of resource

availability. Those who agreed that resource

availability was at moderate level were 276,

representing 92%, while 13, respondents

representing 4.3%, agreed that there was high level

of resource availability. The foregoing results imply

that the level of resource availability in public

secondary schools in the study area was moderate.

Research question 2: What is the internal efficiency

of public secondary schools in Ekiti State?

Table 2: Internal efficiency in Ekiti State secondary

schools

Wastage ratio Frequency Percentage 2 – 3 (Low internal efficiency)

— —

1.43 – 1.99 (Moderate internal efficiency)

— —

1 – 1.42 (High internal efficiency)

20 20

Total 20 100

Wastage ratio was calculated for each school:

OutputinputIdeal

OutputinputActualratioWastage

/

/

OutputActual

InputActualoutputinputActual /

OutputIdeal

InputIdealoutputinputIdeal /

1001

ratioWastage

EfficiencyoftCoefficien

Table 2 revealed the internal efficiency in public

secondary schools in Ekiti State as measured by the

Wastage Ratio, between 1 and 1.42 (i.e. internal

efficiency between 70% and 100%). The result for

the 20 sampled schools was used to generate the

internal efficiency. This implies that internal

efficiency in public secondary schools in the study

area was high.


between physical resource availability and internal

efficiency of secondary schools in Ekiti State.

Table 3: Physical resource availability and internal

efficiency


Resource

Availability 20 66.05 21.91

0.561* 0.444 Internal

Efficiency

20 89.95 6.13

05.0*

Table 3 showed that r-calculated value of 0.561 is

greater than r-table value of 0.444 at 0.05 level of

significance. The null hypothesis is rejected. This

implies that there was a positive and significant

relationship between physical resource availability

and internal efficiency of secondary schools in Ekiti

State. This implies that a favourable level of resource

availability will enhance the schools’ internal

efficiency.

Discussion

The study revealed that the level of availability of

resources in Ekiti State public secondary schools was

moderate. In other words, the availability of

resources such as classrooms, laboratories, tables,

chairs, staff offices, administrative offices, computers,

printers, generating sets among others were

moderately available. The findings support the

submission Afolabi (2006) that resources were

moderately available in most public secondary

schools in Kwara State and Oyo State, respectively.

The study revealed that the level of internal efficiency

in Ekiti State secondary schools was high. The

observed cause of this was that most schools in Ekiti

State had low repetition rate, low dropout rate and

high progression rate. The progression rate increased

steadily throughout the four sessions considered in

this study. This may be due to the increased efforts of

the present administration to revive the education

industry in the State.


relationship between physical resource availability

and internal efficiency. The reason for this outcome

might be due to the fact that physical resources, if

adequately available, would enhance internal

efficiency. This seems to be in line and consistent

with the submission of Sowunmi (2018) who found

out that school variables contributed significantly to

the internal efficiency of secondary schools in Oyo

State. Likewise, Yang (2014) found out that a positive

relationship existed between physical resource

availability and internal efficiency, because physical

resources have positive impact on the comfort and


208

safety of students. It could therefore be inferred from

the foregoing that when physical resources are

adequately available, it will improve the internal

efficiency of the schools.


From the findings of this study, it can be concluded

that physical resource availability is critical to the

internal efficiency of secondary schools. Based on the

findings of this study, the following


1. Government should ensure adequate provision

and equitable distribution of physical resources to

schools where resources are not adequately

available.

2. Principals should mandate all teachers to make

use of available resources in teaching and learning

processes.

3. The school authorities should make optimum use

of the physical resources provided, so as to

improve the internal efficiency of the secondary

schools.

References

Afolabi, R. A. (2006). Relationship between school

facilities and internal efficiency of public and

private secondary schools in Ogbomoso

metropolis of Oyo State. Unpublished M.Ed.

Thesis, University of Ilorin.

Akinwumiju, J. A. (1995). Educational planning:

Statistics and models. Ibadan: Centre for External

Studies. 108-116.

Ayodele, J. B. (2005). Fundamentals of systems

analysis in education. Lagos: Bolabay

Publications.

Babalola, J. B. (2003). Fundamentals of economics of

education. Education Series. Department of

Educational Management, University of Ibadan,

Ibadan.

Fafunwa, A. B. (1974). History of education in Nigeria.

Ibadan: NPS Educational Publisher Ltd.

Ibukun, W. O., Oyetakin, A. I., & Akinfolarin, C. A.

(2012). Impact of human resource and

utilisation on the academic performance of

students in Ondo State secondary schools. Global

Journal of Management and Business Research,

12(1), 115-121.

Olubor, R. O. (2004). A comparative analysis of the

internal efficiency of public junior secondary

education of two selected states in Nigeria.

Journal of Educational Foundations and

Management (JEFAM), 4(1), 194-196.

Omoregie, N. (2005). Re-packaging secondary

education in Nigeria for great and dynamic

economy. Paper presented at the 2nd Annual

National Conference of Association for

Encouraging Qualitative Education in Nigeria

(ASSEQEN). 9th-11th May.

Sowunmi, G. (2018). School production variables and

internal efficiency of public and private junior

secondary schools in Oyo State. Afro Asian

Journal of Social Sciences, 8(2), 1-11.

Yang, K. (2014). Factors affecting internal efficiency of

primary schools in Nuer Zone Gambella Regional

State, Ethiopia. Unpublished M.A. Thesis,

Department of Educational Planning and

Management, Jimma University, Ethiopia.


209

TOWARDS EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT OF COMMON GOOD IN NIGERIA

Afariogun A. and Ayeni, C.F. Department of Educational Administration and Planning,

Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo.

Abstract

Nigeria is currently facing challenges in regard to management and administration of common good, use of natural resources and sustainability. With growing population, and an increasingly more intensive and extensive use of natural resources, human activity has immensely transformed the environment and in numerous cases had negative effects, which have reached an unprecedented level. In every moment of our lives, we use the resources that nature provides. We breathe air that encircles our earth. We depend on nature to supply all our basics needs of air, food, water, shelter, warmth, energy yet few of us consciously acknowledge these gifts or think about the price nature pays for such generosity. More worrisome is the fact that some persons tend to monopolize the natural resources. As a matter of fact, every citizen must realize that the natural resources are for the common good. As such, it is the duty of all to preserve the natural resources so that we will in turn promote the common good. This paper therefore, ex-rays the administration and management of common good in Nigeria, the paper explains the concept of administration and management, the concept of common good, benefits of common good, abuses of common good and societal values of common good. It also exposes the role of educational administration in the management of common good.

Key Words: Education, Administration, Management, Common good, Nigeria.

Introduction

In Nigeria, there are those who believe that their

participation or otherwise in promoting the common

good is inconsiquential.

One area where most of us can be seen actually blind,

especially in Nigeria, is in the area of our

responsibility towards the promotion of the common

good. Common Good is about all that is neccesary for

individual, families, groups, the facilities and

structures that will aid them in fulfuling their goals.

These include: food, water, housing and light; a

stable, peaceful and participatory political order; a

just and equiptable economic order; avaliability of

basic amenities and social services; provision of

qualitative education for our children affordable

health care services; employment and protection of

life and property; respect for human life and

protection of privacy, developement of spiritual and

temporal goods for the societies and so on. These are

obligations and duties that we all have to promote for

the sake of humanity.

The Concept of Common Good

Common good is something belonging to or serving

the community, (Merriam Webster's Dictionary,

2007). Common good cannot be defined in isolation

but in cognizance of the human person, in close

relationship to fellow human beings, owning certain

things in common and working for the good of each

other as a closer bonds of human interdependance.

According to Peschke (2004), The common goods is

the sum of those conditions of social living whereby

men are enable more readily and more fully to

achieve their perfection and appointed ends. As a

technical term, common good implies those things we

share relatively equally small as schools, hospitals,

social centers, town hall, social services, energy

supply, road networks, water supply, the legal order,

right to fair hearing, and so on. The Common Good is

about how we as a society balance the needs of all, for

the benefit of all. It requires respecting and

protecting fundamental rights; promoting spiritual

and temporal prosperity; and maintaining peace and

security. It is not about just making sure people in

society can exist or survive, it is about creating


210

circumstances that allow people to thrive. Thus the

call to create and support a society that improves the

conditions of human life for all. Fresh water, for

instance, is a benefit that is, is a good. Not only is used

to maintain life but it is also critical in agriculture,

ranching, manufacturing, healthy ecosystems,

transportation, and even, recreation. Each of these is

also a good. But the common good is not just the

maximization of each they can sometimes conflict

with each other. Rather, it balances them for the

greatest benefit. People must have enough-water to

drink, farmers must maintain their crops and goods

must move via navigable water. As a society, we

balance the various goods through public policy.

Since they sometimes compete with each other, some

goods or benefits may have to be partially sacrificed

not all can always be maximized. Again, people must

be the highest priority.

The Concept of Management and Admini-stration

This concept, management, may be adopted to refer

to any of these phenomena. The layman, especially in

Nigeria, adopts the term to refer to utilization of

inadequate resources to attain set goals. It is in this

sense that a person may say for instance, that amount

you have given me will not be enough for the

purchases but, I will manage it.

The concept, management, has also been perceived as

a process. It is in this sense that management has

been perceived as a distinct process which comprises

planning, organizing, controlling and to determine

and accomplish an objective by the use of people and

resources. Central to this perception of management

is its recognition as a process of leadership in which

the leader controls human and non-human resources

for the purpose of attainment of set goals in an

organization, in this case, in Nigeria or government

setting. If there is anything that is needed in every

aspect of life, it is adequate management. As a matter

of fact, from the rising up from bed to going back to

bed, we require proper co-ordination (Management)

of our time, money, health, and other available

resources to achieve a meaningful result.

Management simply put, means, to deal with, control,

use money, time, information or wisdom. On the

other hand, the Merriam Webster's Dictionary (2007)

defines Administration as the act of organizing the

way that something is done.

From this understanding, one can infer that

management and administration of common good is

all about harnessing both human and non-human

resources in order to achieve the goals of the country

and its citizens.

Types of Common Good

The creation of wealth by productive action is

blessed by God and praised by humanity, as both a

right and a duty. When properly organized and

respectful of the humanity of the worker, work

therefore become a source of fulfillment and

satisfaction and hence type of common good.

However, there are other types of common good that

are discussed in this paper.

Every group must take into account the needs and

legitimate aspirations of every other group, and still

more of the human family as a whole. The common

good therefore involves all members of society, no

one is exempted from Cooperating, according to each

one's possibilities, in attaining it and developing it.

Politics in Nigeria: In fact, the main reason for the

existence of political community, according to

Catholic Social Teaching (2014), is to defend and

promote the common good. Public authorities are

bound to respect the fundamental and inalienable

rights of the human person, permitting each of its

members to fulfill his duties. All people have the right

to enjoy the conditions of social life that are brought

about by the quest for the common good. Issues of

education health, sport, recreational facilities evenly

distributed, good transport system and road, and so

on are common goods that politics should bring

about. Scripture tells us that Christians are supposed

to be in the world, but not of the world. For too long,

the question of faith in public life has centred on what

the Bible says about government. Christians across

the spectrum have soured on religious involvement

in politics, tempted either to withdraw or to

secularize their public engagement. Yet the kingdom

of God is clearly concerned with justice and

communal well-being. How can Christians or muslims

be active in public life without getting mired down in

political polarization and controversy? Unfortunately,

in Nigeria. our experience has not been a good one,

Imposition of candidates and persons on the

populace, over-bearing sit-tight on the throne, tribal

imposition on important political officers by a tribe

or section against the others in the country.

Enthronement of one party rule; selections instead of

election, and so on have characterized our politics. All

these have resulted in the low status or politicians in


211

public estimation, which is neither justified by the

evidence nor good for the health of democracy.

Politics is an honourable vocation, which often exacts

great personal cost form those engaged in it, and

from their families. The fact that some politicians

from time to time fall short of the highest standards

is not ground for dismissing the whole class as

unworthy of respect. It is not ignoble to want a

successful political career, nor dishonourable for

politicians to seek political power. At the same time

politicians must be careful not to use, or to appear to

use, their privileged position for personal gain. Those

politicians who have, by their behaviour, contributed

to a climate of distrust must bear some considerable

responsibility. Part of the responsibility must also lie

with the highly partisan quality of public political

debate, where it has become almost customary to

attribute the worst motives to one's political

opponents. Politicians of one party should 'show

more respect towards those of other parties. In this

way the political common good will be promoted and

protected.

Environmental common good: Environment is one

of the 'common goods which are the shared

responsibility of the human race. We have to reject

some of the easy assumptions of an earlier stage of

industrialization, such as that the human race,

because God had given it dominion over the world,

had an unlimited freedom to despoil the natural

environment for its own purposes. Those who feel

moved to a loving care for the internal balances of

nature are responding to a deep religious instinct

implanted within them by God. Public authorities

must never treat them as having no intrinsic worth,

nor commercial concerns see them merely as sources

of profit or loss. Regarded in those terms, the

environment is a great repository of natural wealth,

belonging to all humanity, present and future, freely

and equally. Because of this environmental mortgage

that the future holds over the present, none of this

natural wealth can be owned outright, as if nobody

but the owner had any say in its disposal. Each

generation takes the natural environment on loan,

and must return it after use in as good or better

condition as when it was first borrowed.

Monopoly of common good: In monopoly of

common good, the individual is reduced to the status

of an isolated economic agent, whose life has

meaning only as a consumer. Those most likely to

suffer from over-reliance on competition to the

detriment of the common good are the poor,

vulnerable, powerless and defenseless. To promote

the idea that the individual is primarily o be

considered by society as a consumer that is to say

when an individual's greatest significance is as a

possessor of wealth and purchaser of goods and

services is both contrary to the God and humanity

and to any rational idea of what a human being really

is.

Merits of the Common Good

(a) Common good gives us right to live and let

live and to live above ego centric, that is self

centeredness, it teaches us how to share good with

others without looking at our own alone.

(b) The treatment of common good improved

life style and decent living, it provides for our

needs at all times and as at the time we need

it. It teaches us how to make use of common

good.

(c) It teaches us etiquette of managing common

goods and gives priority of ethics over

modernity and science.

(d) It discourages capitalism and promote

communism, it shows that community things

should be treated the way it should be.

(e) Adequate treatment and proper managemet

of common goods.

The Role of Educational Administration In The

Management Of Common Good In Nigeria.

Education involves everything that is done within a

nation with a view to uplifting the standard of men

and materials. In other words, education is geared to

enhance the realisation of broader objectives hence it

is directed towards "self-realisation, better human

relationship, individual and national efficiency,

effective citinzenship, national consciousness,

national unity as well as toward social, cultural,

economic, political, scientific and technological

progress, (National Policy on Education, 1981). It is

therefore, worthwhile to highlight some of the

citizens efforts for the common good through the role

of administration and management in education. The

aim is to encourage citizen to improve on whatever

they have been doing to promote the Common Good


212

and to seek for ways to better these efforts. The

efforts include the following:

Values and Morals in the Society: In Nigeria

it is very common today for all kinds of organization

to enumerate their core values. These values do not

specify what the organization does but rather express

something of why it does these things and the way it

will, or will not, undertake them. Sub-groups and

individuals may, of course, have particular values

which are not shared by the group as a whole but

without some shared values a society will be self-

destructive.

Social and religious values on a general level have

always tended towards the preservation and the

promotion of the Common Good. For this reason. We

consider societal values, as bases for the Common

Good.

Natural Resources: Natural resources are

simply the resources that nature provides. As

resources provided by nature they are providential.

In other words, they are provided by God ultimately

for the well being of the universe. And since human

beings are the glory of the universe, the natural

resources are provided by God in nature for the well

being of human beings. Because the resources are

providential they are for all. Natural resources are for

the common good and thus serve as bases for the

Common Good also. Natural resources are found all

around the world. Natural resources vary from place

to place. Any misuse of natural resources undermines

the common good.

Appreciation and Generosity: Each of us has

something to offer to someone in need. We can give

our money and our time to charity, or be a friend to

someone who is sick or lonely. For us Nigerians, this

generosity is a practical outworking of thankfulness-

thankfulness for Nigeria's love and care for us, we

should be able to be proud of what we can do for our

country. The Common Good is a symbol of God's love

and generosity, and also a symbol of our love for our

country Nigeria. Therefore, we should be generous

for the Common Good and be thankful to God for the

Common Good.

Service and Stewardship: Properly understood,

service is a revolutionary concept. The notion of

service calls individuals to lay selfish things aside for

the needs of others. It is also an important value for

all social relationships, (Catholic Social Teaching,

2014). Hence meaning is found in service rather than

in self-centeredness, it runs counter to the idea that

life is all about competition, or that freedom simply

means doing what suits me or my group, best. Service

is closely linked or related to the values of

stewardship. Stewardship is about mankind's

response on how to use, and not abuse, the resources

we have been given, whether they are natural

resources or wealth, (Catholic Social Teaching, 2014).

The values of service and stewards are needed for the

Common Good to be preserved and promoted.

Fulfillment of Civic duties: Civic duties is a call to

tremendous commitment in the civic duties by the

citizens of a nation. It is also a call on all to contribute

to building the nation in every way possible, Catholic

Social Teaching (2014), even christians are not left

out on this onerous task. We are encouraged to this

responsibility when the Lord Jesus Christ was faced

with the question of paying imperial tax. His simple

answer was "give to Caesar what is Caesar and to God

what is God". (Matt. 22:15-22). The Apostle, Paul,

dwelt a lot on the duties of a citizen towards

authorities and the nation in the thirteenth chapter of

his letter to the Romans. Just as we do today, the first

Christians wondered about the observance of the law.

Should they pay taxes? May a Christian steal from the

state, spoil or destroy its goods, or destroy common

property, or vandalize the common wealth of a nation

without guilt or blame? The Apostle recommends

them to be good citizens, to respect the authorities,

keep the law and take care of the common goods of

the State. Many Christians think today that paying

taxes and commitment to other civic responsibilities,

like participating in election and taking up the moral

responsibility to vote, are unnecessary. In spite of

anything, we must endeavour to be committed to

what is aimed at building or developing our nation.

And when we have done our duty we only must say:

'we are mere servants doing our duties.

Our civic responsibility for the common good is great,

especially in a society which fails to afford legal

protection for the weakest and most defenceless. We

are morally bound in conscience to choose leaders at

all levels of government who will best serve the

common good. The sum total of social conditions,

Guadium et spec, no. 26 in Catholic Social Teaching,

(2014), which the common good represents

embraces a wide spectrum of concerns which the


213

voter, for instance, must have before his or her eyes,

for example, safeguarding the right to life and the

sanctity of marriage and the family; securing

domestic and international peace; promoting

education and public safety; assisting those suffering

from poverty; providing sufficient and safe food,

health care and adequate housing and so on. Things

like politics are too serious a business to be left for

only politicians. It is necessary; therefore, that

individual fulfils his or her civic duties and where

there is mismanagement or failure to use well what is

put by compatriots, those who fail will have God to

contend with as this is total abuse of the principle of

the common good.

Education: Through the provision of qualitative,

moral and holistic education, this will help in the

development of good citizens. Education has

continued to create awareness and appreciation for

the Common Good.

Health: A human being deserves complete attention

and care whether rich or poor, whether they will live

for a day or for ten decades. It is typical of good

citizen, for example, that the dying receives expenses

care, that those who do not have productive mental

capacities as we usually understand them are

treasured and that children and even the unborn are

regarded with respect. To ensure all this, the

government has continued to establish hospitals and

other health care centres for this purpose. This is a

huge effort towards the promotion of the common

good.

Fostering Marriage and Family Life: It is also

typical of Christian practice when it is vital and

energetic that people feel able to make the life long

commitment of marriage to each other because the

beloved person will never be completely understood

or captured even in decades of relationship. The

transient force of sexual attraction is in this way is

transfigured by a sense of the uniquely personal and

something radical and exciting becomes possible.

Abuses of Common Good

Abuse of the common good leads to misuse, abuse

and degradation of human beings, the environment

and society in general. Misuse of common good

involved tax evasion, looting of our treasuries at the

Local Government, State and Federal levels.

Imprisonment and suppression of the poor,and so on.

1. Tax Evasion: Tax evasion goes beyond the

willful intent of tax payers to avoid paying their

exact taxes to questionable roles of some

revenue collection officers. These offenses

involve submitting a fraudulent return. Tax

evasion can also mean filing an accurate return

then refusing to pay the taxes due. In some other

cases it is to conceal or overlook evidence of

wrongdoing, including tax infractions or other

crimes; illegal imports or exports; facilitating

illicit transactions for purposes such as money

laundering.

2. Embezzlement of public fund: These

activities involve the taking or conversion of

money, property or other things of value by

someone who is not entitled to them, but who

has access or opportunities created by virtue of

his or her position or employment in the public

sector.

3. Abuse of Public Trust: Public officers are

vested with the responsibility of promoting and

ensuring the public welfare. This trust is not for

private interest or for the benefit of one or more

individuals. The corruption here consists of the

abuse of the trust vested in the corrupt

individual, just for his or her personal gain. For

example, it is an abuse of public trust for an

individual responsible for government contract,

to purchase goods or services from a company, in

which he or she holds an interest without due

process, or propose real estate developments

which will increase the value of personally

owned property.

How Corruption Has Affected the Common Good

In Nigeria

Corruption has generally been seen as the bane on

the development of our country, Nigeria. There is no

way the effect of corruption has been noticeable as in

the infrastructural development. The effects come

from either that the money made for the

development of these infrastructure was not used at

all or that some and in fact a large part of the money

has been diverted for personal use and the resultant

outcome of the facility become substandard and

cannot serve the purposes they were made for.

Travelling across the length and breadth of the

country you will see death traps in the form of

potholes, fallen bridges, and so on. The same thing is


214

found in the airports, sea ports, and sport stadia. In

most of our government schools, be it primary,

secondary, or tertiary institutions, the facilities are in

a state of disrepair. Some pupils in primary and

secondary school sit on the floor to learn and in

higher institutions students stand or sit on the

window frames to receive lectures. When one asks

what has really happened, the answer is that money

meant for these facilities were misused by

government functionaries.

Corruption has affected the infrastructural

development of our country, Nigeria in many ways,

such as: Roads are often in deplorable conditions due

to poor construction by corrupt contractors and their

supervisors. Or the corruption life of those who

demand bribe, kick-back, and so on, before giving the

contracts.Over the years, government is said to have

injected about billion of dollars into power

generation to boost electricity, but we still live in

darkness. Huge sums of money have in many ways

found their ways into individual pockets. This is

corruption. Our healthcare facilities are inadequate

such that people have to fly to lndia or other parts of

the world to get medical treatment. The truth is that

most of the money given for the development of these

facilities has been looted by some individuals.

lt is worthy of note that not only politicians or those

in government that are guilty of corruption and thus

cause infrastructural under development of the

country. Even some of us have contributed directly or

indirectly to it, some of us are relatives of those who

embezzle and loot public money but we are not bold

enough to tell them that it is wrong.

Education and its Usefullness in the Common

Good

The benefits of education cuts across all sectors of the

society: politics, economy, agriculture, religion and

others. Citizens are able to understand policies made

by the government of the day and how they would

affect their life- positively or negatively. Moreover,

the necessity of education is viewed to be more social

than a personal obligation. A society needs to have

qualified and well educated citizens as it helps create

a smooth and developed society. Education is a

necessity of civilisation developing in size and

inculcation of national consciousness and national

unity; this means a type of education that emphasies

patriotism. Second, the inculcation of the right type of

values and attitudes for the survival of the individual

and the society; in this case, it should be able to equip

the children with good orientation in terms of tastes,

morals, respects, obedience and the spirit of

togetherness.Third, the training of the mind in the

understanding of the world around it emphasies the

intellectual development for sound judgment. Fourth

is the acquisition of appropriate skills, abilities and

competence both mental and physical, as equipment

for the individual to live in and contribute to the

development of his society.

Conclusion

Family upringing, education and family formation

should be a priority. The family is the basis and the

best place to teach all kinds of values. The child

receives even before birth certain tendencies and

values through inherited gin. If the family has a good

culture or values for the common good, the children

will definitely learn. The family is also the basic unit

of the society. There are common things for common

use in every family while there are other things for

individual use. The children must be taught to care

and protect what is for the common use because it

has a larger sense and use than what is only for the

use of individual. If there is a good orientation and

sensitization about the common good. In the family,

its care and maintenance, the society will benefit.

There will be accountability and a sense of dedication

to the common good. Such children will gradually

come out with a great sense of love, respect,

responsibility and care for the common good, but if

on the other hand, families are preoccupied with

individualistic interests, recklessness with common

goods, in the same vein, the children will come up

with ego centric and individualistic personality that

leads to bad governance and misuse of public things

or common goods.

Education is therefore a necessity for someone to

contribute to the administration and management of

common good in Nigeria and the world at large. One

of the reasons for education is self reliance.

Education for self reliance is to inculcate in the

individual the habit of work and prepare individuals

with the necessary skills that will enable them to

contribute their quota to the growth of society and to

manage the common good rather than remain huge

parasites.


215

Therefore, education must aim at building a new

community and produce individual who can

administer and manage the common good.

Recommendations

Seminars, workshop, enlightenment programmes on

common good should be organized by the

government and various parastatals to enlighten

people.

Everybody should be given equal access to the

common good. No body should be excluded from the

common good or made to feel like an outsider or

outcast as far as the common good is concerned.

The teachings on the common good should be taught

in our churches and mosque all over the nation.

Religious education is the heart or the core source of

formation for the human conscience. It teaches

people how to relate to God, to humanity,

environment and the society at large. As such, the

role of religious education in promoting common

good cannot be overemphasised.

References

Afariogun, A.A. (2014). Education Under the State and

the Church. Jos: Nicxz Press.

Afariogun, A. A. (2017). New Trends in Educational

Administration and Planning, Jos: Afariogun

Press.

Bedeian, A. (2011). Management, Englewood:

Prentice Hall.

Bolam, R, (1999). Educational Administration,

Leadership and Management Towards a research

Agenda in T. Bush, London: Paul Chapman Press.

Catholic Social Teaching (2014). Lord That I May See.

Catecetical Message programme.

Denga, D.I. (1999). Nigerian Education: Proposals for

a Smooth Voyage to the Year 2000 and Beyond.

Calabar: Rapid Educational Publishers.

Federal Republic of Nigeria, (1981). National Policy

on Education, Revised Edition, Lagos: Federal

Ministry of Information.

Merriam Webster's Dictionary and Thesaurus (2007).

Sprin Field: An Encyclopaedia Britannica

Company.

Nwadiani, M. (1998). Educational Management for

Sub-Saharan Africa. Benin City: Nigerian Society

for Educational Planning.

Nwankwo, J.I. (1982). Educational Administration,

Theory and Practice. India: Vikas Publishing

House.

Peschke, H. (2004). The Moral Vol. II. Roma: Peschdet

Press.

Sapre, P. (2002). Realising the Potential of

Educational Management and Administration

Journal (3) 1.

Uduigwomen, A.F. and Ogbenika, K. (ed). (1999).

Phlosophy of Education: An Analytical Approach.

Lagos: Joja educational Research and Publisers.


216

PRIVATE COST AND DEMAND FOR SANDWICH DEGREE PROGRAMME IN SOUTHWEST NIGERIAN

UNIVERSITIES

1Adebayo F.A and 2Teniola M.A 1Department of Educational Management,

Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University, Ado – Ekiti, Nigeria

2Department of Inspectorate, Ministry of Education, Ekiti State, Nigeria

Abstract

The paper examined the relationship between the private cost and demand for sandwich degree program among universities in Southwest Nigeria universities from 2012 to 2016. The research investigated the growth rate of private cost and demand for sandwich degree program among universities. The study used ex-post facto research design and descriptive research design of the survey type in order to describe the private cost and the demand for sandwich degree programme in Southwest Nigeria Universities. The population consisted 19,515 sandwich students in seven universities running sandwich degree programme both Federal and State universities in Southwest, Nigeria as at 2016. The sample for the study consisted of 804 sandwich students and Assistant Directors selected from four universities based on stratified random sampling technique. An inventory titled ‘Data Retrieval Format for Assistant Director of Sandwich (DRFAD)’ and “Private Cost and Demand of Sandwich Degree Questionnaire (PCDSDQ)” for students were used for data collection. A reliability co-efficient of 0.74 using test - retest and Pearson Product Moment Correlation was obtained for PCDSDQ. Data obtained were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequency count, percentage. Inferential statistics such as t-test statistics and Pearson product moment correlation (PPMC) were used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance. The results of the analysis showed that the demand for sandwich degree in both Federal and State universities in Southwest Nigeria was declining yearly from 2012 to 2016 and that there was positive significant relationship between private cost and demand for Sandwich degree programme in Nigeria universities. Based on the results, it was recommended that both Federal and State governments should sustain the present tuition fee for the next two years. In addition sandwich centers should provide low cost accommodation so as to boost students’ demand.

Keywords: Private cost, Demand, Sandwich degree, Education, Federal universities, State universities.

Introduction

Some universities in Nigeria are accredited to run sandwich programme where practicing teachers who are non- degree holders are enrolled to study for bachelor’s degree programme during vacation periods of primary and secondary schools. It is observed by the researcher that prospective students for sandwich degree programme raise fund through personal savings, banks and parents rather than the government financing their education.

University education is the major source of providing the required knowledge and skills that will help to generate and accelerate knowledge and skills flow for modern economy (Ayo and Akinyemi, 2011).It is pertinent to note that university education is the type of education given to individuals after secondary level of education. The numbers of universities in Nigeria have increased from 89 in 2006 to 152 in 2017 while university students’ enrolment rose from 349,502 in 2002/2003 to7, 605.068 in 2009/2010

representing 96 percent increase in enrolment. (National Bureau of Statistics, (2017), National Universities Commission (2017), The breakdown of this analysis shows that out of the 152 universities, 40 are federal 44 are state and 68 are privately owned universities. It appears that despite the increase in the number of universities access is not guaranteed for all qualified students. Nwokocha (2006) opined that inadequate access to education may result in many people not participating meaningfully in national development. This might not be unconnected with the perceived shortage of the university places for regular students.

There is a need to extend university education in form of sandwich, open and distance learning to provide equal educational opportunities to the students and worker who cannot afford to abandon their job for educational purposes irrespective of tribe or ethnic background. The implication of this is that those who could not secure admission in an


217

educational institution through the unified tertiary matriculation examination conducted by the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB) and post UTME will have to seek admission through the sandwich programme. In the case of teachers in the primary and post primary institutions it equally serves as an avenue for upgrading their knowledge, hence the researcher felt that the cost incurred in such educational pursuit could have relationship with demand for sandwich degree programme which the researcher perceived to be declining in recent time. In recognition of this, Aina (2002), Babalola (2002) and Samuel (2003) argued that both federal and state universities in Nigeria were not properly financed hence the need to charge cost in form of tuition fee, transport cost, accommodation cost moderately to boost sandwich enrolment


There is the need to find out whether it is the operating cost on the part of the students that causes a decline in demand for sandwich programme. Hence the main problem of this study is to identify the main components of private cost and their relationship on demand for sandwich degree programme in Southwest Nigeria universities.


The study examined the relationship between the component of private cost and the demand for sandwich degree programme in Southwest, Nigeria universities. The study investigated the sandwich degree programmme enrolment among university in Southwest Nigeria from 2012 to 2016.

Research Questions

The following research questions were raised to guide the study: 1. What was the private cost of sandwich degree

programme in the Universities in Southwest Nigeria from 2012 to 2016?

2. What was the demand for sandwich degree among the Universities in Southwest Nigeria from 2012 to 2016?

Research Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were generated for the

study.

1. There is no significant relationship between private cost and demand for sandwich degree in Southwest, Nigeria universities.

2. There is no significant difference between private cost of federal and state universities in Southwest, Nigeria.

Methodology

The study used ex-post facto research design and descriptive research design of the survey type in order to describe the private cost and the demand for sandwich degree programme in Southwest, Nigeria Universities. An inventory titled ‘Data Retrieval Format for Assistant Director of Sandwich (DRFAD)’, Private Cost and Demand of Sandwich Degree Questionnaire (PCDSDQ) were used to collect the data. The study sampled four universities (Federal=2) and (State=2), and selection of 200 students from each of the universities and One Assistant Director of sandwich from each university. A reliability co-efficient of 0.74 using test - retest and Pearson Product Moment Correlation was obtained for PCDSDQ. Data obtained were analyzed using frequency count, percentage to answer research questions, t-test statistics and Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) were used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance

Table 1: Private cost of sandwich degree programme

among the universities in Southwest Nigeria. (2012

to 2016)

S/N Institution Sum total of private cost items for 5years (2012-2016) (#)

Average cost per contact session (student) (#)

Rank

1 EKSU 1,305,600 260,720 3rd

2 AAUA 1,096,600 239,350 4th

3 UNILAG 1,307,400 261,450 2nd

4 OAU 1,645,400 329,082 1st

Note :

1 EKSU – EKITI STATE UNIVERSITY 2 AAUA - ADEKUNLE AJASIN UNIVERSITY,

AKUNGBA AKOKO 3 UNILAG - UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS 4 OAU - OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY

The table I above revealed that private cost in Southwest, Nigeria universities ranging between #239,350 to #329,082 per contact period and that federal universities has the highest private cost than state universities in Southwest Nigeria universities. That is the federal universities such as OAU, UNILAG, ranked 1st and 2nd while the state universities like EKSU and AAUA ranked 3rd and 4th respectively.


218

Table 2: Cost items of private cost of sandwich degree programme among universities in Southwest, Nigeria (2012-2016)

S/N

Item

of cost EKSU Total pri-vate

cost for 5years Average

cost %share Rank AAUA

Total cost Average

cost %

share Rank UNILAG

Total cost

2012-2016

Average

cost %sh

are Rank OAU Total

cost 5 Years Average cost %share Rank

1 Tuition fees

percentage #375,000 #75,000 28,80% 1

ST #275,000 #55,000 22.9% 1

ST #500,000 #100,000 38.2

% 1

ST #600,000 #120,000 36.5% 1

ST

2 Departmental

fees #20,000 #5000 1.9% 9

TH #250,000 #5000 21.1% 10

TH #25,000 #5000 1.9

% 9

TH #50,000 #10,000 3.0% 9

TH

3 Examination fees

per contact

session

#50,000 #10,000 3.8% 7TH

#750,000 #15,000 6.3% 7TH

#139,400 - - 11TH

#75,000 #15,000 4,6% 7TH

4 transportation

fees #140,000 #33,000 12.7% 3

RD #190,000 #38,000 15.9% 2

ND #55,000 #27,880 8.1

% 5

TH #133,000 #26,600 8.1% 5

TH

5 expenses on

books #38,500 #7700 2.9% 8

TH #36,500 #7200 3.0% 9

TH #165,000 #11,000 4.2

% 7

TH #69,200 #13,840 4.2% 8

TH

6 feeding cost

(Mid-day meal only)

#179,500 #35,900 13.8% 2ND

#163,500 #32,700 13.7

% 3

RD #140,000 #33,000 12.6

% 2

ND #184,700 36,940 11% 3

RD

7 Accomodation #155,500 #31,000 11.9% 4TH

#140,500 #28,000 11.7% 4TH

#50,000 #28,000 10.7

% 3

RD #216,500 #36,940 13.2% 2

ND

8 Teaching

practice levy #50,000 #10,000 3.8% 9

TH #50,000 #10,000 4.2% 8

TH #7,500 #10,000 3.8

% 8

TH #50,000 #43,300 3.0% 9

TH

9 ICT Levy #14,000 #2800 1.1% 11TH

#15,000 #3,000 1.3% 11TH

#100,000 #1,500 0.6

% 10

TH #7,500 #10,000 0.5% 11

TH

10 Acceptance fees #125,000 #25,000 9.6% 6TH

#110,000 #22,000 9.2% 5TH

#125,000 #20,000 7.6

% 6

TH #100,000 #1500 6.1% 6

TH

11 Other incidental expenses

(Miscellaneous

expenses)

#129,600 #25920 9.9% 5TH

#92,000# #18,400 7.7% 6TH

#25,000 9.6%

4TH

#162,000 #20,000 9.9% 4TH

Total Private

Cost for 5 years

from 2012- 2016

#1305,600 #260,720 100% #1096,000 #239,350 100

% #1,307,400 #261,450 100

% #1645,410 #329,082 100%


219

Table 2 above revealed the various cost items for

private cost like tuition fees, departmental fees,

examination fee, transport cost, accommodation cost

etc. that constituted the expenses incurred by

sandwich students. The percentage contribution of

each cost item were calculated. The contribution of

tuition fee has the greatest percentage in virtually in

all the universities whether state or federal

universities.

Moreover, the mid day meal / accommodation cost in

universities sampled for the study showed equally

smaller percentage of contribution to private cost

incurred by an average students.

Question 2: What is the demand for sandwich degree

among the universities in Southwest, Nigeria from

2012 to 2016

Table 3: Enrolment of B.Ed sandwich students among universities in Southwest Nigeria from 2012 to

2016.

Years 2012/2013 2013/2014 2014/2015 2015/2016

Actual enrolment of sandwich student




M F T M F T M F T M F T ESKU 23

0 428 657 197 370 567 175 340 515 170 296 466

AAUA 177

248 420 163 225 388 148 214 362 137 96 353

UNILAG 225

305 530 199 283 482 196 274 470 186 266 452

OAU 200

303 525 180 305 458 175 288 462 168 274 442

Sub Total 828

1281 2109 (27.4)

741 1183 1924 (25.5)

694 1116 1810 (23.9)

661 1052 1713 (22.7)

Percentage decrease on yearly basis are enclosed in

parentheses

2 M = Male, F = Female, T=Total,

Source: Data collected from the field (Directorate of continuing Education Centre/Directorate of sandwich degree in the universities sampled.

Table 3: shows the enrolment of sandwich student from the universities sampled for the study (EKSU, AAUA, UNILAG, OAU) The enrolment of sandwich student in almost all the universities decrease on yearly basis from 2012/2013 academic session to 2015/2016.


Hypothesis 1

There is no significant relationship between private cost and demand for sandwich degree in South west, Nigeria universities.

Table 4: Pearson Correlation of private cost and demand for sandwich degree in Southwest, Nigeria universities Variable N Mean SD rcal rtable

Private cost 4 284908 418.96

Demand for sandwich degree

4 478 72.54 0.872* 0.811

*p<0.05



hypothesis is rejected. This implies that there was

significant relationship between private cost and

demand for sandwich degree in Southwest Nigeria

universities. The relationship between private cost

and demand for sandwich degree programme in

Southwest Nigeria universities is significantly high.

This implies that increase in private cost will lead to

corresponding decrease in the demand for sandwich

degree in Southwest Nigeria universities and vice

versa.

Hypothesis 2

There is no significant difference between private

cost of federal and state universities in Southwest,

Nigeria.

Table 5: t-test summary of private cost of federal and

state universities in Southwest, Nigeria


220

Type of

Institution N Mean SD df

tcal ttable

State 2 250035.00 15110.87 2

4.923*

4.303 Federal 2 319781.00 13153.60

*p<0.05

Table 5 The table five reveals that tcal(4.923) is

greater than ttable(4.303) at 0.05 level of significance.

The null hypothesis is rejected. This implies that

there is significant difference between private cost of

federal and state universities in Southwest, Nigeria.

The table further shows that federal universities had

higher private cost of #319.781 than state

universities (#250,035.00).

Discussion

The study revealed that the private cost varies from

one university to the other. In the year covered by the

study that is 2012 to 2016, the private cost most

especially the tuition fee is almost constant in almost

all the universities running sandwich programme in

the Southwest, with the exception of accommodation

and mid day meal expenses which varies slightly

because of cost of living in the sampled state. The

finding of this study is in line with the finding of

Samuel and Ofem (2012) which reports a variation in

the unit cost of university education by sector,

discipline and types of institution.

Moreover Belawati (2006) and Mpaata (2010) have

identified some other private costs to learners to

include caution deposits and cost of uniform,

administrative charges, cost of internet connectivity

personally or via commercial cybercafés and that

other factor like types of courses, change of courses

and extra years spend on complexion can increase

private cost of bachelor’s degree. In the same vein,

the finding supported Adeosun (2008) has country

where unemployment is rampant, few people or

adult may not be willing to further their studies. He

equally asserted that effective performance ranks

higher among determinants for enrolment with

954% while the quest for higher income was 56.3%.

Hence, he remarked that the quest for effective

performance on the teaching job and quest for higher

income are the determinants of enrolment in the

sandwich programme.

Furthermore, the study revealed that there is

significant relationship between private cost and

demand for sandwich degree in southwest Nigerian

University because the r calculate [0.872] is greater

than r table [0.811]. This implies that increase in

private cost will lead to corresponding decrease in

the demand for sandwich degree in southwest,

Nigeria universities and vice versa. In support, Alfred

Marhsall [1980] in Adeyemi [2007] private cost, and

sandwich demand is basically determined by the

interaction of price and quantity of goods demanded

i.e, the higher the variable of private cost such as

tuition fee, accommodation fee, reading material fee,

transport fee etc, the lower the demand for places in

the university. It is important to note that demand

curve is downward slopping indicating that private

cost has relationship with sandwich demand.

The study further revealed that there was significant

difference between private cost of federal and state

universities in Southwest, Nigeria universities

because the t-table (2.145) is greater than t

calculated (4.390) hence the null hypothesis is

rejected. This finding implies that federal universities

incurred more private cost than the state

universities. This reason might not be unconnected

with the nature of the sandwich programme whose

major aim is to generate more revenue to

universities, the programme is self finance and it is

expected that the students should paid for the service

provided by the universities more so, when

government either federal or state does not release

grant to fund same. It therefore implies that for good

quality service delivery, the students must be

prepared to pay to argument extra expenses the

universities are likely to incur in running the

programme.

The finding is in agreement with Adeyemi and

Osunde (2005) who opined that the part time

programme sandwich degree programme) are

offered on a ‘’profit” basis i.e profit making venture)

which required high return financially to subsides

regular students enrolled in Nigeria universities who

required paying tuition fee. They further said tuition

fee (private cost) is a means of generating income for

university to be more responsive to student‘s needs.

It is equally pertinent to stress that federal

universities provided more facilities to students than

state universities; hence expenses incurred could be

expected to be more.

Conclusion:

Considering the findings of this study it was

concluded that private cost varies slightly among


221

universities while the enrolment/demand for

sandwich slightly decline from 2012-2016 contact

session in both federal and state universities in the

southwest, Nigeria and there was relationship

between private cost and demand for sandwich

education

Recommendation

In view of the implication of the findings of this study,

it is recommended that the university administrators

and educational planners should be sensitized to

identify how to control private cost like tuition Fee,

transport and accommodation cost, of sandwich

degree programme without prejudice to students

demand and quality of instruction. Students should

be sensitized to utilize their limited resource

effectively.

References

Adeosun, O.V. (2008): Determinants of Enrollment

and Problems of the Sandwich Degree program

in Nigeria, Medwell Journals, 2(4): 145-149

Adeyemi, K. & Osunde, A. (2005): An Assessment of

the Academic Achievement of Students in two

Modes of Part-Time Programme in Nigeria. The

international Review of Research in Open and

Distance Learning 6(2). 88 – 90

Adeyemi,T.O. (2007): Handbook on economic of

education, Ado- Ekiti: Green –line publishers

Agboola, B.M & Adeyemi, J.K (2012): Analysis of

Private Cost of Education in a selected Nigerian

University. Jorind 10 (3). ISSN 1596-38306.

www.transcampus.org/journals

Alfred Marshall, (1890): supply and demand In

education: how market allocate scarce

resources, PDF

Aina, 0.I. (2002): Alternative Methods of Funding

higher education in Nigeria, Africa Development,

26, (122), 236-261.

Ayo, S.M. & Akinyemi, S. (2011): Funding Strategies

for Quality University Education in Nigeria. The

Principle of Fiscal Justice, Macro think Institute,

Journal of studies in Education, ISSN 2162-6952,

1 (1). Ell URL;http:lldx,doi

org/10.5296/Jse.v/i/1031www.macrothink

.org/Jse.

Babalola, S.K. (2002). Education and National Ethics.

A Keynote Address delivered at workshop on

use of global knowledge in university

management, university of Ibadan, 22nd to 23rd

April.

Belawati, T. (2006). Financing Management System

in Open and Distance Learning: An example of

University Terbuka. Educom. Asia. 12(1), 26.

Mpaata, A. (2010): University Competiveness through

Quality Assurance; The Challenging Battle for

Interllectuals.

National Bureau of Statistics, (2007): The Middle

Class in Nigeria: Analysis of Profile,

determinants and characteristics (1980 2007).

National Bureau of Statistics.

National University Commission (2017): Annual

socioeconomics report retrieved May 5, 2017.

http://www.Nbs

Nwokocha, A.C. (2006): Distance and open learning

and quality assurance in Nigeria. A paper

presented at Nigeria Association for Education

Administration and Planning (NAEAP)

conference, Enugu.

Samuel, T. (2003): Strategies for Raising Additional

Resources for Education. Education Today:

10, (1) 40-43.

Samuel, A. & Ofema, B. (2012): Private c

ost of Bachelor’s degree programme by major

fields in Nigeria. Journal of Studies in Education,

Retrieved on March 6,2015 from

www.macrothink.org

http://www.transcampus.org/journals

http://www.nbs/

http://www.macrothink.org/


222

GOVERNMENT COMMITMENT TO FUNDING AND MANAGERIAL EFFECTIVENESS OF STATE UNIVERSITIES IN

SOUTH-WEST, NIGERIA

1Ogunlade L. A., 2Omotayo, G. O. and 3Ajadi, T. A.

1&2Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education,

Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.

3Department of Economics, Kwara State College of Education, Ilorin, Kwara State.

Abstract

This study examined the relationship between government commitment to funding and managerial effectiveness of state universities in Southwest, Nigeria. Descriptive research design was employed. The population of the study consisted of all the academic and non-academic staff of state-owned universities in the southwest, Nigeria. The sample consisted of 100 academic and 100 non-academic staff of two selected state universities. The samples were selected using a multistage procedure. At first, simple random sampling technique was used to select two states. The second stage involved the use of stratified sampling technique to select 50 academic and 50 non-academic staff from each of the selected universities. The instrument used for data collection was tagged ‘Government Financial Commitment and Managerial Effectiveness Questionnaire’ (GFCME-Q). Reliability of the instrument was determined through test-retest method and a correlation coefficient of 0.81 was obtained which was adjudged high enough. Data collected were analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistical tools. All hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. Findings showed that the major source of funding available for state universities was government subvention and that the level of government commitment toward funding and the level of managerial effectiveness of the universities were equally moderate. It was also revealed that significant relationship exists between government commitment toward funding and managerial effectiveness of the universities. It was recommended that Government should invest in the universities so that they can add more value to the quality of life in the society through their outputs in the areas of teaching, research and community services.

Key words: Government Commitment, Managerial Effectiveness and State Universities.

Introduction

The role of university education in national

development cannot be overrated. This explains the

rationale behind its inclusion on the concurrent

legislative list in the Nigeria 1999 constitution. The

expectation of the architects of this constitution is

that government at both national and state level

should invest heavily in university education with the

ultimate goal of spurring economic, social and

technological growth and development. Consequent-

ly, the federal and state government are expected to

be the financers of public universities education in

Nigeria through the provision of about 90% of its

revenue.

Although grants under various subheadings are

allocated to the universities by government while

they generate revenue are generated to augment

governmental subvention, yet resources still appear

inadequate. Grants are expected to be released as

recurrent, capital and overhead (research, library,

staff development and direct teaching, and laboratory

cost) and allocated based on the laid down criteria by

the NUC. These criteria seem to be applicable to both

federal and state universities since their financials

are evaluated by the NUC based on the same

guideline. Despite these measures, financial crisis

seems evident in the state universities probably due

to the poor commitment toward funding among other

factors.

Meanwhile, the provision of funds (internally and

externally) requires optimal usage but the pattern of

allocation, accountability and fund control are

equally important. A situation where approved

budgets are not released or released piece-meal


223

could result in poor plan implementation, hence the

managerial ineffectiveness in the universities.

However, the greater responsibility being borne by

the state government in the funding of university

education seem quite inadequate as supported by

Eurich (1981). The World Bank (2000) agreed with

this view and argued that the trend is similar in the

other countries especially the developing nations of

the world.

In comparison, Aghenta (2000) and Sofoluwe (2002)

observed that the share of government expenditure

on education is about 40% in Israel, Japan, South

Korea and the United States of America but never

exceeded 17% in Nigeria from 1960 – date. In Britain

since 1919, the tertiary institutions had been

allocated funds by the University Grants Committee

(UGC) which is similar to Nigerian NUC but it

assesses the needs of the universities in a firm,

friendly and creative way. It was replaced in 1992 by

the higher Education Funding Council which

monitors the funding of all Universities and Colleges

of Technology and Colleges of further education with

higher private sector participation through donations

and industrial sectors support endowment. This is

similar to funding source in the United States of

America but dissimilar to the developing countries

where students do not pay tuition and government

provides what they have. This had probably led the

World Bank (2000) to insist that higher education in

developing countries is chronically underfunded.

Although there were escalating demands for higher

education in almost every country of the world.

About 40% of such students live in the developing

nations where nobody defines the exact amount that

constitutes adequate value of funding, contributors

and the contribution ratio. Possible sources of

funding to state universities includes: government

subvention; students/parental contribution; loans

and limited scholarship for indigent and minority

students; improved internally generated revenue

from fees and commercial activities such as

endowment, consultancy, investment in stocks and

commercialisation of research output; education tax

from corporate bodies; and foreign aids. Okoroma as

cited in Okoroma (2006) identified other traditional

way of funding university education in Nigeria to

include development foundations, school fees,

consultancy service, research grants, and government

grants.

It has been observed that prior to the advent of

democracy in 1999, the criteria for allocation were

incremental budget based on available funds ( on the

basis of 5%-20%) across board and student

enrolment) which appeared subject to manipulation.

Allocation and release of fund to state universities

have been falling and rising with the economic

insolvency. This problem is not without its attendant

problem of managerial ineffectiveness challenges. No

Nigerian University has qualified to be listed among

the world best 700 in 2015 Web metric ranking. Such

negative assessments tend to show these universities

as glorified secondary schools counterparts in other

climes even in this era of internationalisation cum

globalisation of knowledge.

In the area of teaching effectiveness, practical works

seems to be restricted to reading textbooks on

practical as seen in dry chemistry (alternative to

practical). Thus, an engineer may not touch a spanner

during training and the use of automated machines

for design appears to be a mirage. Meanwhile this

engineer is expected to construct dams, build silos

and launch satellite into the orbit. The attendant

manifestation is the production of arm-chair and

white collar engineer who can do practically nothing

for himself and his society. Nigeria tends to be an

import-driven country, a dumping ground of all sort

(fake and substandard goods and services) probably

because funding the universities poorly had created

knowledge gap- a negative of the Dewey’s Philosophy

of Pragmatic learning by doing dictum. Filling this

gap through adequate funding could be the needed

impetus to take the country to her technological

breakthrough, societal sustainability and incubation

of future of fortune 'Nobel Laurates’.

In the area of research, Nigerian universities seem

unable to achieve much. Research is a form of

knowledge generation that must be ethical to prevent

harm to humans, animals, environment and the

society. For example, alternative energy that could

have been deployed remains untapped probably as a

result of knowledge gap in a nation that turns out

hundreds of electrical engineers yearly. Whatever

type of research, whether basic, applied, or policy

oriented, it is important for human development. Yet,

this aspect of university education effectiveness

appears largely useful only in the promotion of

university lecturers to higher grades because

sponsorship of research tends to have led to poor


224

research culture which is often the cause of

production of inferior goods and incompetent

workforce.

An analysis of the 2014 budget noted that allocation

to education did not rise above 10.63 % between

year 2000 and 2014. This value varied greatly from

UNESCO’s recommendation of 26% of the nation’s

annual budget to education (Onifade, 2003), so also is

the achievement of the objectives of universities

education. The international body’s recommendation

was due to its finding that that only 26% of annual

budget could bring about the desired effectiveness.

Awosusi (2008) and Ogomudia as cited in Adedeji

(2014) affirmed that the inadequate allocation of

funds to education affected adversely the quality of

teaching and research. Jibril (2005) submitted that

government financial commitments to education

expenditure relative to the GDP were 5.6% in

developed countries and 4.1% in developing

countries. Adedeji (2014) equally found out that

university funding is usually hampered by official and

bureaucracy especially fund allocation and release is

such that the amount released to universities were

not based on approved growth levels.

The states are not faring better in the funding of their

universities, probably because they depend on the

federal allocation which in some states like Ekiti

represents about 90% of her total revenue. It is in

view of this background that this paper investigated

the relationship between state government

commitment to funding and managerial effectiveness

of state universities in south-west, Nigeria.


Universities fundamental goals are to bring about

technological, economic, and social growth and

development. A painstaking examination of the

Nigerian university system (especially those

establish-ed by the state governments) revealed that

they are not bringing about the much expected

quantitative and qualitative changes in the society.

They are expected to be the force behind the cerebral

capacity of the country but lots of factors seems to be

bedevilling the systems which make the universities

appear ineffective. At the centre of these factor

appears to be the issue of funding, which is one of the

cardinal inputs that dictate the extent to which any

educational institution will achieve predetermined

goals. Thus, this study examined the relationship

between level state government commitment to

funding and managerial effectiveness of state

universities in southwest, Nigeria.


The purpose of this study was to investigate the level of government commitment toward the funding of state universities and the universities’ managerial effectiveness. It equally examined the level of managerial effectiveness of the state universities. The relationship between the level of government commitment to funding and managerial effectiveness of state universities in south-west, Nigeria was to be investigated.

Research Questions The following questions were raised to guide this study

1. What are the major sources of funding available to state universities in south-west, Nigeria?

2. What is the level of government commitment to funding of state universities in south-west, Nigeria?

3. What is the level of managerial effectiveness of state universities in south-west, Nigeria?

Research hypotheses

The following hypotheses were raised to guide this

study

1. There is no significant relationship between government commitment to funding and managerial effectiveness of state universities in south-west, Nigeria.

2. There is no significant difference between academic and non-academic staff rating of government commitment to funding of state universities in south-west, Nigeria.

3. There is no significant difference between

academic and non-academic staff rating of

managerial effectiveness of state universities

in south-west, Nigeria.

Methodology

The design adopted for this study was the descriptive

research of the survey type. The study population

consisted of the academic and non-academic staff of

the state universities in the south-west, Nigeria. The

sample consisted of 100 academic and 100 non-

academic staff. Multi stage sampling procedure was

used in the selection of sample for the study. The first

stage was a simple random sampling for selecting

two states in the south-west, Nigeria. The second


225

stage involved the stratified selection of 50 academic

and 50 non- academic staff from each of the

universities in the selected states.

A self-designed instrument titled ‘Government

Commitment to funding and Managerial Effectiveness

of State Universities’ (GCFMESU) was used to collect

data for the study. The instrument was validated by

experts in Educational Management and Test and

Measurement of the Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti.

The test-retest method was used to establish the

reliability of the instrument. The score obtained at

the two tests were analysed using Spearman rank

order and the obtained reliability coefficient of 0.81

was adjudged high enough. Descriptive and

inferential statistical tools were used to analyse data

collected. The descriptive tool used in this study are

frequency counts, percentage and mean score while

the inferential statistical tools are Pearson Product

Moment Correlation (PPMC) for hypothesis one and

t-test for hypotheses two and three. All the


Results

Research Question 1: What are the major sources of funding available to state universities in south-west, Nigeria?

Table 1: Major Sources of Fund Available to State Universities

Table I presents the mean score ranking of the major

source of funds available to State Universities in the

selected state. As shown in the table, Government

subvention (3.78), Internally Generated Revenue

(3.23), and Tuition Fee (3.20) ranked as the major

sources of fund available to the state universities.

Research Question II: What is the level of government

financial commitment to state universities in south-

west, Nigeria?

Table 2: Level of Government Commitment to

funding of State Universities

Table 2 presents the level of government

commitment to funding of state universities. The

result indicates that 41(20.5) of the respondents

rated the level of government commitment to funding

low, 122 (61%) rated it Moderate while 37(18.5%)

rated it to be high. This implies that the level of

government commitment to funding of state

universities during the period under investigation

was moderate.

Research Question III: What is the level of managerial

effectiveness of state universities in south-west,

Nigeria?

Table 3: Level of Managerial Effectiveness in State

Universities

Result in table 3 revealed that 42 representing 21%

of the respondents said that their university level of

managerial effectiveness was low, 113 representing

56.5% rated the level of managerial effectiveness

moderate while 45 representing 22.5% rated the

level of managerial effectiveness of their university

high. This implies that the level of managerial

effectiveness of the state universities were moderate.



between government commitment to funding and

managerial effectiveness of state universities in south-

west, Nigeria.

Table 4: Test of Relationship between Government Commitment to funding and Managerial Effectiveness of State

Universities

Variable N Mean SD r-cal r-tab Sig Remark

Government Commitment to funding 100 68.32 12.972 0.635 0.197 .000 rejected

Managerial Effectiveness 100 56.03 11.506

S/N Source of fund Mean score Ranking

1 Government Subvention

3.78 1st

2 Internally Generated Revenue

3.23 2nd

3 Tuition Fee 3.20 3rd

4 Educational Tax 2.22 4th

5 Foreign Aids 1.33 5th

Managerial

Effectiveness

Frequency %

Low(25-50) 42 21

Moderate(51-75) 113 56.5

High(76-100) 45 22.5


226

Table 4 showed the r-calculated as 0.635 and r-table

value as 0.197 which is significant at 0.05 alpha level.

Thus the null-hypothesis is rejected. This implies that

there is significant relationship between government

commitment to funding and managerial effectiveness

of state universities in south-west, Nigeria.

Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference

between academic and non-academic staff rating of


universities in south-west, Nigeria.

Table 5: Test of Difference between Academic and Non-academic Staff Rating of Government Commitment to

Funding of State Universities

Staff N Mean SD df Cal. t-value Crit. t-value P-value

Academic 100 72.70 14.880

198 0.743 1.97 .458

Non-Academic 100 71.65 13.086

Table 5 presents the calculated t-value of 0.743

which is less than the critical t-value of 1.97 with a

corresponding p-value of .458 which is greater at

0.05 alpha level. This indicated that there was no

significant difference. Hence, the hypothesis was

accepted. Therefore, there is no significant difference



universities in south-west, Nigeria.

Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference


managerial effectiveness of state universities in south-

west, Nigeria.

Table 6: Test of Difference between academic and non-academic staff rating of managerial effectiveness of state

universities

Staff N Mean SD df Cal. t-value Crit. t-value P-value

Academic 100 71.95 13.871

198 0.644 1.97 .520

Non-Academic 100 72.88 14.762

Table 6 presents the calculated t-value of 0.644

which is less than the critical t-value of 1.97 with a

corresponding p-value of .520 which is greater at

0.05 alpha level. This indicated that there was no

significant difference. Hence, the hypothesis was

accepted. Therefore, there is no significant difference


managerial effectiveness of state universities in

south-west, Nigeria.

Discussion

The study revealed that the major source of funding

available to state universities in Southwest, Nigeria

are Government Subvention, Internally Generated

Revenues (endowment, consultancy, investment in

stock and commercialisation of research output), and

Tuition fee paid by students. This agrees with

Okoroma as cited in Okoroma (2006) who identified

the traditional way of funding university education in

Nigeria to include development foundations, school

fees, consultancy service, research grants, and

government grants. This finding confirms the general

believe that government is the major financer of

university education in Nigeria. The level of

government commitment to funding and level of

management effectiveness in term of teaching,

research, community services and leadership were

revealed as been moderate. This may be true in the

light of the fact that management of these state

universities understand the financial status of their

state government and thus intensifies actions at

improving their internally generated revenues which

are used to augment whatever the government was

able to give as subvention.

The study further revealed that there was no

significant difference exists between the rating of the


universities by academic and non-academic staff.

With a calculated t-value of 0.743 which is less than

the table value of 1.97 and a corresponding p-value

that is greater than 0.05, the hypothesis was retained

and was inferred that academic and non-academic

staff do not differ in their rating of government


227

commitment to funding of state universities. It was

also showed that there was no significant difference


the managerial effective of the state universities in

the south west, Nigeria. With t-calculated value .644

and t-table value 1.97 and corresponding p-value

greater than 0.05, the hypothesis was confirmed true

and retained. It is therefore inferred that academic

and non-academic do not differ in their assessment of

the level of managerial effectiveness of the

universities.


relationship between government commitment to

funding and managerial effectiveness of state

universities in south west, Nigeria. This implies that

the higher the commitment of government in funding

universities the higher their managerial effective in

terms of teaching, quality of research, community

services and leadership. This finding is in tandem

with Awosusi (2008) and Ogomudia (2008)

affirmations that the inadequate allocation of funds

to education adversely affected the quality of

teaching and research.

Conclusions


that level of government commitment to funding and

managerial effectiveness of state universities were

moderately high and that they positively relate.

Recommendations

Bases on the findings from the study, it was

recommended that government as the major source

of financial support for these universities should set

its priorities right and invest adequately on them in

order to spur the much needed growth in economy,

technology and sciences. Government should invest

massively in the universities so that they can add

more value to the quality of life in the society through

their outputs in the area of teaching, research and

community services.

References

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for Sustainable Development in Nigeria: A Case

Study of the Federal University of Technology,

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21st Century. In J.O. Fadipe & E.E.

Oluchukwu (eds.). Educational Planning and

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Awosusi, A.O.(2008). Knowledge, attitude and

practice of teachers toward accident and

emergency preparedness in primary schools in

Ado-Ekiti Nigeria. Unpublished MPH

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Epidemiology and Community Health, Faculty of

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Eurich, N.P. (1981). System of Higher Education in

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Jibril, M. (2005). The Knowledge Economy and the

Size and Shape of the Nigerian Higher

Educational System. In Jibril, M. (ed.)

Perspectives and Reflections on Nigerian Higher

Education. Abuja: Spectrum Books.

Ogomudia, A.O.(2008). The challenge of National

Development in Nigeria: Technology as a way

forward. Annual lecture series 4. Delivered at the

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Ogunlade, A. L. (2005). A cost-benefit analysis of

investment on tertiary teacher education in Ekiti

State. Nigerian Journal of Educational

Administration and Planning; 4(2): 24—37.

Ogunlade, A. L. (2006). Processing social-

educational priorities in Nigerian tertiary

institutions. California Management Review;

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Okoroma, N. S. (2006). Educational Policies and

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263

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teaching of Health Education in selected tertiary

institutions in Kwara state. Ilorin Journal of

Education (IJE). 22 (1&2), 86 – 95.

Sofoluwe, A.O. (2002). Impact of strategic planning

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228


229

SCHOOL PLANT MAINTENANCE AND ORGANISATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN EKITI

STATE

B.K. Oyewole & O.A. Fadele Departmennt of Educational Management Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University

Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria

Abstract

This research article investigated school plant maintenance and organizational effectiveness in secondary schools in Ekiti State, Nigeria. A descriptive research design of survey type was used to carry out this study. The population of the study consisted of all the 185 public secondary schools in Ekiti State, Nigeria. The sample of the study consisted of 315 respondents selected through multistage sampling procedure. The researchers utilized two sets of instruments titled Questionnaire on School Plant Planning and Maintenance (QSPPM) for the teachers, and Questionnaire in Organisational Effectiveness (QOE) for the principals. The validity and reliability of the two instruments (QSPPM and QOE) were analysed using the statistical package for Social Sciences (SPSS) to find Cronbach alpha values of 0.85 and 0.80 respectively. Data analysis indicated that there was a significant relationship between school plant maintenance and organizational effectiveness in Ekiti State secondary schools. A significant relationship was found between maintenance of spaces for convenience and organisational effectiveness. Based on the findings, it was concluded that school plant maintenance affects organizational effectiveness in Ekiti State secondary schools. Recommendations were made on the need for the government in collaboration with other education stakeholders to embark on periodic and routine maintenance of existing infrastructural facilities in schools by restoring them from state of disrepair.

Keywords: Administrator, Maintenance, Organizational effectiveness, School plant.

Introduction

School plant are made up of the indispensable

systems and structures required by any educational

institution to function effectively and achieve the

objectives for which it was established. They are

facilities which physically and spatially enable

teaching and learning and by extension help in

producing desirable results as evidenced by good

academic performance of the products of an

educational system.

However, school plant maintenance refers to the

keeping of school site, the buildings and the

equipment in as near their original state of utility as

possible. It refers to any work such as repairs,

servicing, painting, etc, carried out on any component

of the plant with a view to keeping it or restoring it to

optimum working condition (Olagboye, 1998). It

must be noted that the school plant is the space

interpretation of the school curriculum. Thus, for the

attainment of educational objectives, there should be

adequate provision and maintenance of the school

plant. It is hoped that a well-planned and maintained

school plant will gear unexpected outcomes of

education that will facilitate good social, political and

economic emancipation, effective teaching and

learning process. According to American Association

of School Administrators (2003) maintenance

involves those activities which are concerned with

keeping ground buildings and equipment at their

original condition of completeness of efficiency,

either through repairs or by replacements in order to

ensure that the physical plant, equipment, grounds

and service facilities are continuously useable.

It may also be difficult to achieve school effectiveness

without adequate provision and maintenance of

school plants. School effectiveness refers to the level

of goal attainment of a school which may be

measured with the use of such variables as teachers’

performance and efficiency, teachers’ productivity,

and students’ academic achievements. Adequate

provision and maintenance of school plants enables

the teachers to put in their best in imparting

knowledge to their students. Availability of relevant

instructional materials could motivate the teachers to

adopt appropriate method of teaching in the

classroom and keep adequate lesson notes.

Adequate provision and maintenance of ICT facilities

such as computer and internet facilities may


230

invariably lead to teachers’ and students’ ICT literacy

and enable them apply it in the classroom during

teaching-learning situation. This may make the

process to be more meaningful and participatory.

Furthermore, this may go a long way to contribute

actively to students’ learning in all ramifications

including the cognitive, affective and psychomotor

aspects all of which may culminate in school

effectiveness.

Educational facilities in some secondary schools in

Ekiti State appear to be in terrible condition. The

schools are littered with battered structures; worn

out equipment (where they are available at all);

overcrowded classrooms; inadequate manpower in

quantity and quality; poor working conditions as well

as inadequate school plant planning and poor

maintenance of the available ones culminating in

ineffectiveness in the operation of these schools.

Poor maintenance of administrative spaces can also

go a long way to affect organizational (school)

effectiveness. Inadequate provisions and

maintenance of principal’s office, clerk’s office, staff

room, Guidance Counselors’ office and health clinics

could impact negatively on the achievement of school

goals and objectives. If the principal’s office and staff

room are lacking or not spacious enough to

accommodate necessary facilities such as cabinets

and shelves for keeping documents, chairs and table

in a school, the principal and teachers may find it

difficult to perform their duties conveniently. Lack or

poor maintenance of health clinic in a school could

put the lives of the available human resources and

students in jeopardy and consequently disrupt the

peace and smooth running of the school.

Adequate provision and maintenance of spaces for

convenience can also have positive effect on

organizational effectiveness. Inadequate and poor

provision of toilets, cafeteria, kitchen, dormitories,

stores and other spaces for conveniences in a school

may hamper the convenience of the teachers and

students and shatter their interest. Consequently,

teachers and principals may decline posting to such

schools and students may have no interest in

attending the school. This will ultimately endanger

the achievements of goals and objectives of such an

educational organization and make it ineffective.

However, the presence of all these spaces tends to aid

the achievement of the school goals and objectives.

School Plant Maintenance and Organisational

Effectiveness

An aspect of school management that is generally

overlooked is facilities maintenance. According to

Ukeje, Akabogu and Ndu (1992), maintenance of the

school plant is defined as those activities connected

with keeping the buildings, equipment and

surroundings at their original or best condition of

completeness and efficiency, either through repairs

or replacement. The issue of facility maintenance is

haphazardly addressed at all levels of the educational

system. Repairs take place only when problems arise

due to break down of the existing facility. Facility

maintenance entails providing clean and safe

environment for teaching and learning. It also

involves provision of adequate facilities for teaching

and learning.

A lot of research has proved that poorly maintained

plants can hamper the achievement of school

effectiveness. Lawrence (2003) pointed out that

poorly maintained school facilities may have adverse

health safety impacts in causing asthma attacks,

drowsiness, lethargy and a resulting inability to

concentrate. The study also expressed that poor

school facility conditions negatively impact staff and

students morale. Another study also found that

schools with better facility conditions had higher

student achievement scores (Cash, 1993).

Similarly, Taiwo (2000) equated the importance of

provision of facilities to the importance of their

maintenance. This is because usage of any utilized

material is bound to depreciate the value of such

material with time. He further posited that school

facilities are not left out. According to him, this has

significantly affected school laboratories which are

either inadequately provided for or are poorly

maintained.

Tawgaw (2007) observed in his study that maintenance could be categorized into Emergency and Periodic. Emergency maintenance is called for by the situation of events and areas such as: structural problem, quipment amendable to periodic inspe-ctions, plumbing facilities and sanitary accessories. Including here also, are: doors, windows, louvers, cracked walls, leaking roof.

Another type of maintenance is the preventive

method. This concerns facilities which follow repairs

and renovating cycle. It could be in days, weeks,

monthly or yearly. This type of maintenance is often


231

accomplished by substitution of new parts or

materials for old and worn-out ones. It does not

entail the substitution of completely new facilities.

This is sometimes called ‘preventive maintenance’.

Prev-entive maintenance includes miscellaneous jobs

that are required to keep mechanical and electrical

equipment operatives, the painting of exterior and

interior surfaces, repair of doors and windows,

reflowing, repair of damage roofs and ceilings. The

maintenance of these facilities is gravely necessary in

order to avert colossal wastage or their total loss.

Among the major ways of ensuring the optimum

utilisation of available resources is through

maintenance culture. Maintenance culture of any

school speaks much about an institution. According

to Akpan (2011) the general appearance of school

facilities constitute the basis upon which members of

the public pass their judgements about the academic

performance going on in the school. Furthermore,

according to Abraham (2003), school plant

management is viewed as functions geared towards

maximizing the efficiency and effectiveness of the

schools. Aside the provision of school plants, it is also

very important to maintain and develop it. The best –

planned plant that is not maintained soon becomes

defaced and losses its aesthetic value and worth.

This is in line with the submission of Owodogu

(1998). that ‘a poorly kept building or poorly

maintained site, all inhibit the development of a good

educational programme.’ Thus as good as the

provision of plant is, the more important one, is to

maintain the plant.

The untidy compound, the un-service equipment and

the poorly maintained buildings not only tarnish the

image of the school but shorten the life span of the

facilities. The Ekiti State Government of Nigeria has

continued to advocate better maintenance culture by

the school community members, school adm-

inistrators inclusive. This will help to avoid incurring

heavy expense in replacing damages or worn-out

items with new ones.

Succinctly, the maintenance of the school plant is as

important as its acquisition if not more important.

The school administrators or principals must use

everything at his disposal to bring about adequate

maintenance of the school plant. According to Obi

and Ezegbe (2002), there are some activities, which

the school administrators should carry out to ensure

effective school plant maintenance. These activities

include:

1. Engaging an experienced custodial su-

pervisor to assist the administrator

2. Keeping the compound tidy by sweeping the

floors of the buildings and compound

3. Repairing machines, vehicles etc. whenever

there is breakdown

4. Re-flooring and repairing cracked walls

5. Replacing broken window blades and roofing

sheets

6. Engaging knowledgeable carpenters, plum-

bers, electricians, labourers, painters to

effect necessary repairs in school.

7. Purchasing requisitions, equipment and mat-

erials for custodial duties such as diggers,

rakes, wheelbarrow, etc.

Therefore, a deliberate culture of maintenance of

school plant should be highly esteemed. This will

enable rust parts such as leaking and weak roof to be

replaced, dilapidated walls to be mended, faded

painting resulting from effects of rains, and weather

be redecorated to give beauty and standard to the

school.

Based on research findings and considering the

practicing situation as regards school plant

maintenance in Ekiti State, the researchers

formulated the following hypotheses:

H1: There is no significant relationship between

school plant maintenance and organizational

effectiveness in Ekiti State secondary schools.

H2: There is no significant relationship between school maintenance of spaces for convenience and organizational effectiveness.

Methodology

The descriptive research of the survey design was

used to carry out this study. The study is primarily in

investigation into school plant maintenance and

organizational effectiveness. The study may help to

ascertain the extent to which school plant

maintenance positively contribute to organizational

effectiveness of secondary schools. Thus,

appropriate suggestions could be made for

improvements in education in the study area.


232

The population of this study consisted of all the 185

public secondary schools in Ekiti State, Nigeria. The

sample of the study consisted of 315 respondents

selected through multistate sampling procedure. The

first stage involved the use of proportional stratified

random sampling technique to select five (5) local

government areas from the existing three senatorial

districts in Ekiti State. The second stage involved the

use of simple random sampling technique to select

(3) secondary schools from each of the selected local

government. The third stage also involved the use of

simple random sampling technique to select one

principal and twenty (20) teachers from each of the

selected schools. This allowed for good sample

representation.

The researchers utilized two sets of instruments:

Questionnaire on School Plant Planning and

Maintenance (QSPPM) for teachers, and

Questionnaire on Organisational Effectiveness (QOE)

was used for the principals. The researchers

constructed the questionnaires after careful review

of some literature related to the study. The

questionnaire consisted of two sections: A and B.

Section A consisted of simple question on

demographic data such as name of school, location,

local government area, qualification and grade level

while section B contained items relating scale was

based on a 4-point Likert scale ranging rom Strongly

Agree (4 points) Agree (3points) Disagree (2 points)

and Strongly Disagree (1point). The validity and

reliability of the two instruments (QSPPM and QOE)

were analysed using the statistical package for Social

Sciences (SPSS) to find Cronbach alpha values of 0.85

and 0.80 respectively. The co-efficient were

considered adequate for the study.

Results

Data obtained through QSPPM and QOE were

analysed and all hypotheses were tested at the 0.05

level of significance using Pearson’s Product Moment

Correlation.






effectiveness in Ekiti State secondary school were

computed and subjected to statistical analysis

involving Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation at

0.05 level of significance. The results as presented in

Table 1.

Table 1: School Plant Maintenance and

Organisational Effectiveness


School Plant

maintenance

Organizational

Effectiveness

15

15

11.92

37.93

1.24

5.56

0.696*

0.482

*P<0.05

Table 1 showed that r cal (0.696) was greater than r

table (0.482) at 0.05 level of significance. The null


a significant relationship between school plant

maintenance and organizational effectiveness in Ekiti

State secondary schools.


maintenance of spaces for convenience and

organizational effectiveness.


maintenance of spaces for convenience and

organizational effectiveness in Ekiti State secondary

schools were computed and subjected to statistical

analysis involving Pearson’s Product Moment

correlation at 0.05 level of significance.

The result is presented in Table 2.


233

Table 2: Maintenance of Spaces for Convenience and

Organisational Effectiveness


Maintenance of spaces for convenience

Organizational Effectiveness

15

15

7.39

37.93

2.24

5.56

0.615*

0.482

*P<0.05

Table 2 showed that r cal (0.615) was greater than r

table (0.482) at 0.05 level of significance. The null


a significant relationship between maintenance of

spaces for convenience and organizational


Discussion


relationship between school plant maintenance and

organizational effectiveness in Ekiti State secondary

schools. This implies that the maintenance of school

plant will enhance effective teaching/learning

process which could in turn lead to school

organizational effectiveness, which also implies that

the maintenance of school plant is positively related

to school organizational effectiveness. The finding is

consistent with the assertion of Lawrence (2003) that

poorly maintained school facilities may have adverse

health and safety impacts in causing asthma attack

drowsiness, lethargy and a resulting inability to

concentrate. Taiwo (2000) equated the importance of

provision of facilities to the importance of their

maintenance, this is because usage of any utilized

materials is bound to depreciate the value of such

material with time and he further posited that school

facilities are not left out. This finding is also in line

with Owodogu (1989) that a poorly kept building or

poorly maintained site inhibits the development of a

good programme, thus, as good as the provision of

school plant is, the more important one is to maintain

the plant.

The result also showed that there was significant

relationship between maintenance of spaces for

convenience and organizational effectiveness in Ekiti

State secondary schools. This implies that proper

maintenance of spaces for convenience would

prolong the use of the plants. The findings agrees

with Ajayi (1999) who identified spaces for

conveniences to include toilets, cafeteria, kitchen

dormitories, custodian sheds and stores and these

spaces are germane for effective functioning of an

educational organization. Lawrence (2003) is also of

the opinion that poorly maintained space for

convenience could negatively impact staff and

students’ morale and a good physical working

condition in anys organisation will have a positive

impact on job effectiveness and morale.


Arising from the findings of this study, one major

conclusion drawn was that school plant maintenance

affects organizational effectiveness in Ekiti State

secondary schools. Therefore, organizational effect-

iveeness in Ekiti State secondary schools cannot be

divorced from adequate school plant maintenance by

all the stakeholders in the education sector. In other

words, if school plants are well maintained, the end

result is organizational effectiveness but if poorly

maintained the end result is otherwise.

Based on the findings of this study the following


1. Government in collaboration with philanth-

ropists and Non-Governmental Organisation

(NGOs) should embark on periodic and

routine maintenance of existing infrastruc-

tural facilities in schools by restoring them

from state of disrepair.

2. The school management should construct

and ensure proper maintenance of toilets

facilities for both staff and students’

conveniences.

3. Government should formulate appropriate

policies to ensure adequate school plants in

our educational system and proper

maintenance of these school plants in the

various educational organizations.


234

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