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Knowledge Area Module 2:Principles of Human Development
Student: Christine Tinner, [email protected] ID # A00044587
Program: Ph. D. in EducationSpecialization: Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment
KAM Assessor: Dr. Janice Garfield, [email protected] Mentor: Dr. Janice Garfield, [email protected]
Walden UniversityJanuary 10, 2011
ABSTRACT
BREADTH
Access to higher academia requires entrance exams
such as the Accuplacer, ACT, or SAT, and successful completion of
these tests, which are designed for native English speakers,
demands exhibition of higher order thinking skills in reading and
writing. Immigrants must acquire English academic proficiency at
a much faster rate than normally takes native speakers 12 years
to acquire. Critical literacy, or the ability to exhibit higher
order thinking skills is necessary for successful completion of
college entrance tests. Consideration of theoretical adult
language acquisition and development of critical literacy plus
the limited research in this field offers instructional insights.
Assisting millions of adults in going to college will help
improve countless lives and strengthen the economy.
DEPTH
ABSTRACT
Research involving critical literacy instruction for adult
English language learners is minimal. However, existing research
mirrors the instructional implications from Cummins, Vygotsky,
Chomsky, Marzano and Kendall, and the Declarative/Procedural
model from neuroscience. Current instructional indications from
the literature include using strategy-based instruction that
encourages metacognition and motivation. Scaffolding instruction
and including cultural preferences for learning and discussing
cultural definitions of critical thinking are indicated as
effective instructional strategies. Additional information
regarding memory, motivation, and emotion pertaining to learning
helps to create powerful instructional practices for critical
literacy.
APPLICATION
ABSTRACT
A PowerPoint presentation and the metaphorical use of the outline
of a tree to guide note taking are used in this Application to
share the insights gleaned from the theory and research related
to developing critical literacy skills. Many “experts” often seem
unapproachable, and possibly rightly so when the task of
conveying a large body of information succinctly and meaningfully
is daunting. In order to make the presentation, given at the
Colorado TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages)
conference in November 2010, instructional strategies were
offered first, and supporting research and theory last. Attendees
were able to walk away from the presentation empowered and ready
to investigate the supporting research and theory independently.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
BREADTH.........................................................6
Adult language acquisition and thoughts.......................6
Jim Cummins: BICS/CALPS.....................................7
Critical literacy..........................................14
Vygotsky: language and thought.............................17
Chomsky: Universal Grammar.................................25
How long does it take adults to learn a language?............29
Developing critical literacy skills..........................29
Neuroscience and second language acquisition.................30
Relationship between thought and language....................32
Evaluating Theories..........................................32
Common ideas.................................................35
Language development and intelligence........................37
Implications for teaching adult ELLs second language.........39
Implications for teaching adult Ells critical literacy.......40
ii
DEPTH..........................................................42
Annotated Bibliography.......................................64
Literature review essay......................................65
CALPS and the literature...................................65
Vygotsky and the literature................................66
Marzano and Kendall and the literature.....................66
Declarative procedural model and the literature............67
Chomsky and the literature.................................67
Gaps in research and the literature........................67
Learning and memory from psycholinguistics.................69
Memory and adult critical literacy instruction.............71
Motivation and adult literacy..............................76
The immigrant experience and environmental factors.........77
Development of an inner voice..............................81
Instructional practices for adult ELLs.....................82
Instructional practices for critical literacy..............83
APPLICATION....................................................84
iii
Developing critical literacy skills..........................84
Introduction and problem...................................85
Theory.....................................................85
Instructional strategies...................................85
Sharing and conclusion.....................................86
Discussion...................................................86
Theoretical insights.......................................88
Vygotsky: thought, language, and interdependence...........90
Chomsky: Universal Grammar.................................92
Declarative procedural model...............................93
Definitions of higher order thinking.......................94
REFERENCES.....................................................96
APPENDIX......................................................102
iv
BREADTH
EDUC 8210: THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Being an English language teacher for adults is no easy task
some days. Each classroom contains a wide variety of students
with different cultural and educational experiences. In order to
understand how to best teach adult English language students
reading and writing skills that demonstrate their ability to
think critically, it is useful to explore second language
theories and how language influences the development of thoughts.
After evaluating the language acquisition theories of Lev
Vygotsky, Jim Cummins, and Noam Chomsky to see how these theories
help us understand adult second language, we will explore how
these theories shed light on the development of higher order
thinking and critical literacy skills. Additionally, the
declarative / procedural model from neuroscience will be offered
as additional information for adult language acquisition. By
defining critical literacy skills and examining the instructional
implications of the language acquisition theories of Chomsky,
Cummins, and Vygotsky, further wisdom can be gained for teaching
critical literacy skills to adult English language learners.
Adult Language Acquisition and Thoughts
The relationship between thougths and language is complex
(Vygotsky, 1978; Chomsky, 2006). Vygotsky and Chomsky are more
concerned about the origins of thought and language than Cummins.
According to Vygotsky and Chomsky, language affects thought and
thought affects language, which has some important implications
for adult language acquisition of English as a foreign language.
Cummins’ theory provides additional insight about the specific
nature of adult language acquisition. By recognizing the role
interpersonal learning plays in language acquisition and the
previous neural pathways for language in the L1, language
instructors can offer students a rich and powerful learning
experience.
Jim Cummins: BICS/CALPS
According to Cummins, most ELL students develop basic
interpersonal communication skills (BICS) within two to three
6
years of learning English but take up to seven years longer to
learn cognitive analytical language proficiency skills (CALPS)
(1984). The BICS/CALPS theory explains the problem many adult ELL
students have who experience trouble with critical literacy.
These students can have a normal conversation and express
themselves quite well, but still struggle with complex reading
and writing tasks. Research shows that it takes 7 to 10 years for
ELL students to reach grade-level-equivalent performance (1984).
Sometimes students never, or minimally, develop cognitive
analytical language proficiency skills (CALPS). Using higher
order thinking skills to express themselves orally, critically
examine reading, or produce writing that expresses higher order
thinking skills, never quite seems to happen.
Development of BICS/CALPS
Cummins, a strong proponent of bilingualism, stresses that
second language acquisition for children occurs best in context-
embedded language programs, where interaction with the new
language is stressed, rather than in direct language instruction
7
(1984). Citing the success of Canadian children in such context-
embedded French immersion programs, plus the remarkable gains of
learning disabled children in the same programs versus
traditional schools, Cummins makes a case for contextualizing
language acquisition learning (1984). Additionally, Cummins notes
the importance of a “supportive affective environment.” Because
young children naturally absorb language through their
environment without direct instruction, drills, and quizzes, do
adults also learn through contextualized absorption? How do
adults learn a second language?
Delving further into the nature of language acquisition,
Cummins references the “input” hypothesis which states that
exposure and interaction with second language learning needs to
be comprehensible, interesting or relevant, not “grammatically
sequenced,” and just enough but not too much (1984, p. 231).
Cummins states:
Underlying the principle of comprehensible input is the obvious fact that a central function of language use is meaningful communication; when this central function of language is ignored in classroom instruction, learning is
8
more likely to be by rote and supported only by extrinsic motivation. (1984, p. 231)
The importance of meaningful language instruction is additionally
clarified when Cummins references additional language acquisition
theories, such as “schema” theory, which states the importance of
including students’ background knowledge, and “interactionsist”
theory, which contends the interaction students have with the
target language is the major variable in second language
acquisition (1984).
Cummins makes the case then that language acquisition for
children is most successful when it is meaningful,
contextualized, and allows the student to interact with the
learning process rather than learn language passively. BICS/CALPS
theory evolved out of Cummins’ search to understand why some
English language learner (ELL) students were struggling and which
type of bilingual programs were most successful in helping
students with this struggle (1984). Drawing upon research from
Europe, Africa, and North America, Cummins shows how, in learning
additional languages, students learn BICS first and CALPS later
9
(1984). Language proficiency, according to Cummins, requires both
BICS and CALPS.
In addition to offering pedagogical suggestions based on
second language acquisition (SLA) theory, Cummins spent
considerable time researching the question, what is language
proficiency? Generally it has been noted that immigrant students
acquire conversational fluency within about two years after
moving through interaction with peers, the community, family, and
media (Cummins, 1984). Often students with this basic level of
communication were moved from English language instructional or
bilingual programs into regular classrooms. When these same
students failed academically, their IQ was questioned. Also tests
for English fluency varied dramatically.
Of the 46 tests examined by DeAvila & Duncan (1978), only four included a measure of phoneme production, 43 claimed tomeasure various levels of lexical ability, 34 included itemsassessing oral syntax comprehension and nine attempted to assess pragmatic aspects of language. (Cummins, 1984)
When it was obvious that significant theoretical and empirical
discrepancies existed, Cummins reexamined the concept of language
10
proficiency. Considering the four areas of language learning—
reading, writing, speaking, and listening—the literacy skills
require cognitive or academic instruction, while speaking and
listening do not (Cummins, 1984). Given the fact that most
immigrant students acquired conversational language proficiency
within two years, Cummins proposed the BICS/CALPS theory.
BICS and CALPS theory is comprable in some ways to Bloom’s
Taxonomy. BICS are learned the traditional way of teaching
language focusing on pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. BICS
correspond with Bloom’s levels of knowledge, comprehension, and
application. CALPS require that students develop a deeper
semantic and functional meaning, and correspond with the skills
of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (Cummins, 1984).
The main reason for BICS and CALPS, according to Cummins, is
the difference between contextualized and non-contextualized
learning. Cummins’ emphasis on contextualized learning comes from
the seemingly easier and faster experience of learning BICS.
There are far more context clues with eyes, facial expressions,
11
body language, and tone of voice with interpersonal communication
skills. According to Cummins, most classroom learning is de-
contextualized. Tasks are broken down and taken out of normal
context to examine and practice.
Furthermore, to develop CALPS, Cummins proposes there is a
transfer principle from a native language (L1) to a second
language (L2). Language learning has been compared to an iceberg,
what you see on the surface is just a small piece of actual
language proficiency (Cummins, 1984). According to Cummins,
“developing a deeper conceptual and linguistic proficiency…is
strongly related to the development of English literacy and
general academic skills” (1984); hence, Cummins’ orientation
towards contextualized bilingualism.
In understanding adult language learning experience with
BICS and CALPS, the transfer principle from L1 to L2 allows
teachers to gauge roughly the extent of possible CALPS
development. Naturally, all adult ELLs have learned BICS in their
L1 and may have started or already learned BICS in English.
12
Following Cummins theory, the more time students have spent
developing L1literacy, the more likely they are to have developed
strong CALPS. Transferring the concepts central to CALPS or
critical literacy skills will be easier for these students than
it will be for students who have not developed CALPS in their L1
because CALPS are critical literacy skills. In order for students
to use any higher order thinking skills academically, such as
comparing and contrasting, evaluating, or hypothesizing, students
must have words and thoughts for these constructs. Cognitive
analytical language proficiency allows students to go beyond the
face value of words to question meaning, make inferences, and
develop nonliteral connections.
Adult ELLs present a continuum of literacy skills in their
L1 and in English, as well as exhibit a range of speaking and
listening skills in English. Many students enter English as a
Second Language (ESL) classes with little or no education. Some
have limited literacy skills in their first language, L1, or are
illiterate. These students may or may not speak English. The
13
following chart demonstrates the range of abilities students
exhibit in the adult ELL classroom.
Table 1 - BICS Proficiency Possibilities for Adult ELLs __________________________________________________________________________
ProficiencyLevel
Fluent– BICSL1
Fluent-
BICSL2
SomeBICS/L1
SomeBICSL2
DVLP.BICSL1
No BICsL2
Listening-
Speaking
Almostall
adultstudents arefluentin
theirL1
SomestudentswhohavelivedintheU.S.a
longtime
Students whomoveherewhentheyare
youngand
speakpidgin
Students withlimited
/inadequate
Englishtrainin
g
Children
NoEnglishexposure or
instruction
CALPSL1
CALPSL1 ?
SomeCALPS
SomeCALPS
NoCALPS
NoCALPS
Reading-Writing
Someadultstudent
s,especia
llythosewhohave
graduated fromhigh
InU.S.school
system,
studied
English incollege in
Bilingual
education,
absorptionfromhome,
limitedschooli
ng
Students withlimited/inadequate
Englishinstruction
Noliterac
yinstructionand/orlearnin
gdisability
NoEnglishinstruction
and/orlearnin
gdisabil
ity
14
schoolor
collegein
theirL1
theircountry
L1 = native language, L2= English
Student scenarios:
Pablo: Fluent in L1 speaking, Some BICS in English, and No BICS
with literacy in L1 or L2
Delihla: Fluent in L1 and L2, Fluent in L1 literacy, Some BICS in
L2 literacy
Nanci: Fluent in L1, high L2 skills, struggles with reading in L1
and L2
Teachers must work hard to accommodate adult ELLs who enter the
classroom with BICS in their L1 and a wide variation of literacy
skills in L1 and in English.
Adult ELL students with CALPS demonstrate higher order
comprehension and problem-solving skills with literacy. They make
inferences, identify fact and opinion, identify the main idea,
recognize voice, can compare and contrast information, and
15
perform other higher order thinking skills with reading and
writing. They are able to instantly recognize critical thinking
concepts when they are given an explanation of one, for example
comparing and contrasting, because they know how to compare and
contrast in L1.
The ways that students gain CALPS mirror how students fail
to gain CALPS. Good instruction, affective orientation, years of
education, and environmental factors can influence the
development of CALPS (Cummins, 1984). Students with explicit
instruction in higher order thinking skills as applied to
literacy have an advantage in learning CALPS over students with
no instruction. Certainly, modeling and contextualized embedded
learning techniques could also engage students to learn CALPS.
Affective orientation can greatly affect language acquisition
(Krashen, 2004). Students with families, friends, or communities
that support and encourage their education are more likely to
succeed (Grant-Vallone, Kelly, Umali, and Pohlert, 2003).
Environmental influences also can affect students’ affective
16
orientation (McFarlin, 2007; Sparks, 2007). Students who attend a
bilingual school and who can express their L1 culture and
language have far less stress than students who enter an English
immersion program and possibly experience prejudice or teasing
from other students (Cummins, 1986). Students with more education
have more practice with reading and writing and are more likely
to have CALPS and stronger CALPS if they have been to college
(Cummins, 1984). There may be other everyday ways students could
learn higher order thinking skills in life, debating politics,
fixing cars, or even figuring out how to efficiently mow 12 lawns
a day. However, school and direct instruction are necessary for
literacy and CALP development.
CALPS will not develop with limited instruction and exposure
to L2. Students usually will not or cannot develop CALPS if they
have not had adequate instruction (Cummins, 1984). Students who
struggle with English in school and never have the vocabulary to
advance to grade level in L2 simply can’t learn CALPS because of
lack of vocabulary and basic understanding of grammar (Cummins,
17
1984). They simply don’t have the language tools to navigate
English at a higher level. Many Latino immigrants come to the
United States with a sixth-grade education or less (Colorado,
2010) and only develop literacy skills at a very basic level in
their L1. Students with less education need English instruction
and additional educational instruction to make up for their lack
of a education from 7th through 12th grade.
If their experience learning English has been embarrassing,
frustrating, and confusing, adult ELLs may have some prohibitive
beliefs that block them from progressing with the language
(Krashen, 2004). Affective orientation can be instrumental in
failure to develop CALPS (2004). If students experience
discrimination in their new country, as most immigrants do to
some degree, and if their family struggles, then students may
struggle with their motivation to learn English. They may speak
in their L1 at home and at work and whenever possible. When
students have had stress with immigrating, or maybe if their
parents don’t read, they are likely to have some negative beliefs
18
about learning English that block them from both BICS and CALPS
(Roehssing, 2008).
Finally, physical, developmental, and learning disabilities
must be considered when adult ELLs appear to lack CALP skills.
Sometimes students need corrective lenses and can’t afford them,
or they may have hearing disorders that prevent them from hearing
certain sounds, developing phonemic awareness with written text,
and learning understandable pronunciation in English. Learning
disabilities manifest in attention problems, self-management
problems, difficulties with social interaction, memory
dysfunction, and processing problems with input and output. It is
possible that students who dropped out of school at a young age
were challenged by learning disabilities and need additional
strategies to learn English (Wamba, 2007).
Critical Literacy
Students who enroll in adult English courses and want to go
to college need to learn critical literacy skills (Marzano &
Kendall, 2007). The words critical literacy combine the idea of
19
critical thinking, or higher order thinking, and literacy.
Critical literacy skills are the skills needed to demonstrate
higher order thinking through reading and writing. Historically,
higher order thinking skills have been explained as reason and
logic by the Greeks (Paul, Elder, and Bartlett, 2010), and
enlightenment and self-mastery by Asian philosophers such as
Confucius (Huang & Brown, 2009). Benjamin Bloom, proposed a
hierarchy model of higher order thinking skills, and hence the
moniker “higher order” thinking skills, made popular with Bloom’s
Taxonomy (Marzano & Kendall, 2007). More recently, Marzano and
Kendall have expanded on Bloom’s theory with the New Taxonomy of
learning, which includes aspects from research in education,
psychology, and neuroscience. Critical literacy incorporates the
key aspects of these philosophies and theories as applied to
reading and writing.
In order to gain admission to college-level courses,
students need to demonstrate critical literacy skills on
standardized tests. Students need to show that they can know,
20
understand, apply, analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information
(College Board, 2010). Newer teaching techniques require that
students write self-reflectively and meta-cognitively (Alverman,
Phelps, & Ridgeway, 2007).
Building on the work of Bloom and of Anderson, which
proposed factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive
aspects of learning, in the new taxonomy, Marzano and Kendall
added the self-system (2007). The self-system, according to
Marzano and Kendall, “contains a network of interrelated beliefs
and goals.” By adding the self-system, Marzano and Kendall
acknowledge the body of research that underscores the importance
student’s affective orientation towards learning (Krashen, 2004;
Alverman, Phelps, & Ridgeway, 2007).
The following table illustrates Marzano & Kendall’s new
taxonomy using the example of flying an airplane. The
illustration suggests possible experiences a pilot must have with
the levels of processing and the domains of knowledge.
Table 2 - New Taxonomy: Levels of Processing and Domains of Knowledgewith Example
21
______________________________________________________________________________Information Mental
ProceduresPsychomotorProcedures
6: Self-system Identify beliefs and emotions about landing and taking off
Determine underlying reasons for beliefs and emotions
Access successful emotional states with breathing priorto take off andlanding
5: Meta-cognitive system
Determine accuracy of knowledge of lift and drag
Establish goalsfor more learning about lift and drag
Monitor expertise with landing and take- off procedures
4: Knowledge Utilization (Cognitive)
Apply lift and drag to hypotheses
Solve problems with excessive lift or drag challenges
Apply landing and take-off experience withthe space shuttle
3: Analysis (Cognitive)
Compare and contrast lift and drag
Identify errorswith various lift/drag principles
Use best landing and take-off procedures in ablizzard
2: Comprehension (Cognitive)
Symbolize lift and drag with math equations
Use math to calculate lift and drag
Integrate landing and take off procedures on multiple aircraft
22
1: Retrieval (Cognitive)
Recognize lift and drag
Recall how to scan instrumentpanel
Execute landingand taking off
In the new taxonomy, all six levels of processing involve all
three domains of knowledge, illustrating that developing critical
literacy skills can be a very complex process. Educators need
more and more time, even in English language courses, to focus on
implementing learning theory such as the new taxonomy in an
attempt to bolster the American education system and be more
competitive internationally (Marzano & Kendall, 2007). Later on
in this Breadth component, the new taxonomy will be correlated
with the declarative procedural model for second language
acquisition, and implied teaching strategies for critical
literacy will be explored.
The Accuplacer, Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), American
College Testing, ACT are standard college entrance exams that
require critical literacy (Collge Board, 2010; ACT, 2010). The
Accuplacer and the SAT require students to make inferences,
23
analyze text, synthesize information, and utilize critical
literacy skills (College Board, 2011). Similarly, the ACT
requires students to use critical literacy strategies for math,
science, and social studies in addition to reading and writing
(ACT, 2011). Whichever college entrance exam students take, they
must have and apply critical literacy skills.
The Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) exam is
the English language college entrance exam for students who speak
English as a foreign language. The TOEFL exam requires students
to summarize, paraphrase, give supported opinions, and compare
and contrast (ETS, 2010). On the TOEFL test, students must
demonstrate critical literacy through reading, writing, listening
and speaking. It is a demanding test that requires students to
combine multiple modalities, such as listening and reading, then
writing. The International English Language Test (IELTS) is
similarly demanding and designed as an English language college
entrance exam (IELTS, 2010). Whether ELL students graduate from
high school in the United States or from another country, they
24
need to pass college entrance exams with rigorous academic
vocabulary and demonstrate critical literacy the same as native
U.S. students.
Critical literacy skills are necessary to navigate new
trends in education, gain entrance to college, process
information quickly, problem-solve, and have better access to
jobs. Many argue that because of the Internet we don’t have to
memorize so many facts these days; it is more important that we
know how to evaluate information for validity and apply it wisely
(Leu, Leu, & Coiro, 2004). The current economy also requires
workers to be more skilled with problem-solving skills and
technological skills (Le and Kazis, 2009). Entry level jobs—such
as being a secretary or mechanic-- are becoming ever more
computerized, requiring more skills than before. In order to
truly be effective students or employees, adult ELL students need
critical literacy skills.
Vygotsky: Language and Thought
25
Is language necessary for thought, or is thought necessary
for language?
Lev Vygotsky, a psychologist, did not find the Behaviorist model
for language acquisition acceptable and instead argued for a more
Gestalt perspective (Vygotsky, 1986, p.4). Vygotsky pointed out
that thoughts and language are not separately evolving functions.
Language from a mother or caregiver is needed to begin inner
language or speech, i.e. first thoughts. Without the stimulus of
language from a mother or caregiver, would children develop inner
speech?
The implications for adult language acquisition are rather
obvious; most adults have already acquired semantic concepts in
their first language. Adults need to translate or link words that
mean the same concept together. This is sometimes called “re-
contextualizing” (Aukerman, 2010). Also, critical thinking skills
or critical literacy are L2 concepts that require teaching L2
vocabulary (Cummins, 1984) specifically, vocabulary relating to
thinking concepts such as compare, contrast, evaluate, summarize,
26
synthesize, create, and hypothesize, etc. If adult ELLs have
learned these concepts before they will have an easier time
acquiring the word in the second language. If they haven’t yet
learned the concept of compare, learning the concept and the
vocabulary will take longer.
Once in my class after asking comparison questions, an 18-
year-old Latina woman who emigrated to the U.S. as a child and
spoke primarily Spanish said, “I never ask those questions when
I’m reading.” She didn’t know that reading and thinking went
together. She thought that you just read and understood the
words. She was starting to develop CALPS.
Since it takes 7-10 years to develop academic language
proficiency (Cummins, 1984), teaching specific skills related to
critical literacy is one instructional strategy to deal with time
restraints. Adults may catch up more quickly than K-12 students,
because adults are more likely motivated to get a job, support
their family, and the prestige of doing well in school. Also,
27
motivation plays an important role in language acquisition
(Krashen, 2004).
Some other ways that teachers can help adult students
develop metacognition and independent learning skills are asking
various types of questions, navigating the Internet, interviewing
native speakers, problem-solving, using graphic organizers,
outlining, note-taking, and summarizing and paraphrasing
(Alverman, Phelps, & Ridgeway, 2007). Question-answer
relationships (QAR) technique helps students develop questioning
strategies and analytical skills for reading (2007). Teachers ask
factual “what” questions and “why” questions about comprehension.
QAR strategy also encourages questioning implicit information
about the author’s intentions and applying personal background
knowledge to the main idea (2007). Teaching students to ask
questions from different points of view will help them develop
their inner voice and critical literacy skills. Similarly, using
the Internet with webquests can also be a very beneficial way to
develop inner dialogue (Zhang, T., Tianguagng, Gao, & Gailring,
28
Zhang W., 2007). In particular, when students are asked to take
on roles of various professionals in a webquest, dialogue between
students helps them recognize different points of view and
develop more awareness and metacognition.
Teaching students to ask questions develop internal
dialogue, to develop metacognition, during reading is an
important piece to developing critical literacy. According to
Vygotsky, adults are not as spontaneous as children with learning
(Vygotsky, 1978). Relating the differences in children and adults
to a stimulus-response test, Vygotsky noted that children will
focus on the task at hand regardless of how complicated the task
is made, i.e. pushing the green button. Whereas, the more complex
the same task becomes,
…adults often refused even to attempt to deal with the problem, objecting that they could not remember what to do. Even after the session started they kept repeating the instructions to themselves, asked about aspects of the test they had forgotten, and generally sought to master the entire systems of relations as a whole before they settled down to the task as it is usually conceived. (Vygotsky, 1978)
29
Adults, having more thoughts to occupy their working memory
(Sanz, 2005), may need more explicit instruction and more goal-
oriented explanations. Therefore, it is important for adults to
realize that reading for facts requires basic decoding skills,
but reading for deeper semantic and inferred information requires
the reader to ask questions and dialogue about the facts using
their internal voice (Tovani, 2000).
Development of Concept Thinking
According to Vygotsky, meaning is the basic unit of the
“union of word and thought,” or inner speech (Vygotsky, 1986).
Meaning requires thought to make sense of language. “A word
without meaning is an empty sound” (Vygotsky, 1986). Even though
Vygotsky hypothesizes that thought and language have different
genetic roots, at a certain point in time “whereupon thought
becomes verbal, and speech rational” (1986) language and thought
are interdependent. Vygotsky sees the development of language
concomitant with the development of thought as primarily a social
process (Vygotsky, 1986).
30
For the adult ELL student, thought and language have already
developed to a large degree. The implications from Vygotsky’s
reasoning are that adults probably have developed problem-solving
skills, analytical skills, and other critical thinking skills.
Learning critical literacy skills is a matter of helping these
students apply their pre-existing critical thinking skills to the
activities of reading and writing.
Vygotsky asserts young children first make associations with
language but then use these associations as tools to take care of
their needs. “The cognitive and communicative functions of
language then become the basis of a new and superior form of
activity, in children distinguishing them from animals”
(Vygotsky, p.28-29, 1978). Egocentric thought for Vygotsky is
evidence that children are not really thinking critically just
using language to handle basic needs. Vygotsky finds the
practical use of language, specifically the “union of speech and
action” in children notable because adults separate these
processes (Vygotsky, 1978).
31
There is an interesting challenge adult ELL teachers face,
given that a basic function of language is communication and
using language to acquire basic needs. Indeed, the first levels
and vocabulary of any language are usually about food,
restaurants, transportation, medicine, shopping, and using the
telephone (CASAS, 2011). At higher levels of language learning
when critical literacy instruction is possible, it may be a
challenge to adult students to learn an additional language
because if they can handle their basic needs with rudimentary
English and if they speak their native language at home, they may
not feel an instinctive need to really express themselves
intellectually through reading and writing.
Also, maybe adult ELL students actually understand critical
literacy concepts when the information is inputted through
reading and listening. However, they may not be comfortable with
outputting information through writing and speaking. According to
Vygotsky, “visual perception is integral” since one sees an
entire visual field, however “speech is essentially analytical”
32
because it is a sequential process (Vygotsky, 1978). So there may
be concept recognition, but an inability or lack of practice or
comfort with expressing concepts.
Vygotsky concedes that children can think conceptually.
Though he doesn’t give ages for his stages of thought
development, he defines thinking conceptually as the point where
an association is taken apart, analyzed and synthesized, then put
back together. Offering a quote from Goethe, “Synthesis and
analysis presuppose each other as inhalation presupposes
exhalation” (1986). Vygotsky shows that children progress from
using language as a tool socially to get their needs met to using
language internally to solve problems (Vygotsky, 1986). Learning
to think conceptually and turn complex thought into conceptual
thought requires critical thinking skills (Marzano & Kendall,
2007).
In the next stage of concept development, Vygotsky writes
that teenagers don’t always make logical conclusions from
information but think as a “movement” from whole to part and back
33
again (Vygotsky, 1986). Insightfully, Vygotsky points out that
teenagers and even adults with very advanced concepts can apply
the learned concepts concretely and perfectly. However, when they
try to speak about these concepts they minimize ideas, have
trouble putting concepts into words, and make concepts more
simplistic (Vygotsky, 1986). This observation that teens and
adults initially understand complex concepts but tend to simplify
them through speech foreshadows Vygotsky’s other major theory,
the Zone of Proximal Development.
Implications for adult ELL students learning critical
literacy are firstly to learn how to learn a concept. If adult
ELL students haven’t had much formal education, or struggled in
school with little language proficiency, they may have never
learned how to break apart ideas and put them back together.
Teaching critical thinking concepts such as analysis, synthesis,
evaluation, and application may need to be done explicitly with
words and writing. Students may have a developed these critical
thinking concepts already, but they might need practice and
34
instruction to put the concepts into words and communicate
concepts.
Zone of Proximal Development
Vygotsky defines the Zone of Proximal Development, ZPD,
theory as,
the distance between actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. (1978)
ZPD theory states that learning evolves into mastery in stages,
but learning doesn’t require mastery to occur. For example,
Vygotsky observed that teens and adults are able to concretely
apply concepts, but simplify these concepts with speech. This
would be an example of the development of concept mastery.
Students absorb the information about a concept and can apply it
correctly, but they haven’t practiced speaking about the concept
and thus have not developed speaking mastery about the concept.
Also, learning requires human interaction. ZPD theory
applies to all ages of learners. For teachers, ZPD theory says
35
that students are learning even if they aren’t showing signs of
mastery. So it is important to challenge students beyond their
stage of learning mastery, but also give students time and
practice to develop concept mastery. According to Vygotsky, “good
learning is that which is in advance of development.” (1978),
which may be why most people say they learn the most from their
hardest teachers.
Implications of ZPD theory for adult ELLs include exposure
to language, and social interaction. Logically, it follows that
adult ELLs should interact with L2 native language speakers as
much as possible. Students should volunteer, work, join clubs, or
take enrichment classes. In one study, ELL students who had jobs
showed more L2 gains than students without jobs (Drewring,
Murray, &Thomson, 2007). Language is a primary tool of connection
and it only makes sense that interacting with people and
challenging existing language development levels helps adults
learn a second language.
Non-speech, thought communication
36
Finally, Vygotsky offers one final point for adult ELLs
learning critical literacy. Thoroughly investigating the whole
spectrum of thought and language, Vygotsky shows how sometimes
when people are thinking the same thoughts little to no speech is
needed. Quoting Tolstoy (Appendix A) he shows how when Tolstoy
used only the first letter of words in the sentence, for example
“Way: icb, dymton…When you answered: it cannot be, did you mean
then or never?” to communicate with his future bride. She
understood what he meant and they had a communication of these
abbreviations where Tolstoy asked his wife to marry him. Mind
reading such as the Tolstoy example is in essence making
inferences, a desirable critical literacy skill.
Mind reading, assuming to know another’s thoughts, is a
common occurrence in communication and can enhance or inhibit
communication (Papafragou, 2002). Frequently, people who know
each other finish each other’s sentences. For advanced adult ELL
students who use this mind-reading strategy in their L1, they may
try to mind-read as their L2 language becomes more advanced which
37
puts them at risk for possible miscommunication. It may be very
important to remind adult ELL students to repeat or paraphrase
what other people have said to make sure they understand
(Papafragou, 2002). Mind reading may be a concept adult ELL
students know that can help them learn a concept such as making
inferences in reading and writing.
Vygotsky’s observations about thought, language, and
learning show that people are an essential component of learning
language (1978). Thought and language merge into meaning. Meaning
helps concepts develop when people learn to take complex ideas
and break them into parts analyzing and synthesizing them.
Finally, the Zone of Proximal Development theory says that
failure to master learning does not mean that learning isn’t
happening. Students are always learning more than they can
readily exhibit given sufficient challenges (1978). Mirroring
some of Vygotsky’s assumptions about natural critical thinking
skills, Chomsky provides more detail about the nature of language
and thought development.
38
Chomsky: Universal Grammar
Noam Chomsky is arguably one of the most prolific modern
linguistic theorists. Even though most of his writings are
philosophical in nature and explore the very nature of language
rather than the development of language and its acquisition, some
of Chomsky’s insights provide guidance for teaching adult ELL
students critical literacy skills. In particular, Chomsky’s
universal grammar, UG, theory helps to explain CALPS; why
students develop BICS before CALPS; and why students might have
trouble developing CALPS.
Chomsky attributes his theory of universal grammar to the
philosophical grammar discussed in the Port-Royal Grammar of 1660
(Chomsky, 2006). In the Port-Royal Grammar languages are described
as having a surface grammar and a deeper semantic grammar,
referred to as philosophical grammar (2006). According to
Chomsky, this concept is readily transferrable to all languages.
Each language can be regarded as a particular relation between sound and meaning…the grammar of a language must contain a system of rules that characterizes deep and surface structures and the transformational relationship
39
between them, and – if it is to accommodate the creative aspect of language use – that does so over an infinite domain of paired and deep structures. (Chomsky, 2006)
In English as with most languages there are many phonetic sounds
associated with the same letters. The word “egg” is pronounced
differently if you are British, American, South African,
Australian, or from New Zealand.
Sometimes, the same syntactic structures have multiple
meanings (2006), which could very well be the reason for the
existence of questions. For example, Chomsky provides the
following: “I disapprove of John’s drinking” could mean the
disapproval of John’s drinking tonight, or excessively, or of
John’s drinking beer (2006). “I know a taller man than Bill,”
could mean, I know a taller man than Bill knows, or than Bill is.
Furthermore, the sentences:
He thinks Bill is a nice guy. The woman he married thinks Bill is a nice guy.Bill thinks he is a nice guy.The woman Bill married thinks he is a nice guy. (Chomsky,
2000)
40
illustrate how syntactic combinations of words provide very
different semantic meaning.
It is not enough to be able to decode the surface meaning of
Bill, nice guy, married, woman, and think. There is a deeper
semantic meaning or grammar in these sentences, also a key
component of language that Chomsky asserts naturally exists.
The implication of universal grammar for adult ELL students
is that they already have deeper semantic knowledge in their L1.
Adult ELL students have a finely developed sense of deep grammar
and their language’s particular grammar. Developing CALPS may not
be as much related to a deficit of stimulus as much as a deficit
of literacy skills (Cummins,1984). Chomsky readily points out
that the poverty of stimulus argument, which argues language
deficits or low scores are due to lack of exposure to L2, lack of
adequate academic training, or some combination, is never applied
to other developmental biological processes (2000). However, one
could argue that environmental factors can inhibit developmental
41
language processes, for example lack of vitamin D can lead to
Ricket’s disease.
Chomsky also asserts contrary to looking at development in
terms of healing deficits, grammar has a generative quality
(2006). Generative grammar is constructivist in nature. Everyone,
all the time, is generating or developing his or her personal I-
language. Generative grammar explains why the English of
Shakespeare or of Benjamin Franklin or of Ghandi was different
than the English people speak around the world today.
Language Acquisition Device
For Chomsky knowledge of a language has been acquired when a
person has “internalized a system of rules that relate sound and
meaning in a particular way.” (Chomsky, 2006). Not distinguishing
language development for children or adults, L1 or L2, Chomsky
simply claims that language acquisition is the result of a likely
biological process called the language acquisition device, or
LAD. Chomsky reasons that language acquisition is different than
42
a cognitive or psychological process because children learn
language automatically and unconsciously (2006).
Adults and children learning a language, first or second,
always learn surface phonetic structures then deeper grammar
structures (Chomsky, 2006). Language acquisition is
constructivist and a very individual experience. Even adult
second language learners will acquire deep grammar structures
over time inexplicably whether or not they have had direct
language instruction (2006). Chomsky also refers to I-language,
meaning language is internal, individual, and intentional. I-
language is even, Chomsky asserts, a brain state (2000).
Chomsky’s theories about UG, LAD, generative grammar and I-
language indicate critical literacy teachers should make learning
personal by drawing on student background knowledge, allowing
moments of metacognition, and helping students develop and
connect every lesson with their motivation and goals. Even
though, Chomsky poses a paradoxical dilemma by claiming that all
languages have universal grammar but every human being learns
43
language mysteriously and individualistically, Chomsky’s deep
understanding of grammar helps identify universal language
learning principles.
Personal differences and I-language
Teachers can also assume from UG that adult ELL students
have acquired the ability to think conceptually and undoubtedly
use higher order thinking sometimes in their lives. Applying UG
to adult language acquisition, teachers should always focus on
language acquisition before critical literacy. Students must have
the vocabulary to build their surface grammar to utilize deep
grammar structures required in critical literacy. Therefore,
teachers must help students identify their higher order thinking
skills and apply these skills to reading and writing.
Chomsky does admit that variations occur amongst languages
semantically (Chomsky, 2000).
To ask in 1950 whether machines think is as meaningful as the question whether airplanes and people (say skyjumpers) really fly; in English airplanes do and high jumpers don’t (accept metaphorically), in Hebrew neither do, and in Japanese both do. (2000)
44
The question about flying in various languages, according to
Chomsky, underscores the nature of I-langauage. Teachers might
consider finding alternative ways of explaining concepts and not
assuming students always have exactly the same concept in their
native language.
Chomsky makes critical literacy for adult learners sound
fairly easy; it should just naturally appear without any direct
instruction (2000). Motivational factors, similar to I-language
principles, originating from the self-system and metacognitive
factors are part of Marzano and Kendall’s New Taxonomy of
critical thinking (Marzano & Kendall, 2007). Chomsky’s theories
are good reminders for teachers to recontextualize L1 higher
order thinking concepts into L2 concepts and to personalize
instruction.
How long does it take adults to learn a second language?
According to CAELA, the Center for Adult English Language
Acquisition, the length of time required to learn English as a
second language varies depending on previous educational
45
experience, age, literacy level in the native language, and
exposure to English (CAELA, 2010). CAELA reports that accepted
expectancy for English proficiency including academic proficiency
is estimated around 5-7 years. Furthermore, a study done in 1985
by the Mainstream English Language Training project indicates 500
to 1000 hours of instruction for adults with literacy skills in
their first language to acquire basic interpersonal communication
skills (2010). Additional research shows adult Asian subjects
show to have an 18% increase in hearing l’s and r’s correctly,
indicating that adult brains can be retuned to learn languages
more easily (UCL, 2010). Not only can adults learn a second
language at varying rates, but also adults can learn languages
more efficiently and faster.
Developing critical literacy skills at all ELL levels
Since it can take years to develop critical literacy skills,
and according to Chomsky and Vygotsky, adult ELLs without
literacy skills in their L1 still have developed higher order
46
thinking skills, teachers can begin offering critical literacy
skills in English at beginning levels.
For example, using a cause and effect graphic organizer in a
beginning class teachers could get students to write dirty hands
= sick stomach, fever, cough. In an intermediate class the same
cause and effect graphic organizer could be used to model
questions: Did you wash your hands? = Yes, I did. Or No, I did
not = Go wash your hands! In a higher intermediate class past
tense could be used. In advanced classes, full sentences with
conditional clauses could be requested. This is just one
scenario, but possibly CALPS could be introduced much more
earlier than imagined.
Neuroscience and second language acquisition
There are approximately 66 different SLA theories (Long,
2000). Cummins and Chomsky are regularly noted as SLA theorists
(2000). Vygotsky’s theories offer rich insights into the
development of language and thought, although he is not
considered a SLA theorist. Neuroscientists have also added a
47
great deal to the field of SLA mostly from the studies of
amnesia, Alzheimer’s and stroke patients (Sanz, 2005).
Cristina Sanz, a neuroscientist, writes that there is
“general agreement that individual differences have a greater
role in L2 acquisition than L1.” (2005). Previously it was
thought that second language was impossible after puberty;
however, now “age effects” are considered more likely. Research
shows that it becomes harder to learn a second language as we
age. Possibly younger people have more motivation, self-esteem,
and desire to learn a second language and fit into a new culture
(Sanz, 2005). Other possible factors affecting second language
acquisition, SLA, are neural plasticity, the ability of neurons
in the brain to reorganize and create new connections in the
brain faced with new information (2005).
The declarative/procedural (D/P) model is one of the more
prevalent contributions to SLA from neuroscience (Sanz, 2005). In
this model both declarative and procedural memory are needed to
acquire language. Declarative memory categorizes facts,
48
environmental information, and facts. Procedural memory is used
to learn sequential events and things that are done
automatically. Declarative memory facilitates the development of
lexical grammar, or what Chomsky would call surface grammar, and
procedural memory facilitates the development of semantic
grammar, or deep grammar (Sanz, 2005). Marzano and Kendall call
declarative knowledge the “what” or content and procedural
knowledge the “how” or process of thinking (2007).
Contextual language instruction where facts and scenarios
can be absorbed would be most appropriate, whereas procedural
memory might prefer direct instruction with clear explanations
and step-by-step instructions. Marzano and Kendall state that
declarative memory is the domain of information, one of the three
main aspects of knowledge development in their new taxonomy
theory (2007). Declarative knowledge, a “hierarchic in its own
right”, requires vocabulary that should be accurate but “not
necessarily a deep level of understanding.” (2007). Procedural
49
knowledge makes up the mental domain or the second of the three
domains of knowledge.
Children use declarative memory much more than procedural
memory, which explains why most research (Cummins, 1984), even
Vygotsky (1986) recommends that children be taught contextually.
Women tend to use declarative memory more than men, indicating
that for adults while it may be beneficial to include both direct
and contextual instruction in the classroom, women and men may
prefer more of one type of instruction. Also the older people get
the more procedural memory is used (2005). Clearly, the D/P model
provides helpful guidance for teachers of critical literacy.
Include both contextual and direct instruction in proportion to
the gender and age of the adult ELL students.
This interesting correlation between the inclusion of
declarative and procedural knowledge in Marzano and Kendall’s new
taxonomy and the D/P model for SLA is certainly noteworthy for
teachers of critical literacy. In the new taxonomy basic
principles of language acquisition provide the bulk of knowledge
50
acquisition. Adult ELL instructors could infer that it is always
a good first step to provide language instruction before critical
literacy instruction. Make sure that students have the vocabulary
and concepts of critical literacy. Show them through modeling,
scaffolded instruction, and other research-based literacy
strategies how to express themselves and their intelligence
through reading and writing.
The relationship between thought and language
Exploring the development of critical literacy is a dual
exploration of thought and language development. The theorists
mentioned in this Breadth section leave clues about the nature of
thought and development. Cummins’ research had its genesis in
questions about bilingualism and intelligence (1984). Cummins’
found that bilingual children in several languages made higher
marks than monolingual children. According to Cummins, speaking
and listening precede reading and writing proficiency (1984). So
from Cummins it can be deduced that language facilitates the
development of thought.
51
Vygotsky, ever so eloquently stating the obvious, points out
how thought develops from child to adult naturally facilitating
the development of higher order thinking. First thought requires
language from a mother or caregiver to develop (1986). Then
language becomes a child’s tool for taking care of his or her
basic needs and at some point language also becomes an internal
voice. Later on as children begin to develop and think complex
thoughts, they are capable of learning concepts. Teenagers can
apply concepts correctly, but may simplify concepts if asked to
explain them, which adults also do even at advanced levels of
academia. From Vygotsky, the beauty of the internal voice used to
express oneself and understand the world is a valuable reminder
about the interdependent nature of thought and language
development.
Chomsky’s universal grammar, and I-language illustrate how
paradoxical language and thought are. UG shows that all languages
share basic surface and deep grammar. On a vast human scale
people are learning phonemes and words then putting them together
52
in meaningful ways. Individually, each person’s thoughts, their
I-language – that internal, individual, and intentional language
process – varies infinitely. Just as Vygotsky showed with the
Tolstoy example that words are only needed as long as thoughts
are not the same. Less verbal language is needed to communicate
when people share the same thoughts. UG and I-language point out
that huge human variation colors the surface and deep grammar
structures. The new taxonomy even is more elaborate by including
the idea of metacognition and the self-system, more internal
language, influencing the development of thought.
The D/P model and Marzano & Kendall’s new taxonomy both use
the declarative and procedural cognitive systems to explain
respectively language and thought. The overlap of these theories
shows how interrelated thought and language truly are.
Evaluating the theories
Cummins’ BICS / CALPS theory has been in existence over 30
years and still is an important contribution to SLA. The
Woodcock-Munoz Language Survey – Revised, an addition to the
53
Woodcock-Johnson reading test, was developed bilingually in
Spanish and English with specific sections that test CALPS
(Riverside, 2010). Maren Aukerman, assistant professor of
Education at the University of Pennsylvania, wrote a paper called
“The Culpable CALP” (2007) in which she totally disagreed with
the BICS/CALPS theory stating instead, semantic meaning was
merely a matter of recontextualizing information or concepts ELL
students already have.
Cummins, himself, points out criticisms for BICS/CALPS on
his website as 1) based on academic language not realistic
natural language; 2) based on “test-wiseness” and not language
production; 3) promoting the idea that some students have
cognitive deficits rather than inadequate schooling (2010).
Cummins refutes these criticisms citing compelling studies that
show how academic language is a large part of natural English;
“where underachievement among subordinated students was
attributed to coercive relations of power operating in the
society at large and reflected in schooling practices”; and other
54
studies which confirmed the construct of academic language
proficiency does not necessarily depend on standardized testing
for validity (2010). All in all, Cummins BICS/CALPS theory stands
out solidly amongst SLA theories.
Vygotsky has only been criticized for the “studies” he
quotes in his writings (1986). No data or explanation of the
“studies” Vygotsky supposedly has done are offered. Nevertheless,
the zone of proximal development and Vygotsky’s explanation of
the development of thought and language are somewhat iconic in
educational theory. He is more of an educational theorist.
However, for the study of critical literacy, his insights are
very valuable.
Chomsky has consistently refuted skeptics over the years. He
is a philosopher and debater of the highest caliber. Reading his
work was very challenging because he would constantly bring in
other theories and compare and evaluate them in the middle of
presenting his theories. His sentences are often lengthy and
complex. For such simple ideas, he has literally volumes to say,
55
illustrating with highly advanced linguistics his concepts.
Universal grammar is a staple of SLA and one is grossly
misinformed without considering Chomsky’s theories.
The D/P model is, by nature of being a model, heavily
researched. Even so, Sanz admits that neuroscientific SLA
research tends to be contrived since it adheres to strict
experimental research guidelines (2005). Classroom educational
research has too many variables to control, so neuroscientific
SLA research sometimes reduces variables like multiple students,
classrooms, and teachers by using laboratories and only parts of
lessons (Sanz, 2005). Still, by virtue of its model quality, the
D/P shows promise until, if, and when new research cast shadows
of doubt.
Robert Marzano is a highly respected and prolifically
published educational researcher (2010). He has assisted Walden
University with instruction and development of the University’s
Master’s in Education program (Walden, 2010). Marzano has
synthesized and published educational research that is directly
56
applicable for classroom instruction. The new taxonomy is quite a
bit different and more complex than Bloom’s, and its importance
has yet to be seen.
Common Ideas
Amongst the theories on language and thought from Cummins,
Vygotsky, Chomsky, the D/P theory, and Marzano and Kendall, there
are a great many common ideas and a few differences. The
following chart illustrates these similarities and differences.
Table 3 – Synthesis of Theories
______________________________________________________________________________
Cummins Vygotsky Chomsky D/P Model NewTaxonomy
Languageacquisiti
on –children
- BICS 2-3 years- CALPS 7-10 years
- requires input from caregiver- eventually child develops internal voice
-LAD,languageacquisitiondevice,automatic
- children use primarilydeclarative memory
- Information domainrequires vocabulary acquisition as a first step
Language INFERRED: INFERRED: - No real - both - use all
57
acquisition –adults
- some adults may have challenges with CALPS dueto inadequate education
- adults already have and internal voice andability to think conceptually, theysimply must transfer those L1 abilitiesto L2
distinction is made between children and adults, both use the LAD
D/P 6 levels of thinking,and all 3domains of knowledgefor best results
Development of
criticalthinkingskills
- facilitated by development of CALPS
- complexthinking in children turns to conceptual thinking-all teens andadults can thinkconceptually
- thoughtand language are always developing, generative grammar
- n/a - developall 6 levels ofthinking,and all 3domains of knowledgefor best results-theory for academicsnot SLA
Implications for
Adult ELLStudents
- students with L1 CALPS will learn
- ZPD, challengeand review- assume L1
- everybodyis acquiringlanguage all the
- teach contextually and directly- women may need
- teach using thenew taxonomy model
58
critical literacy faster- help others develop critical literacy skills
critical thinking exists and help transfer to L2
time in L1 and L2- help students identify their I-language
more contextual, older people and men less
Implications forteachingcriticalliteracy
- youngerstudents need morecontextual teaching- supportL2 literacy learning with L1 literacy learning
- help students transfer L1 conceptual thinking ability to reading and writing in L2
- make sure students understand vocabulary for critical literacy then teach reading /writing strategies
- use indications for teaching language to teach critical literacy vocabulary
- use newtaxonomy model starting with level one, making sure a clear vocabulary foundation is set
Language development and intelligence
Language may or may not be a sign of intelligence. Cummins
avoids associating CALPS with intelligence and higher order
thinking, although he does point out that many intelligence tests
are inaccurate for ESL students when they have not gained
59
proficiency with either English or their native language (1986).
However, assuming that one mode of expression important to
expressing higher order thinking is literacy, developing CALPS
are essential for children and adults to proving their
development of higher order thinking.
Vygotsky is more concerned with the developmental dance
thought and language play; he also does not address intelligence.
However, according to the zone of proximal development, any
intelligence test would never show the true level of learning a
student has acquired (Vygotsky, 1978). Chomsky directly states
…one would expect that human language should directly reflect the characteristics of human intellectual capacities, that language should be a direct ‘mirror of mind’ in ways other systems of knowledge and belief cannot. (2006)
Although it appears language and intelligence are linked,
Chomsky, as a researcher, is reticent to link these variables. He
asserts “given the primitive character of the study of man and
society and its general lack of intellectual substance” science
would be irresponsible claiming to really know the relationship
60
between language and intelligence (2006). Sanz, et al.,
neuroscience researchers, are also interestingly silent on the
relationship between intelligence and second language acquisition
(2005).
Whether or not language acquisition and intelligence are
linked, teaching critical literacy may increase intelligence. The
purpose of Mazano and Kendall’s new taxonomy is to promote
learning and the development of thinking skills in the classroom
(2007); additionally, it can be inferred - develop intelligence.
By adding the metacognitive level and the self-system to Bloom’s
traditional cognitive approach to thinking, behaviors associated
with high intelligence were thrown into the schema of developing
thinking skills (2007). Including instructional practices that
utilize new taxonomy learning principles, adult ELL teachers will
undoubtedly help their students develop intelligence as well as
knowledge of English and critical thinking skills.
Implications for helping adult ELL Students acquire a second language
61
Many ideas for teaching adults English have already been
explored in this Breadth section. In summary, adults do need
contextual instruction as indicated from research with children
(Cummins, 1984), but adults also need direct instruction (Marzano
& Kendall, 2007; Sanz, 2005). Women may need more contextual
instruction and men more direct instruction. Vygotsky’s ZPD is an
indication that language should be learned collaboratively with
people in ways that challenge learners and allow learners to
practice previously learned information (1986).
Both Vygotsky and Chomsky suggest that learning for adults
should be as personalized as possible to help concepts in L1
transfer to L2; this is also called helping learners develop
background knowledge (Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock, 2001)
Vygotsky and Chomsky both presume adults have developed
conceptual thinking in their L1. They may need to identify the
specific concepts associated with critical literacy such as
comparing, contrasting, making inferences, and evaluating. Adults
probably already have these thought processes and express these
62
ways of thinking through BICS but may need to develop the
vocabulary for these thoughts in English and possibly in their
L1. Cummins’ BICS and CALPS distinction is descriptive in nature,
but by no means a static condition. In his findings, Cummins’
points out how immersion programs and bilingual literacy
instruction greatly improve students’ CALP and overall language
acquisition (1984). Cummins, Vygotsky, and Chomsky appear to
agree on the principles that language is a constructivist process
requiring human interaction and literacy exposure.
Chomsky’s LAD theory is particularly encouraging to adults
who tend to learn languages more slowly than children (Sanz,
2005). If adults are naturally generating grammar all the time
and learning with the LAD all the time, knowledge of a second
language will eventually occur.
Mind reading is a natural stage of language and thought
development (Vygotsky, 1986). Vygotsky’s example of Tolstoy’s
exchange with his wife is a wonderful reminder for adult ELL
students. In L1 language adults automatically mind read with
63
other L1 speakers (Papafragou, 2002). It might be tempting for
advanced adult ELL students to begin mind reading when they are
not quite 100% fluent. Mind reading could lead to
miscommunication problems. Instructors might want to remind adult
ELL students to ask clarifying questions when conversing in L2.
Critical literacy instruction should greatly assist advanced
adult ELLs in developing critical thinking skills with reading
and writing that help them avoid mind reading miscommunication in
speech.
Implications for teaching critical literacy
To recap, Cummins work suggests that adult ELL students
might learn critical literacy skills with primarily contextual
instruction. Also, it is important that teachers recognize if
students have CALPS in their L1. If students still need to
develop CALPS, teachers will need to demonstrate the concepts of
critical literacy as well as the skills. From Vygotsky and
Chomsky, adult ELL students probably have critical thinking
concepts in their L1. However, their critical thinking skills may
64
not have been applied to reading and writing. Vygotsky’s ZPD
suggests using collaborative learning techniques, as well as
instruction that challenges and allows for practice of previously
learned critical literacy knowledge.
Marzano and Kendall’s new taxonomy provides a detailed
numerous and sequential processes that can help adults develop
critical thinking. Even when adult ELL students enter the
classroom with little education, these theorists provide hope
that with proper guidance adults can learn the language of
critical thinking and the literacy skills to express critical
thinking as they learn English. The new taxonomy is largely
procedural in nature, suggesting how to teach, in terms of its
implications for teaching adult ELL students. Whereas, Vygotsky
and Chomsky’s theories are more declarative in nature, suggesting
what people experience as they acquire language and thought.
Conclusion
With over 66 theories about second language acquisition
there are a great many ideas about how language is acquired
65
(Long, 2000). This Breadth component examined just a few SLA
theories selected for their orientation on thought and critical
literacy development. Cummins BICS/CALPS theory clearly described
the dilemma many immigrants in English-speaking lands face as
they seek entrance to college. Their second language skills must
show cognitive academic language proficiency. Vygotsky and
Chomsky theories illuminate relationship between language and
thought acquisition for adults. Adult ELL students, having
acquired conceptual and probable critical thinking skills with
listening and speech in their L1 presumably can transfer these
skills to L2. As indicated by the D/P model and new taxonomy, the
transfer of critical thinking skills from L1 to L2 and the
expression of critical literacy may be facilitated by contextual
and direct instruction. Applying these principles in an adult ELL
classroom may yield very rich experiences for instructors and
students.
66
DEPTH
EDUC 8224: CURRENT RESESARCH IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND ADULT
EDUCATION
Annotated Bibliography
Drewring, T., Murray, M., Thomson, R. (2007). A longitudinal
study of ESL learners’ fluency and comprehensibility
development. Applied Linguistics, 29(3), 359-380.
doi:10.1093/applin/amm041
Research Summary
This two-year mixed method longitudinal study assessed
fluency and comprehensibility for Mandarin and Slavic high
beginning English language students in Canada. The study also
assessed student motivation and exposure to English outside of
class. A slight increase in fluency was observed for the Slavic
students but none for Mandarin students. Also comprehensibility
67
failed to increase for either group. Based on the findings,
researchers recommended: pronunciation practice; structured
mandatory volunteer activities in English settings; and
increasing motivation for learning. Fluency exercises including
offering formulaic phrases, and paraphrasing practice. Teaching
appropriate pausing, and increasing the speaking rate and
structured encounters with native speakers were recommended as
well. Reliability and validity were established and significant
ratings were found for the quantitative rating section of the
research.
Critical Assessment
The research questions about increasing fluency and
comprehensibility might be more validly addressed if this same
study was replicated for beginning and advanced level students.
Students in intermediate levels tend to be in the “silent
period,” meaning they generally have good comprehension but tend
to have great difficulty speaking. Also basic information about
the curriculum and teachers was left out completely. No
68
statistics checking for teacher variation or reliability was
mentioned, which makes the gains Slavic students experienced
questionable. The study does not address pronunciation challenges
inherent with the L1 alphabet and phonetics, nor is specific
phonetic instruction suggested or implemented.
Professional Value
The implications for this study are that motivation and
exposure to English outside of the classroom could be very
important for advanced English language learners to learn
literacy critical thinking skills. Pronunciation is an important
piece of becoming fluent and this study shows that very possibly
failure to increase comprehensibility can inhibit adult language
acquisition. Pronunciation may be an important component of
developing deeper grammar understanding and developing critical
literacy skills.
Durkin, K. (2008). The middle way: East Asian master’s students’
perception of critical argumentation in U.K. Universities.
Journal of Studies in International Education, 12, 38. DOI:
69
10.1177/1028315307302839
Research Summary
Forty-two masters’ students were studied over four years in
this qualitative grounded theory and case methodology study in
which Durkin identified that Chinese/Asian college students in
the U.K. find the Socratic argumentative debate style of learning
uncomfortable. Chinese/Asian students are more used to direct
instruction given by the teacher to the students, where the
effects are given and the causes are implied. Chinese culture
dictates that higher order thinking involves saying more with
less communication, so Chinese/Asian students find the western
definition of critical thinking as odd and the opposite of their
traditional mode of higher thinking.
Critical Assessment
Durkin tends to idealize the “Middle Way” as being more
humane and empathetic, possibly more feminine. All the interviews
were conducted in English, which may have inhibited true
understanding and communication. However, the background
70
information and the explanation of findings thoroughly illuminate
the cultural differences between debate, academic argumentation,
and an array of discourse and writing styles that search for the
truth.
Professional Value
It is useful to discuss various cultural definitions of
critical thinking with advanced English language students
learning literacy critical thinking skills because student
concepts of critical literacy in L1 might be different than in
English. In that case not only would new vocabulary but also new
concepts would need to be taught. Students may have difficulty
comparing and contrasting in essays in English because it is
socially inappropriate in their culture to criticize. It may be
useful to talk about implicit meaning with students.
Dyson, B. (2009). Processability theory and the role of
morphology in English as a second language development: a
longitudinal study. Second Language Research 25(3), 355-376.
Research Summary
71
Processability theory (PT) asserts that learning morphology
is the main source of second language acquisition. In this
longitudinal qualitative study a girl who was 12 at the beginning
of the study and a boy of 13, were interviewed to test PT to see
if morphological attainment preceded syntactic development in
English. Both participants were Chinese, Madarin native speakers,
and beginner English language students. The participants were
interviewed orally and given communication tasks 6 times
throughout the course of a year. The study concluded that
although the boy showed evidence of English acquisition in
accordance with PT, the girl did not. Possible explanations for
this are individual learner preferences and incremental language
development.
The boy was characterized as a “standardizer” who took basic
grammatical structures and applied them to new language
structures. The girl was described as a “simplifier” who used
context to navigate new language structures. The author points
out that the boy, as a grammatical learner, gave preference to
72
learning morphology over syntax. The girl, however, showed a
preference for syntax and exhibited significant lags in
morphological development.
Critical Assessment
Being a case study it is harder to generalize these findings
to a larger population unlike quantitative studies. However, the
implications are useful in evaluating and developing PT. There
was no discussion of moderating variables such as education and
environment. Were they in the same class with the same teacher?
How much of the day did they speak English? Did their parents
speak English? Did they like Australia? Additionally, the study
only focused on speaking and listening. If the students were
primarily visual learners, their reading and writing skills in
English might be higher than their speaking skills.
Professional Value
This study is very interesting because its findings mirror
the Declarative/Procedural (D/P) model. According to the D/P
model, women tend to use the declarative memory that would favor
73
context learning focusing on syntax or content; whereas, men tend
to learn procedurally focusing on rules, order, and process or
how. The participants are not adults, but still the results show
that teaching both content focused and process, or grammar,
strategies for language acquisition are important for all
learners.
Huang, J., & Brown, K. (2009). Cultural factors affecting Chinese
ESL students’ academic learning. Education, 129(4), 643-653.
Retrieved from Education Research Complete database
Research Summary
This is a literature review rather than a report of an
actual research study. In this article Huang and Brown explain
how Confucianism has imbued Chinese culture with the principles
of harmony and respect. Elders and teachers are given great
respect in China. Students are taught to develop self-mastery,
then harmony in the family, and harmony at work and in the world.
The Chinese school system is based on standardized testing and is
74
very competitive. The testing culture goes back to Confucius who
trained state leaders to take special examinations.
Specifically, inside the classroom Chinese students are
uncomfortable with discussions versus lectures and the behavior
of American students. They question the value of discussion-led
learning and failure of instructors to follow textbooks. Chinese
students also report lacking appreciation and value for group
work. Also, a lack of lectures makes these students question the
professor’s organizational skills. Finally, Chinese students fail
to connect socially with subjects Americans enjoy, such as
sports.
Critical Assessment
Although no interviews were conducted, which would have made
this literature review more interesting and valid, the fact that
one author was Chinese gave validity to this report. The study is
specific to the Chinese culture; however, it is possible to
imagine how other adult students would have similar experiences.
Having been successful in their native land using one set of
75
behaviors, it might be difficult to understand, appreciate,
value, feel comfortable, and be motivated to express oneself in a
new language with cultural affective filters blocking a learning
experience because it is specific to American culture.
Professional Value
No figures were given for the number of Chinese students
enrolled in English-speaking universities, but the authors say
that 80% of all Chinese students in the United States are
graduate students. This information reminds adult English
language instructors to have conversations about students’
classroom expectations and preferences. It could very well
facilitate learning to offer more lecture-based classes for
Chinese students. Similarly, instruction could be modified
including the learning preferences of other cultures. Having
conversations in English language classrooms with adults will
promote tolerance, understanding, metacognition, and help create
classroom community.
76
Ismail, I. (2009). Weblog: a collaborative tool for learning
academic reading. The International Journal of Learning 16(7), ISSN
1447-9494
Research Summary
Ismail found in this qualitative study that using a weblog
as a supplemental classroom experience for 25 young adult
students whose average age was 18.6 years was a positive
community-building experience. The students were enrolled in a
college academic reading class focusing on critical thinking
skills and navigating textbooks. Participants were interviewed
and given questionnaires after 16 weeks. Ismail reported the
weblog allowed students to see how other students were “thinking”
and using critical literacy skills for their assignments. The
weblog also helped to create more community amongst the students.
Critical Assessment
The research does not use student quotes from interviews or
list any data from the questionnaire. The lack of data undermines
77
the credibility of the research report. However, the theoretical
background of the weblog concept was well researched.
Professional Value
Many students have personal computers or cell phones with
Internet service. Technological literacy is becoming just as
important if not more so than paper literacy. A weblog is a great
idea for inviting students to read and write outside of class.
Weblogs also allow all students if they wish to voice their
thoughts. Whereas, in class all students may not speak and share
what is on their mind.
Iwai, Y. (2008). The Perceptions of Japanese Students toward
Academic English Reading: Implications for Effective ESL
Reading Strategies. Multicultural Education, 15(4), 45-50.
Retrieved from EBSCOhost.
Research Summary
This qualitative study about academic reading strategies was
conducted with two Japanese graduate students who were studying
in American Universities. The interviews were conducted in
78
Japanese about the students’ experience with academic reading in
English. Major themes identified in the research included
strategies such as reading for pleasure, increasing overall
reading in English, and only using the dictionary for key words
rather than translating every unknown word. Other factors this
research identified as positively affecting reading were exposure
to many different types of reading and finding reading materials
that were of interest.
Critical Assessment
This study provides useful suggestions and perspectives from
the two Japanese students studying in American universities. The
fact that the interviews were done in the students’ native
language seems to add validity to their information, since the
students can express themselves better in Japanese than in
English. It would be interesting to conduct the interviews in
English with an English interviewer asking the same questions.
Maybe the students would think differently in English. Even
though the study was small, the methodology and conclusions
79
offered valuable suggestions for teaching critical literacy to
adult ELL students in universities. No mention of specific
quantitative data collection statistics was given.
Professional Value
The import for teaching literacy critical thinking skills for
advanced ESL students is that basic reading strategies such as
skimming, scanning, note-taking, critical reading, and using
context clues are very important for non-native readers. This
study also implicates that allowing students to self-select their
reading material increases motivation for learning.
Kovalik, D., Kovalik, L. (2007). Language simulations: the
blending space for writing and critical thinking. Simulation
Gaming, 38, 310. doi: 10.1177/1046878106298271
Research Summary
This qualitative descriptive study reported the experience of
45 college English freshman students in Canada. All students were
enrolled in a Composition 1 class and were required to
participate in six real-life activities geared towards
80
stimulating critical thinking skills. The activities included: an
in class quick response, small group game show activity, a
library assignment, a whole class debate, a debriefing session,
and at home writing. The in-class quick response and the essay
were about liberty as defined by Montesquieu. Most students did
change their opinions and supported them with better details
after the gaming activities, but some students did not.
Critical Assessment
Although the design of this research was extremely well
described and documented, the results were weakly evaluated. No
grades, quotes from students, observations, or survey results
were given. The authors wrote that the students who did not show
any change in opinion may need to have individual conversations
to understand their stagnation in opinion.
Professional Value
The activities described may represent best practices for
teaching advanced ESL students literacy critical thinking skills.
The same experiment would be interesting to duplicate with clear
81
student outcomes, rubrics, and measurements. This could become a
mixed method study with data collected from quizzes, writing
assignments, and student remarks during debates and other
collaborative learning activities.
Melles, G. (2009). Teaching and evaluation of critical appraisal
skills to postgraduate
ESL engineering students. Innovations in Education and
Teaching International, 46 (2), 161-170.
Research Summary
English for academic purposes (EAP) is a course widely taught
at English-speaking universities. In this quantitative case
study, engineering students are asked to write about their
experience in an EAP course specifically designed for their
field. In the EAP course students were required to write reviews
of scholarly articles, literature reviews, and give an oral
presentation. The responses were evaluated with NVivo software
and it was discovered that students learned how to link critical
thinking with reading and writing. Students also reported
82
recognizing the value of critical thinking for their engineering
profession. Some students reported that critical thinking was not
as much of a challenge as plagiarizing, paraphrasing, and
generally writing well in English. Other students related that
critical thinking seemed like criticism to them, and in their
native culture it was disrespectful to criticize. One Turkish
student even wrote there were probably different kinds of
critical thinking, but he could adapt to the Australian way of
critical thinking.
Critical Assessment
There is no number given for the participants in this study.
It could have been a mix of quantitative and qualitative
research. If the survey had scores as well as open-ended
responses, possibly more insight about the nature of the
students’ EAP experience could have been revealed. The written
samples exhibited in the research showed a clear need for grammar
instruction. No mention of actual English language instruction
was made, and it seems natural that as students have more command
83
of the language they can express critical literacy much more
easily.
Professional Value
This study provides evidence offering specific writing
support and critical thinking vocabulary and concept instruction
for EAP curriculum linked to specific fields. Again the topic of
cultural interpretations of critical thinking is important to
discuss with students. This is one of the only studies
specifically exploring how to help adult ELLs learn critical
literacy. Linking English language and critical literacy
instruction with specific fields of study makes perfect sense
because students will have acquired more vocabulary for their
field of study. Thus, they will be able to navigate advanced
English and critical literacy more easily.
Mok, J. (2009). From policies to realities: developing students’
critical thinking in Hong
Kong Secondary School English writing classes. RELC
Journal, 40, 262.
84
Research Summary
In this qualitative study two English writing teachers in
Hong Kong were observed for their methods to teach critical
thinking. Both writing teachers were interviewed and it was found
that they felt a great deal of pressure in the classroom. The
researcher found that teachers generally relied on the 3Ts:
teacher, text, and test, rather than engaging students in
literacy critical thinking skills. During observation, it was
observed that teachers failed to give their students wait time
before answering questions. Also, in interviews teachers admitted
to only encouraging the best students to write creatively and
felt too busy to implement critical thinking activities.
Critical Assessment
This study may show that it is difficult to teach non-fluent
language learners abstract higher order thinking skills when
students haven’t developed fluent concrete vocabulary to build
upon. Also, the study indicates teacher training for critical
literacy skills might help teachers feel more comfortable
85
teaching these skills. Mok reports that in Hong Kong businesses
are requesting students who have developed higher order thinking
skills. However, the dialogs reported in this study show that
teachers are possibly using traditional Asian dialog techniques
which Mok calls “product-oriented.”
Professional Value
Writing is a skill that involves learning the process of
writing. This study shows that it may be very difficult to take
theory into the classroom without professional development. Also,
this study indicates that businesses worldwide are interested in
graduates who have critical literacy skills. It was not mentioned
in this article if the teachers were of Asian origin and spoke
English as a L2. If they were non-native speakers they may need
additional support in teaching critical literacy concepts.
Morgan, B. 2009. Revitalising the essay in an English for
academic purposes course: critical engagement,
multiliteracies and the Internet. International Journal of Bilingual
Education and Bilingualism 12 (3), 309-324.
86
Research Summary
In this descriptive qualitative piece, the author makes a
case for teaching essay writing using written and digital media.
Using the essay of a Korean student, Morgan illustrates how video
and other types of digital media were used to help the student
develop an opinion and supporting evidence through critical
literacy. The author points out how pictures convey information
powerfully, possibly more so than written text.
Critical Assessment
In this case study the student purportedly made significant
progress with college-level essay writing using media, especially
documentaries to stimulate plans for writing. The results were
not entirely convincing due to lack of quotes from the student
and a lack of excerpts from the student’s writing. The author
does suggest that the study is a starting point and further
research is indicated.
Professional Value
This study offers wonderful insight about using writing to
87
develop literacy critical thinking skills simultaneously
including the Internet or other sources of media, such as videos.
More and more classrooms have SmartBoards. YouTube makes it easy
to offer short video clips pertaining to teaching. Using web
sites and video to supplement critical literacy instruction makes
great sense especially when students may have not developed
concepts such as synthesize in their native language.
Majid, F. (2008). The Development of an Academic Reading
Strategies Pedagogical Model for ESL Adult Learners.
International Journal of Learning, 15(1), 203-210. Retrieved from
Education Research Complete database.
Research Summary
Using a qualitative design this study employed case studies,
student diaries, think aloud protocols, and researcher
observation to investigate the relationship between adult learner
characteristics, specifically self-concept, experience, and time
perspective on academic reading strategies. Data collection was
analyzed by the constant comparison method. Halfway through the
88
study, Cohen Kappa’s test of agreement showed a “comfortable” .93
indicating that interrater agreement between researchers was
reliable taking into consideration chance agreement, so research
continued. Comparing proficient and non-proficient readers for
cognitive, metacognitive, and affective reading strategies, a
pedagogical instructional method called SRAIS was suggested.
SRAIS stands for sharing ideas orally, acknowledging the
importance of reading in and out of class, increasing
independence as a student and reader, read reflectively and
responsively, and seek to draw on background knowledge. Non-
proficient readers were also found to lack basic concepts about
the organization and schemas involved in academic texts.
Critical Assessment
This study never stated the number of participants. Even so,
the explanation of variables studied and coded and his SRAIS
curriculum suggestions actively engage students in metacognition,
the self-system, collaborative learning. Connecting with prior
knowledge to activate and build on strong neural connections.
89
Triangulating data from student diaries, think alouds, and
participant observation, plus using 24 texts offers more
convincing data than just researcher observation. However, the
author fails to substantiate claims such as the less proficient
readers’ self-concept as ‘student learner’ led them to making
mistakes with metacognitive strategies with anecdotes or student
quotes.
Professional Value
Majid mentions in this study that proficient readers were
intrinsically motivated
and able to read both contextualized and decontextualized texts.
Here may be
confirmation of teaching critical literacy to adults utilizing
Marzano & Kendall’s new
taxonomy. This study also implies that students who have had more
academic
experience probably have developed CALPS. So teaching
metacognitive skills and
90
helping students develop beliefs and motivation for academic
success may be necessary
to helping adult students develop critical literacy skills.
Lisa Pray. (2005). How Well Do Commonly Used Language
Instruments Measure English Oral-Language
Proficiency? Bilingual Research Journal, 29(2), 387-409,500.
Retrieved November 16, 2010, from Research Library.
(Document ID: 914809711).
Research Summary
Can CALPS be accurately measured? This question is addressed
in this quantitative study assessing the accuracy of the
measurement of English fluency in three commonly used English
proficiency tests. The Language Assessment Scales-Oral (LAS-O),
the IDEA Proficiency Test (IPT), and the WoodcockMunoz Language
Survey (WMLS) were given to 40 participants from the fourth and
fifth grades who were native English speakers. Half of the
students were Hispanic. The LAS and the IPT are commonly used to
rate English language learner progress and grant entrance into
91
regular classrooms. The WMLS is less commonly used, but the only
English language test that purportedly measures CALPS.
Using only oral language scores the research found that the
IPT and LAS-O classified the majority of students as fluent in
English; however, the WMLS classified none of the students, all
native English speakers, as fluent. The IPT results showed that
3% of the students were non-English speakers, 15% were limited
English speakers, and the majority was fluent. The LAS-O found no
students to be non-English speakers. The WMLS results classified
10% as negligible English speakers, 50% as very limited English
speakers, and 40% as limited English speakers. In sum,
comparisons of the three tests show great variation in their
reported measurements making their validity questionable,
especially since half the participants were white native English
speakers.
Critical Assessment
If the WMLS provides questionable results for white native
English speakers for its oral component, is the CALP component
92
also possibly invalid? The researcher tried to correlate socio-
economic status with the test scores for whites and Hispanics but
no significant correlation was found. The researcher was also the
only test administrator for all test applications. It is possible
there were proctor complications, although the researcher
reported being trained in the IPT and WMLS. Also, there was no
power analysis given for the sample size. Perhaps the sample was
not representative of the population to make generalizations.
Professional Value
Many financial and instructional decisions are made for
students based on test scores. It is concerning to see such great
variation in proficiency tests that are used for many students.
The WMLS is normed on thousands of people (Riverside Publishing,
2010), which is why the research reported is suspicious. However,
if the test really found white native speakers not fluent in
English, then maybe other measures for language proficiency and
CALPS need to be designed.
Rafik-Galea, S., & Bhaskaran Nair, P. (2007). Enhancing ESL
93
teacher
trainees’ critical thinking skills through
scaffolding. Journal of Pan-
Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics, 11(1), 99–113.
Research Summary
Scaffolding as an instructional technique to teach critical
thinking in literacy classes for adult ESL students is the focus
of this study. Three researchers observed 16 teacher trainees who
were also ESL students work in dyads, one high proficient student
paired with a low proficient student. Data were collected
quantitatively. The researchers evaluated narrative scripts once
alone, the second time with a partner, and thirdly with all three
researchers establishing a 93% inter-coder reliability rate. In
the areas of inferencing, analysis, evaluation, and
interpretation, evidence from student discussion was shown that
collaboratively students were able to learn and exhibit critical
thinking skills.
Critical Assessment
94
This study offers a wonderful model of utilizing Vygotsky’s
zone of proximal development theory to teach critical literacy
skills through collaborative learning. These students learned by
reading and speaking. It would have been a more powerful study if
the students had produced essays or short written responses that
exhibited critical thinking. There was no survey given to
students that could give voice to their subjective experience of
the critical thinking and reading training. A survey would have
triangulated data providing more evidence for scaffolding.
Professional Value
This study offers a model of scaffolding as a technique for
teaching critical literacy. Presumably, since all the 16
participants were already college students, they had developed
CALPS in their first language. Some may have developed CALPS
already in English. However, pairing a high proficient student
with a low proficient student is a great idea for developing
CALPS. It would be very interesting to extend this study with the
modifications suggested in the critical analysis above and using
95
adult ELLs with high and low CALP development.
Wilda Laija-Rodríguez, Salvador Hector Ochoa, & Richard
Parker. (2006). The Crosslinguistic Role of Cognitive
Academic Language Proficiency on Reading Growth in Spanish
and English. Bilingual Research Journal, 30(1), 87-106,238-239.
Retrieved November 16, 2010, from Research Library.
(Document ID: 1122033121).
Research Summary
It is widely accepted in linguistics that literacy in L1
facilitates literacy in L2CITE.
This quasi-experimental study with 77 second and third graders
also shows a weak correlation between CALP development in L1 and
L2 using the Woodcock Munoz Language Survey (WMLS) and the ORF
standardized reading test. The participants were all native
Spanish speakers. Development in their L1 CALP scores on the WMLS
was significantly correlated with reading in L2, but not reading
in L1. These findings are consistent with other research and
theories.
96
Critical Assessment
The findings of this study might be skewed by using second
and third graders. Second graders won’t have the same experience
with literacy and language as third graders. The CALP
measurements might include too much variation in the sample
population to be significant. The study did not offer any
statistical analysis of the sample population or inter-rater
reliability measures for the 6 test administrators. The WMLS is
administered one on one so inter-rater reliability is definitely
a concern for valid test results.
Professional Value
The WMLS is currently the only professionally developed
standardized language and literacy test that measures CALPS. It
is the third most widely used language test according to Laija-
Rodríguez, Ochoa, and Parker. The WMLS has levels suitable from
pre-school to adult. If this test truly measures CALPS then it
could be a useful tool to teach critical literacy skills to adult
ELLs.
97
Additionally, this research provides further evidence for a
bilingual curriculum. With adult ELLs who are struggling to
develop CALPS in English, it might be useful to ask them to
supplement their education with reading and writing in their
native language. Possibly by strengthening previous made neural
pathways for literacy, new connections might be created more
easily.
Xiangming, L., Brand, M. (2009). Effectiveness of music on
vocabulary acquisition, language usage and meaning for
mainland Chinese ESL learners. Music Education, 36(1), 73-84.
Research Summary
In this quasi-experimental quantitative study of the effect
music has on learning vocabulary, music as an instructional
method was found to have a significantly positive effect of
learning vocabulary and retaining that knowledge. The study
separated 105 Chinese law students into three classes of 35
students each, an all music group, a half music half-traditional
instruction group, and a no music group. The students were high
98
intermediate English speakers with an average vocabulary of 5,500
words. Analysis of Variance, ANOVA results showed no significant
difference in their knowledge of vocabulary after pre-tests were
given. Post-test and delayed post-test measures were the highest
for the all music group and second highest for the no music
group. Also, student surveys assessing student satisfaction with
their classes showed the highest satisfaction among the all music
group and second highest among the no music group. Interestingly,
the half music half traditional instruction group had the lowest
post and delayed post-test measures, as well as the lowest
satisfaction rates.
The researchers attempted to control moderating variables by
using the same instructor for all three groups. Each group had
the same 9 hours of instruction for the study, 1.5 hours twice a
week for three weeks. The usual English club extracurricular
English practice was suspended during the experiment to prevent
moderating variables.
Critical Assessment
99
This study indicates that playing pop songs from the
Beatles, Led Zeppelin, Van Morrison, Cat Stevens and other famous
artists is a promising and most likely enjoyable way to teach
vocabulary development. The instructor used the texts to teach
grammar, semantics, stress, and pronunciation. In the literature
review the “song-stuck-in-your-head” phenomenon is given as a
rationale for using music for instruction. Music has also been
found to be processed in a similar part of the brain as language.
Many pop lyrics unfortunately are written as poetry with
incorrect grammar. It might be confusing to ELLs to learn grammar
solely from music.
Professional Value
Everybody loves having fun and being entertained in class.
This study very interestingly points out that using a combination
of music and traditional instruction may not be the best use of
music for teaching adult ELLs. It might be more appropriate to
teach a unit, such as the three-week span shown in this study, to
teach English language using primarily music as an instructional
100
method. Music may also be a way to help students with primarily
BICS in English start to develop CALPS because most pop lyrics,
as cited by this study, are written at about an 11 year old level
in English. Simpler vocabulary and grammar structures may allow
students to understand and identify metaphorical comparison and
inferences more easily.
Zhang, L.J. (2008). Constructivist pedagogy in strategic reading
instruction: exploring pathways to learner development in
the English as a second language (ESL) classroom. Instructional
Science, 38, 89-116. doi:10.1007/s11251-007-9025-6
Research Summary
This study indicates constructivist strategy-based pedagogy
is effective for teaching Chinese students, with an average age
of 18, reading in English for academic purposes courses required
for entrance into university. The 99 participants were chosen
for their previous levels of English education and randomly
placed into two groups of 49 and 50 students. Instructional
strategies for teaching critical literacy, metacognition, and
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collaborative learning were used with one group and the other
group was taught with knowledge-based instructional practices.
The researcher / instructor included the students’ cultural
preference for working with the teacher and first led
collaborative learning such as reciprocal teaching. The same
instructor taught both groups using the same texts.
Students were given IELTS English proficiency tests before
and after the 2-month period of research. Additionally, students
were surveyed using a Likert scale questionnaire to find out
their background knowledge with strategies for reading. Results
showed that students often knew the word strategy but could not
name reading strategies even in their L1. Students reported being
very motivated to learn. Sixteen of 17 different reading
strategies were found to produce higher mean scores, usually
double, that of the control group and produced significant t test
results.
Critical Assessment
This is a very detailed study and provides fantastic
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direction for teaching adult ESL students academic reading. It
would be very interesting to apply the same study to other
nationalities of students such as Latino students in the United
States, for example. Two months seems like a relatively short
time for such significant instructional gains. It would also be
useful to give students a survey asking which reading strategies
were most useful for them.
Professional Value
This study clearly indicates that utilizing the metacognitive
and self-system noted in Marzano and Kendall’s new taxonomy,
critical thinking can be taught quite efficiently. Instructors of
advanced adult ELLs should definitely take these findings into
the classroom. Also, the research here indicates the importance
of using cultural expectations as a bridge to new classroom
learning experiences.
Zhou, A. (2007). What adult ESL learners say about improving
grammar and vocabulary in their writing for academic
purposes. Language Awareness 18 (1), 31-36. Retrieved from
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Education Research Complete database.
This is a follow-up qualitative study using data collected by Jim
Cummins and
others in 2006. The grounded theory study investigates the
experience of adult ESL
learners with academic English. Specifically, the research
focused on vocabulary and
grammar acquisition. The 15 university students reported that
although they wanted very badly to write in English flawlessly,
they had trouble with grammar and often didn’t know where to go
for help or support. University professors were said to have
focused on content and not grammar. Also, vocabulary was learned
best in context rather than through memorization. Students also
relied on media and social contact to improve their vocabulary.
Critical Assessment
The debate about teaching grammar contextually or through
direct instruction
amongst English language teachers has gone on for years,
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chronicled by the succinct literature review in this study. The
vast array of student voices documented in this well detailed
study show that adult English language students, especially
advanced speakers admitted to English speaking universities
prefer direct grammar instruction. The study could have been
improved by offering a survey of some sort to find out what the
students would like. New students could have been included in the
study and given such a survey as an addendum to the existing
research.
Professional Value
Here there is a clear plea from adult ELLs to have direct
instruction for grammar. Presumably, the students in this study
have developed CALPS. However, in order to express themselves to
their best ability they still need vocabulary and grammar
support. This study indicates that college language labs,
learning labs, or writing centers are very important to support
the learning experience of ELL students.
Literature Review Essay
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Language is a fascinating subject of instruction with
uncharted territory yet to be discovered. So far in this inquiry
of human development concentrating on adult foreign language
acquisition of critical literacy skills, theory, models, and
research have begun to illuminate effective instructional
practices. In this literature review essay, some additional
themes necessary for effective critical literacy instruction have
surfaced: memory, motivations, emotion and development of the
inner voice. These themes will be explored along side discussions
of the discoveries from the annotated bibliography research.
CALPS and the Literature
Cummins’ theory of BICS/CALPS helped to set the stage for
investigating adult critical literacy development in L2. Not all
researchers agree that Cummins’ definitions of CALPS are clear
(Wilda, Ochoa, & Parker, 2006). Even if CALPS exist, there is
debate about how to measure CALPS (Pray, 2005; Wilda, Ochoa &
Parker, 2006). Much research focuses on developing critical
literacy skills especially in English for academic purposes
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courses (Durkin, 2008; Ismail, 2009; Iwai, 2008; Kovalik &
Kovalik, 2007; Melles, 2009; Mok, 2009; Morgan, 2009; Majid,
2008; Rafik-Galea & Nair, 2007; Xiangming & Brand, 2009; Zhang,
2008). Obviously, there is international interest from educators
in finding effective ways to teach critical literacy, and
consensus about the definition of critical thinking skills
applied to reading and writing.
Currently, more adult ELL instructors are concerned about
teaching critical thinking skills than CALP skills. Revisiting
Cummins’ distinction, “CALP is a reliable dimension of individual
differences in de-contextualized literacy related functions of
language which appears to be distinct from interpersonal
communicative skills in L1 and L2” (2001). This definition is
broad, but understanding the distinction of BICS and CALPS helps
instructors identify expressions of student critical literacy.
Vygotsky and the Literature
The zone of proximal development and Vygotsky’s emphasis on
social constructivist learning are cited as sources of
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significant instructional practice and design for adult critical
literacy (Zhang, 2008; Rafik-Galea & Nair, 2007). The
collaborative social nature of the ZPD has been utilized
successfully to teach critical literacy skills (Ismail, 2009;
Kovalik & Kovalik, 2007; Majid, 2008; Rafik-Galea & Nair, 2007;
Zhang, 2008). Clearly, utilizing collaborative learning and ZPD
theory are indicated for teaching adult ELLs critical literacy.
Marzano & Kendall and the Literature
Since the new taxonomy theory is relatively new (Marzano &
Kendall, 2007), only one researcher noted this specific theory
(Mok, 2009). However, Bloom’s taxonomy, the precursor to Marzano
and Kendall’s work is cited more often probably because it has
much more longevity (Mok, 2009). Interestingly, metacgonition and
the self-system are referenced and utilized successful several
times to teach adult ELLs critical literacy (Zhang, 2008; Majid,
2008; Ismail, 2009). It appears the new taxonomy is an
appropriate theory to include instructionally yielding successful
learning experiences for adult ELLs.
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Declarative/Procedural Model and the Literature
Several themes in the research cited indicate as the D/P
model suggests a need for both contextual learning and direct
grammar instruction. Astoundingly, Dyson’s study of the 12-year-
old girl’s preference for contextualized language production and
the 13-year-old boy’s preference for proceduralized language
production (2009) provide proof of research showing women tend to
prefer contextualized instruction using more declarative memory
processing, and men tend to prefer proceduralized instruction
utilizing the procedural memory processing (Sanz, 2005).
Additional studies show that instruction for both the
declarative, the what, and the procedural, the how, systems
facilitate adult ELLs in developing critical literacy (Drewring,
Murray, & Thomson, 2007; Melles, 2009; Morgan, 2009; Majid, 2008;
Xiangming & Brand, 2009; Zhang, 2008). All of these studies
successfully employed some type of context, literature,
discussion, music, or textbooks, the what, of English, in
addition to direct grammar instruction, the how of English.
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Scaffolding is another instructional practice that breaks
down learning concepts into what and how. Scaffolding has been
used to teach reading and critical thinking successfully (Zhang,
2008; Morgan, 2009; Melles, 2009; Rafik-Galea & Nair, 2007;
Majid, 2008). Certainly another instructional practice indicated
for teaching adult ELLs critical literacy is scaffolding.
Chomsky and the Literature
Chomsky is not cited often in this literature selection.
Only Dyson explains the differences in the morphological versus
syntactical language acquisition discrepancy with Chomsky’s
universal grammar theory (2009). Universal grammar theory
maintains that syntactic language is acquired incrementally in
L2, which would explain why the girl chose to focus on language
syntax and later on morphology. In terms of adult critical
literacy acquisition, Dyson’s study and Chomsky’s theories remind
instructors to honor individual learning preferences and rates of
learning.
Gaps in Research Surrounding Critical Literacy
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The relationship between CALPS and critical thinking, two
seemingly similar interdependent cognitive processes, seems
nonexistent in research. There is a lack of research regarding
CALP and critical thinking development in L1. Textbooks exist
about teaching strategies for critical literacy skills, but none
for teaching strategies for CALPS. There is still more to be
learned about instructional best practices for critical literacy
skills in a second language both for children and adults.
Vygotsky’s ideas about the development of an inner voice
appear very important to the development of metacognition and the
self-system. These relationships between language, internal
language, metacognition and the self-system raise many questions.
If these concepts intertwine developmentally as they appear to
do, can students raised in a bilingual environment with BICS in
both languages but CALPS in neither, acquire the necessary
conceptual language to develop a cognitive and affective
foundation for critical literacy? Is an inner voice a necessary
part of learning a language such as reading, speaking, listening,
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and writing? Maybe, as Chomsky asserts, language acquisition and
subsequently thought acquisition is much more natural than we
think. Maybe developing critical literacy is simply a matter of
exposure to ideas. In any event, no clear indication from
research suggests instructional practices that help students
develop their inner voice.
Barriers to developing critical literacy skills are also
indicated by the research. Data shows that poverty and lower
academic achievement is correlated (Cummins, 1984; Levine, 2002).
Lack of vitamins, attention, and mental stimulation can lead to
cognitive challenges in adulthood and sometimes even impairment
(Amen, 2008). How are adult educators to know if their student
who went to school for six years in El Salvador has an impaired
brain or simply a lack of proper education? Many immigrants face
significant economic, social, cultural, and emotional challenges,
sometimes, even trauma. How much does the “immigrant experience”
affect learning, and how can instructors facilitate immigrants to
be more effective learners? These questions and others are ripe
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for research that will aid millions of people. Until research
unearths suggestions for these questions, instructors can always
focus on the basics of communication, speaking, listening,
reading, and writing.
The development of adult English language acquisition and
critical literacy can be mutually beneficial processes. In order
to acquire critical literacy concepts, vocabulary is necessary.
In order to express critical literacy, grammar is necessary.
Critical literacy helps students to deepen their understanding of
English semantics or deep grammar and utilize more complex and
academic, CALP, language structures. Additional information about
second language acquisition and memory, motivation, and emotion
provides more illumination in the search to uncover effective
instructional practices for critical literacy.
Learning and Memory from Psycholinguistics
According to Dr. Lise Menn, providing repetition,
accommodating top-down and bottom-up processing, and helping
students develop mental models that increase memorization are
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three main concepts from psycholinguistic studies can make
language acquisition instruction very powerful (2010). Menn
likens the brain to a “bustling metropolis full of traffic: but
when traffic gets heavy, the roads between them automatically get
better” (2010). Practice, practice, practice as the old adage
goes literally creates stronger and more automatic neural
connections (Menn, 2010; Ratey, 2001). This idea seems true at
all ages; now the ability of the brain to make new neural
connections even has a name – “plasticity” (Ratey, 2001; Amen,
2008). Menn states a virtual slogan in neuroscience: “what fires
together, wires together” (2010). Repetition is still a mainstay
of effective instruction for any subject.
Repetition is a foundational condition that predisposes
learners to top-down bottom-up processing. Because we interpret
the world based on all our past neural connections, our busiest
and strongest neural roads, these neural connections become the
filters for taking in information and define what we recognize
(Menn, 2010). Top-down processing is the process of taking in
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information and filtering it through our personal metropolis of
neural activity. Instructors can best interact with top-down
processing by activating background knowledge, inviting multiple
experiences with the information (2010) and accommodating
cultural preferences in the classroom (Zhang, 2008; Huang &
Brown, 2009; Durkin, 2008). Additionally, utilizing real world
experiences and realia, or physical objects, also help to
facilitate top-down processing (Menn, 2010).
Bottom-up processing is also part of inputting information
into the brain. It is not enough just to identify the filter by
which people take in data, but the new substances, ideas,
experiences, and sounds also need to be rich and specific to the
learning outcome. Again providing information that attacks the
senses and makes us see, hear, taste, smell, feel, and remember
will have more likelihood of making sense and becoming memorable
(Menn, 2010).
Memory is such an important part of learning that is often
overlooked. Teachers focus a great deal on the input process of
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learning, but not as much on the memorization of learning. For
adult ELLs memorization is very important to acquire vocabulary
and develop critical literacy. Mental models are internal multi-
sensory constructs that students make to facilitate learning
(Menn, 2010). When instructors attack a subject by activating old
neural pathways requiring students to use both top-down and
bottom-up processing they make learning easier, more effective,
and more efficient for students. Then when students take the new
information and mentally visualize or feel or hear or even
combine senses to imagine this new information in action, they
are more likely to store this memory into long-term memory (Menn,
2010; Ratey, 2001; Levine, 2002).
Top-down, bottom-up processing also helps to explain why
increasing knowledge in a student’s L1 has been shown to increase
their knowledge in L2 (Cummins,1984); Wilda, Ochoa, & Parker,
2006). When students are encouraged to read and write in their
native language, the skills of reading and writing in a second
language become more practiced or more heavily trafficked. If
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students have developed BICS but have less developed CALPS,
talking and discussion would be a great way to develop critical
literacy. Using the strong L2 roads of listening and speaking,
students can begin to transfer ideas like making inferences and
analyzing texts to reading comprehension tests and writing
persuasive essays.
Based on this KAM investigation, adult English language
instructors teaching critical literacy have several instructional
practices to rely upon: strategy-based instruction for critical
thinking, collaborative learning, scaffolding, encouraging
metacognition and the self-system, developing phonemic and
syntactic language awareness, and providing continuous grammar
instruction. From psycholinguistics, additionally, including
instruction for top-down, bottom-up processing, repetition, and
offering multi-sensory real life experiences will also help
critical literacy skills come alive.
Memory and Adult Critical Literacy Instruction
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Continuing with an exploration of memory and learning.
Various types of memory facilitate different types of learning.
Short-term memory, also called working memory holds information
for minutes or hours (Ratey, 2001). Long-term memory holds
information for longer than a day. Short-term memory allows us to
process old memories and new information, but like a computer’s ,
random access memory, or RAM,this information is forgotten once
time has passed (2001). Short-term memory is what allows students
to focus on the details of a story in class and pull up long-term
memories of subjects and verbs to analyze the sentences of the
story. After class, students would probably forget the story.
Long-term memory occurs when perceptual stimuli make new
neural connections and those neural connections are fired over
and over again (Ratey, 2001). Neighboring neurons also become
fired and the road to a memory becomes stronger and broader
(2001). Emotions and motivation can also help memories become
long-term files in the brain. However, research with trauma shows
that when events are excessively emotional people will disengage
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from the memory, failing to remember the details of the event,
but instead remembering the sensory aspects of the memory (2001).
Educators want learning to become long-term memories.
Research from stroke victims shows that language is usually
located on the left side of the brain (Ratey, 2001). Right next
to the language area in the brain is a motor-sensory area, which
explains why when language neurons fire so do gesturing neurons;
hence we talk while moving our hands. Music is also near the
language area and these neurons may help us to use intonation and
rhythm with speech (2001). Sensory memories are also an aspect of
long-term memory (2001).
By offering students multi-sensory learning experiences,
information can be more easily connected, accessed, and practiced
because more neurons become wired together and fired
repetitively.
Another differentiation of long-term memory essential to
learning and to critical thinking is explicit and implicit
memory. Explicit memory is factual (Ratey, 2010). A student would
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remember that in English subjects precede verbs. Implicit memory
allows a factual memory to be applied to skills and procedures
that become automatic (2010). Ideally, students would store
vocabulary as explicit memory and then use the vocabulary in a
common response or phrase that is produced automatically. For
example, a student might know the word scallions and say, “I
would prefer salad without any scallions please.”
Instructors recognize that students must first form explicit
memories. Then especially with making inferences, comparing and
contrasting, evaluating, synthesizing, and other critical
thinking skills, students must apply the explicit memories
implicitly to understand and express comprehension and deeper
thinking. Once grammar and critical thinking skills have
transferred to implicit memory, students would probably be
fluent.
Memory Development and Instructional Implications
Previously, declarative and procedural memory also an aspect
of long term memory, were discussed as important links to
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language learning. Procedural learning has been found to develop
first in babies as they begin to use their body to interact with
the world (Ratey, 2010). Next semantic memory develops and allows
the thing the baby touches to have a name, mommy. Finally, memory
evolves into episodic memory, and babies can consciously recall
the dog that grabbed the ball out of their hands (2010).
Semantic and episodic types of memory are also lumped into
declarative memory (Marzano & Kendall, 2007). It is noteworthy
that the two main types of memory processing in the D/P model are
the first two types of memory to develop. Very possibly adult
second language acquisition mirrors Chomsky’s claim that all
babies are born with a language acquisition device (LAD) or
biological ability to learn language (2001).
Following the progression of infantile memory development,
it might be useful to offer more physical movement activities
with sequenced language structures. Then provide students with
stories and factual details to apply to the rote physical
experience. Total physical response (TPR) is a current
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instructional model for second language acquisition that seems to
work very well with adults and children (Asher, 1967). TPR
utilizes this exact sequence of body, grammar sequence, plus
story with details.
Apparently, systematizing studying and studying before sleep
are great ways to help memories become long-term (Levin, 2002).
Making studying organized and routine would assist implicit
procedural memory to help repetition take place. Repetition
always helps neural pathways to become stronger. The brain needs
time to process information as well as take it in (2002). This is
why sleep, discussion, and reflection are all extremely important
for helping transfer learning into long-term memory.
Finally, the studies assessing adult ELLs’ perceptions of
their needs reported a need for grammar instruction (Iwai, 2008;
Majid, 2008). Other qualitative studies of advanced ELLs in
university classes demonstrated a need for grammar support
(Rafik-Galea & Nair, 2007; Melles, 2009; Zhang, 2008). Chomsky’s
explanation of language claims that language just happens whether
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instruction is present or not (2001). However, the D/P model and
psycholinguistics research shows that repetition and help
connecting old neural pathways with new ones facilitates
knowledge. The fact that Chomsky points out how complex deep
grammar is (2001) provides an additional reason to provide
continuous grammar support and training as adults learn a second
language.
Memory makes learning possible and lasting. Short-term
memory allows learning to be processed and combine new
information with old. Transferring knowledge to usable long-term
memory is a chief goal of any form of education. Utilizing the
various aspects of long-term memory, explicit, implicit, sensory,
declarative, and procedural, instructors can help students
maximize learning. Long-term memory is not infallible,
unfortunately, and can become subjective over time (Ratey, 2010).
Emotions and Memory
Memories become weaker over time when they are not accessed,
subjective over time, and short-circuited by trauma (Ratey,
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2010). Ratey notes that research shows people can completely
invent memories and even block them completely (2010). A whole
family believed they had all participated in satanic rituals
when, in fact, none ever had. A girl who believed for many years
that, when she was 14, her uncle found her mother who had
drowned in a swimming pool, found herself at age 45 screaming
with clear memories of viewing her dead mother floating face-down
in the pool (2010). She had blocked out these memories. Adult
ELLs may have had similarly tragic or traumatic events leaving
their countries and immigrating to the U.S. Their memory may be
compromised from being in a foreign place.
Emotion has been labeled “messy, complicated, primitive, and
undefined because it is all over the place intertwined with
physiology and cognition” (Ratey, 2001). Emotions are expressed
through the body and through language. We even call behavior that
goes with emotions “body language”. Emotion is significant in
this exploration of adult critical literacy acquisition and the
discussion of memory because the brain process for turning
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perception into memory through the hippocampus is right next door
to the amygdala which simultaneously tags the information with
emotion, connecting emotion to the memory (Ratey, 2010).
The fact that long-term memory can be facilitated by emotion
(Ratey, 2010) is important for educators to consider. Hopefully,
teachers provide pleasant and happy experiences for students to
encode. However, sensitive use of other emotions may also provide
opportunities for students to apply background knowledge and file
new information with appropriate emotional tags. Certainly,
instructors should be wary of causing students embarrassment,
stress, humiliation, and anger. These types of emotions in the
classrooms would certainly qualify as traumatic and short-circuit
long-term memory and motivation for learning. Motivation as seen
previously in is useful in promoting adult ELL critical literacy
development.
Motivation and Adult Literacy
How does motivation affect learning and long-term memory?
Cannon proposed in the 1930’s that motivation was a result of a
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person’s drive for equilibrium (Ratey, 2010). Maslow stated that
motivation arose from people striving to satisfy a hierarchy of
needs (2010). Motivation is a difficult concept to define and
measure, but is nevertheless a recognizable key component of
learning (Levine, 2002). Usually, people are motivated when they
have a desirable goal and believe they can achieve that goal
(2002).
Motivation, an internal state like emotion, could be defined
as an emotion like happiness, sadness, anger, or joy. With so
many competing forces inside human beings it is no wonder that
motivation can be undercut by low self-esteem, frustration,
pessimism, lack of tangible rewards, disenfranchisement, and past
failures (Levine, 2002). Motivation improves with success and
decreases with failure. In order to foster motivation, goals can
be broken down into achievable chunks (2002). Success with each
chunk must be acknowledged and celebrated.
Motivation arises from internal stimuli and external stimuli
(Levine, 2002). Simple satisfaction and pride from writing a
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great essay might suffice for some students. Others really aren’t
motivated to write great essays unless they know their family or
peers will be impressed. Perhaps they will get a better job if
they get good grades and a diploma. Both internal and external
motivation can assist in learning.
Instructors can foster internal motivation by coaching adult
ELLs in goal-setting strategies, self-assessment of the goals,
and recognizing success. Students who get the opportunity in each
class to recognize their success and enjoy their progress become
more cognizant of their progress. Their neural connections for
positive motivation are strengthened and reinforced by meta-
cognitive strategies and intrapersonal intelligence.
Meta-cognition and self-assessment are wonderful bridges to
critical literacy skills. Using graphs, scaffolded writing
prompts, journaling, and self-reflective paragraphs, students can
get lots of practice reading and writing with the subject they
know best, themselves. In order to set goals students have to
gather information, synthesize it, evaluate the rewards and
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decide yes, this is good for me. Looking at their progress,
students use comparison strategies and must summarize: ok, I have
learned x, y, z and next I need to learn a, b, and c. If
roadblocks occur, students can analyze and ask themselves what
isn’t working and what additional help they need. When goals are
achieved students have practiced critical thinking strategies and
are empowered to set new challenges for themselves.
Teaching metacognitive critical literacy strategies could
easily be applied to instruction for adult ELLs. Motivation and
emotion can enhance or hinder education. Both motivation and
emotion are primarily internal experiences that students can use
to their benefit. The previous section has examined internal
human processes that make learning critical literacy easier.
External forces must also be considered to fully understand the
challenge adult ELL students face in learning critical literacy.
The next section will show how the environment in America
supports and challenges adult English language learners.
The Immigrant Experience, Environmental Factors
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Adult ELLs are generally taught in English as a Second
Language (ESL) classes, GED Preparation classes, community
college courses, and in higher education courses. According to
the Institute of International Education, in 2008/09 there were
over 95,000 international community college students (1.5% of the
total community college population), and over 671,000
international students at all post-secondary institutions (3.7%
of the total post-secondary student population (2010). In 2007,
there were over 1 million adult ESL students in the United States
and over another million students in GED Preparation courses
(National Center, 2010). There are definitely advanced ESL
students enrolled in GED Preparatory courses, so it is safe to
assume that there somewhere between 1 and 2 million ELL students
in ESL and GED courses across the United States. Estimating
around 20 adults are usually in these types of classrooms, about
100,000 teachers need to offer reading and writing instruction
that can help adult ELLs become successful.
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Nationally, according to 2005 statistics, the United States
houses approximately over 40 million immigrants (Pew, 2010). One
in eight Americans is an immigrant or 12% of the total U.S.
population of 296 million people. Hispanics make up the largest
minority group, 29 million, followed by Asians, 12 million
(2010). It is estimated that between 2005 and 2050 the immigrant
population will see an 83% increase and become the majority
population in the U.S. with whites becoming the minority at 47%
(2010). Truly, the enormous social, political, economic, and
educational implications of the present and impending immigrant
populations require attention.
Immigrants are challenged in many ways and have
unfortunately faced discrimination. Instructors of adult ELLs can
develop compassion, patience, and respect for their immigrant
students when they consider the courage it takes to come to and
live in the United States. It is estimated that 12 million
undocumented immigrants work in the United States, 1 in every 20
workers (Rincon, 2009). These immigrants take low-paying jobs and
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contribute significantly to industries such as construction,
agriculture, meatpacking, garment, and the service-industry. They
work as domestics, janitors, and landscapers (2009). Immigrants
contribute to the economy just as immigrants always have in the
United States.
It is estimated that immigrants contribute significantly to
the U.S. economy. The Social Security Administration collects
10%, $7 billion dollars, from the illegal use of social security
numbers (Rincon, 2009). Undocumented immigrants pay sales tax,
payroll tax, Medicare, unemployment, disability, pensions and get
nothing back. They increasingly pay income tax and property taxes
(2009). According the Institute of Boston, in 1997 immigrants
paid $133 billion in direct taxes to federal, state, and local
governments (2010). Why would they come and work so hard for
minimal income?
In 2006, estimates of $20 billion dollars were sent to
Mexico, mostly in increments of $300 via wire transfer (Gordon,
2010). The Bank of Mexico reportedly received $16.5 billion
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dollars during the first 10 months of 2006 from wire American
wire-transfers (Gordon, 2010). The U.S. Census estimates that in
2007 between $10.6 and $12.8 billion dollars were transferred
outside of the United States from foreign-born households
(Greico, E., de la Cruz, P., Cortes, R., and Larsen, L. (2008).
The exact number of dollars earned in the United States by
immigrants that is sent out of the country may not be
identifiable, but it appears to be in the billions. One rationale
for the exodus of Mexican immigrants to the United States is that
Mexico because is a third-world country with international debt
minimizing its ability to adequately provide for its citizens
(Ricon, 2009). Many immigrants work very hard supporting two
countries. Economic stress is not the only challenge immigrants
face.
Families face separation. The 12 million undocumented
immigrants live in constant fear of deportation (Ricon, 2009).
Nearly 75% of all immigrants come to the U.S. to be with family
usually on a travel or student visa (Institute, 2010). Often
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children are born to undocumented immigrants in the United
States, but that doesn’t guarantee freedom from deportation
(Rincon, 2009). Sometimes U.S. born children are incarcerated in
deportation centers with parents (2009). Such a threat of
separation from loved ones surely can make learning a struggle.
Any discussion of immigrant challenges would be incomplete
without noting prejudice and intolerance. My students have told
me directly about the discrimination they have faced from
landlords not fixing the heat to co-workers telling them they are
ruining America. Law enforcement violations also unfortunately
occur (Rincon, 2009; Southern, 2010). As the “Great Recession” of
the past years has taken hold of the United States, increasing
anti-immigrant sentiment has been reported (Southern, 2010).
Currently, the anti-immigrant group, Federal Immigrant Reform and
Enforcement (FIRE), has chapters in 33 states (2010). The
environment immigrants find themselves in is not only foreign
with different customs, culture, food, and language, but it can
be hostile and threatening.
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The upside of being an immigrant in the United States is
that there are educational and financial opportunities. In 1996
ten high-tech firms in the U.S. contributed $28 billion to the
U.S. economy; these ten plus all other immigrant owned companies
are estimated to have contributed $29 billion to the United
States (Institute, 2010). Over 70% of immigrants arrive in the
United States over the age of 18, but still many go to school to
learn English or even acquire additional education (2010). For
generations America has become the new home for immigrants around
the world, and this tradition continues today.
Extrinsic factors such as the economy, familial stress,
integration, and prejudice can be both positively and negatively
motivating. Adult ELLs faced with this cornucopia of divergent
experiences enter classrooms ready to learn. Their future depends
on bettering themselves and they know it. With over $16 billion
dollars being sent to Mexico there are undoubtedly millions of
stories of people who “made it” in the U.S. They see the goal of
living a better life in America as an achievable goal since so
134
many other immigrants have succeeded. Some days might be easier,
some might be harder, and but given support and encouragement
adult ELLs can have successful classroom opportunities. The final
section of this Depth exploration will wrap up with possible
implications of developing a clear inner voice and summaries of
instructional implications.
Developing an Internal Voice
Developing critical literacy skills is necessary for
advanced language proficiency and success in higher education,
but maybe it is even more useful. Critical literacy skill
development helps the inner voice develop. When students have an
inner voice that can self-assess, set goals, analyze, synthesize,
and evaluate, they are more personally powerful. Consider that
students who have acquired higher order thinking skills will not
only be better students, but better employees/employers, wiser at
home, and become smarter citizens. It has already been discussed
how teaching meta-cognitive strategies using reading and writing
can help adult ELLs develop critical thinking skills. Perhaps
135
teaching meta-cognitive strategies and helping students expand
the capacity of their inner voice is just as empowering as
teaching English and critical literacy skills. Teaching people to
use critical thinking skills internally may be a necessary step
to learning critical literacy.
Instructional practices for adult ELLs
Learning English is absolutely essential for critical
literacy skill acquisition. As Chomsky pointed out with surface
grammar (2001) and Cummins noted with BICS (1984), words and
conversation precede deep grammar or CALPS. From the theory and
research in this KAM, instructional practices for teaching adults
English as a foreign language include multi-sensory exposure to
L1 (Menn, 2010; Ratey, 2001; Drewring, et al., 2007; Kovalik &
Kovalik, 2007; Morgan, 2009; Xiangming & Brand, 2009). Including
real-life experiences or taking the classroom into the real world
is also indicated (Zhou, 2009; Drewring, et. al., 2007; Xiangming
& Brand, 2009; Melles, 2009; Menn, 2010). Instruction that
accommodates or acknowledges cultural classroom preferences and
136
expectations helps top-down processing take place (Menn, 2010;
Durkin, 2008; Huang & Brown, 2009; Zhang, 2008).
In addition, teach to both declarative and procedural memory
systems by teaching content and process, what and how, phonics
and grammar (Dyson, 2009; Iwai, 2008; Marzano & Kendall, 2007;
Cummins, 1984; Chomsky, 2001; Zhang, 2008; Zhou, 2009). Lastly,
repetition, emotion, organized study, and sleep are useful
strategies for turning short-term memories into long-term ones
(Menn, 2010; Levine, 2002; Ratey, 2001).
Instructional practices for critical literacy
The same instructional implications for adult ELLs can be
utilized to teach critical literacy. Other strategies such as
collaborative learning (Kovalik & Kovalik, 2007; Majid, 2008;
Melles, 2009; Rafik-Galea & Nair, 2007; Zhang, 2008), scaffolding
(Zhang, 2008; Rafik-Galea & Nair, 2007; Morgan, 2009; Majid,
2008; Iwai, 2009; Menn, 2010) and developing metacognition
(Majid, 2008; Zhang, 2008; Rafik-Galea & Nair, 2007; Amen, 2008)
are equally beneficial and empowering. Instruction for critical
137
literacy is a natural extension of language learning allowing
students to express themselves more powerfully and creatively
through literacy and through life.
Conclusion
The literature found relating to critical literacy
acquisition indicated that instruction rich in scaffolding,
collaborative learning, and strategy-based content fostering
metacognition and critical thinking is successful for adult ELLs.
Research also indicated that accommodating the cultural
expectations of classroom etiquette helps students. Music, games,
debate, media, and weblogs are all great ways to engage adult
students using real life experiences. Students require both
morphological and syntactic, vocabulary and grammar instruction.
Encouraging students to read for personal interest and use
context clues instead of the dictionary were also implicated.
Additional information from psycholinguistics, memory processing
and development, and the relationship between memory and emotions
empowers teachers to provide students with effective
138
instructional practices that foster critical literacy. In the
next section these instructional implications are combined into a
power point presentation for adult educators at the Colorado
Teachers to Speakers of Other Languages conference.
139
APPLICATION
SBSF 8234: PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE, HUMAN DEVELOPMENT, AND
ADULT EDUCATION
Participants in this presentation about teaching critical
literacy skills to adult English language students will be given
an 11 x 17 white poster with an outline of a tree to use for
note-taking. The outline of a tree represents the interdependence
of language acquisition and the development of higher order
thinking. Theoretical information regarding language acquisition
from Lev Vygotsky, Noam Chomsky, Jim Cummins, and the
declarative/procedural model from neuroscience, will be
contrasted with the behavior descriptors for adult ESL language
acquisition stages. Additional theoretical background information
about higher order thinking will be provided from Benjamin Bloom,
Robert Marzano, John Kendall, and Art Costa and Bena Kallick.
Current research will be discussed which shows how cultural
140
definitions of higher order thinking may differ from our standard
definition of critical literacy and how instruction can be
differentiated so students can express higher order thinking in
various ways. Finally, tips for direct instruction of critical
literacy for beginning, intermediate, and advanced levels of
English language study, as well as supportive instructional
techniques will be discussed.
Developing Critical Literacy Skills
A PowerPoint presentation, which can be found as an appendix
to this application, entitled Developing Critical Literacy will
be used to guide participants. Since the 45-minute presentation
has been dubbed a “poster presentation”, participants will be
given 11x17 white posters with the outline of a tree. The tree
outline represents growth and development. The tree trunk is
symbolic of language acquisition, a necessary prerequisite of
thought (Vygotsky, 1978). The branches and leaves, which
participants will add to the poster, represent content necessary
for developing critical literacy skills. Language acquisition
141
represents branches, and leaves are the critical literacy
activities. Foliage, or abundant growth, is representative of
instructional strategies, or how to teach critical literacy
skills. Finally, fertilizer is offered as a symbol of
instructional best practices specific to adult English language
learners.
Introduction and Problem
After an introduction that explains the challenge and
relevance of teaching Cognitive Analytical Language Proficiency
Skills (CALPS) (Cummins, 2001), participants will be asked to
consider theories about second language acquisition (SLA) and
higher order thinking. Theory will be contrasted with generally
accepted ESL level descriptors, and participants will be invited
to discuss, evaluate, and hypothesize about adult language
acquisition.
Theory
Theories of language acquisition from Vygotsky, Chomsky, and
the declarative procedural model from neuroscience will be
142
discussed briefly and referred to from a handout. Similarly, to
save time and avoid repetitive information for this audience of
English language instructors, theories of higher order thinking
from Bloom, Marzano & Kendall, and Costa & Kallick, will also be
briefly introduced. Additionally, recent research by Durin
regarding cultural differences defining higher order thinking
skills will also be offered.
Instructional Strategies
Given background information about SLA and higher order
thinking, participants will be offered suggestions for content
and instructional strategies that develop critical literacy
skills.
Content useful for developing critical literacy skills would
include language acquisition skills, such as building vocabulary
and spelling ability by increasing phonemic and morphemic
awareness as well as increasing knowledge of many irregularly
spelled sight words (Marzano & Kendall, 2007). Building critical
literacy skills would include reading and writing for specific
143
purposes, such as making inferences, creating hypotheses,
evaluating, analyzing, applying, and synthesizing (Marzano &
Kendall, 2007). Participants will be asked to add to the list of
offering students multiple opportunities to express critical
literacy skills like multiple choice tests, projects, Power Point
presentations, essays, and graphic organizers.
Additionally, the possibility of scaffolding instruction,
using collaborative learning, modeling and think alouds, will be
offered as instructional strategies tailored to the specific
content aspects cited earlier. Literacy instruction mixing
reading and writing activities will also be discussed. Also,
pre-, during, and post- reading and writing activities will be
discussed as ways to encourage metacognition, independent
learning skills, reflective learning, and stimulate higher order
thinking (Alverman, Phelps, Ridgeway, 2007).
More instructional best practices specific for adult English
language learners will be explored. Asking questions to build
curiosity can help students gain motivation for learning and
144
develop metacognition. Reinforcing and celebrating success can
help foster confidence in learning. Building on BICS, instructors
can utilize student strengths to expand critical literacy skills.
Finally, remembering that emotions can play a large role in
language acquisition (Krashen, 2004), basic compassion is
necessary when instructors are working with shy, or tired
students, for example.
Sharing and Conclusion
If there is time left in the presentation, small groups of
participants will be encouraged to develop critical literacy
activities teaching making inferences for beginning,
intermediate, and advanced levels of English. The presentation
will conclude with group sharing and a review of the main points
of the presentation.
Handouts shall include: outline of the presentation,
presenter biography, table of language acquisition theory, ESL
level descriptors, participant evaluation rubric, the tree
outline poster, and references.
145
Discussion
Some people say the more you know, the less you know. That
axiom definitely epitomizes my experience with the theory and
research in this KAM. I chose the theorists Vygotsky and Chomsky
because not only had they written about language acquisition but
they had also written about the role language plays with thought.
The main emphasis of this KAM on human development is to explore
the relationship between language development and the development
of higher order thinking skills. Jim Cummins’ theory about
BICS/CALPS is not about the development of general language
acquisition and thought, but rather the development of specific
language and thought related to higher order thinking. Vygotsky,
Chomsky, and Cummins all offer ideas that help to explain the
development of language, higher order thinking and ultimately
critical literacy guiding instructional practices.
The theories studied in this KAM have offered more than
recent research has. Most of the research found done by educators
was not true research but reports about instructional practices
146
that seemed to have good results. Some of the research was more
qualitative and lacked honest research integrity. The two studies
that were significant were the study about cultural
interpretations of higher order thinking in Asia by Durkin
(2008), and Kovalik & Kovalik’s (2007) qualitative study of what
they called gaming to stimulate critical literacy for adult
English language learners.
Additionally, I turned to neuroscience for valid scientific
studies about second language acquisition. This turn in focus to
neuroscience uncovered a plethora of research on the subject of
thought and language that I could spend years investigating.
However, as the editor of Cristina Sanz
wrote[citation?], many of the neuroscience studies on second
language acquisition are contrived or heavily influenced to
control variables in the study. It seems people in classrooms are
difficult to study because of the multitudes of variables
affecting learning. The main find in a perusal of second language
acquisition research from neuroscience is the
147
Declarative/Procedural Model which helps to explain the debate in
English language instruction about teaching implicitly or
explicitly, as well as supports Chomsky’s theories of lexical
mind, grammar mind, and universal grammar. As discussed earlier
in the Breadth section, declarative memory facilitates facts and
learning through context. Lexical mind assimilates the
superficial meaning of grammar through fact knowledge, and
universal grammar states that language is learned through
context. Procedural memory facilitates the learning of sequence
and structure, which in turn helps the grammar mind to gain
knowledge of language sequence and interpret deep grammar.
Theoretical Insights
In sum, Cummins’ BICS/CALPS theory clearly poses the problem
this KAM seeks answers for: how do you teach people to develop
critical literacy skills when they haven’t exhibited the ability
to express higher order thinking skills in their first or second
language? In order to answer that question, Vygotsky offers
insightful awareness of the seemingly obvious that language from
148
a mother is necessary to stimulate inner speech and that language
development is necessary for thought development, but language
and thought are interdependent phenomena (Vygotsky, 1978). Also
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) suggests that in
order to teach critical literacy, students must be challenged at
a comfortable level and if they are truly in their ZPD, they
won’t be able to express critical literacy with 100% accuracy.
Chomsky’s theories about the lexical mind, grammar mind, and
universal grammar point mirror BICS and CALPS in certain ways
because according to Chomsky there is a superficial semantical
meaning and a deep semantical meaning when one has mastery over
the grammar of a language. To that end, students who have BICS
just haven’t yet acquired the grammar necessary to develop CALPS.
Universal grammar, which posits that all languages share aspects
of basic grammar constructs, supports the research Cummins’ puts
forth identifying BICS/CALPS in various languages (Cummins,
1984). All in all, Chomsky’s theories make a good case for more
149
language and grammar instruction in order to develop critical
literacy skills.
The D/P Model echoes Chomsky’s lexical mind and grammar mind
with scientific research done on people with a variety of brain
dysfunction affecting long-term memory, such as Alzheimer’s’
patients and amnesiacs. Studies on declarative memory show that
it is used more prevalently in children and women, and its use
decreases as people age. Declarative memory may pick up
irregularities and nuances in language and being involved in
episodic memory and factual memory, the instructional implication
would be as follows: teach contextually, teach implicitly.
Procedural memory has more to do with rote automatic
responses and sequences. Procedural memory increases in use with
age and men tend to use procedural memory more than declarative.
Explicit instruction is implied by the role procedural memory
plays in SLA, because explicit instruction is more direct and
more practicable than implicit instruction. From the D/P model we
learn that teaching critical literacy may need both implicit and
150
explicit instruction, and probably more explicit instruction with
adult learners who need to increase their command of grammar.
Vygotsky: Thought and Language Interdependence
According to Vygotsky, external speech is necessary to
produce the development of internal “verbal thought” (1986, p.
212). This idea means that teaching critical literacy is
dependent on language acquisition. If students don’t have
language to express comparing and contrasting, they probably
won’t internally compare and contrast things. With most adults,
we can assume that they have the internal speech for comparing
and contrasting in their first language (L1) and therefore if
they learn the words but and more they can express “I like corn,
but I like cake more.”
With adults, who tend to be young adults, and who have not
yet acquired the internal speech for higher order thinking, but
they have BICS and very large vocabulary, just a little direct
instruction and experience with listing foods they like and foods
they don’t like could be used to teach them academic vocabulary,
151
such as however, although, moreover, additionally, and
nevertheless. For example: “I like carrots; however, peas are my
favorite vegetable. Although I don’t like carrots, I eat them
when they are cooked. Moreover, carrots and peas together taste
ok. Additionally, I like corn but not okra. Nevertheless, when my
grandmother in New Orleans cooks gumbo, I will eat okra.”
Vygotsky reminds us that language is necessary for the
development of thought. Language and specific vocabulary
instruction is necessary for the development of critical
literacy.
Zone of Proximal Development
Another hallmark educational theory that Vygotsky is
credited for is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) (1978).
Most test and instruction assume that if the student accurately
performs and produces instructional objectives that the student
has learned. Vygotsky points out that the “learning” exhibited in
the production of stated outcomes is the mental development level
representing learning retrospectively. However, just because
152
students don’t produce instructional objectives, doesn’t mean
they are not learning. If they produce or exhibit the stated
objectives to some degree the student is experiencing dynamic
mental development. The implication for teaching critical
literacy for adults is that it is important to remind adults that
even when the activity like writing is difficult in the second
language (L2), they are learning. It is also useful to recognize
that partial success with expressing critical thinking in reading
or writing is still evidence of learning.
In terms of CALPS acquisition, ZPD theory reminds us that
students haven’t acquired the concept of abstract ideas like
hypothesize or infer or evaluate in their L1. In order to
activate CALPS, students must have enough L2 vocabulary to
acquire these abstract concepts in L2. Basically, it might just
take longer for students with CALP challenges to become
proficient with critical literacy, underscoring the need for
English language instruction as well as higher order thinking
activities. ZPD helps to explain why students who have acquired
153
higher order thinking skills in their L1 find it much easier to
express critical literacy because higher order thinking for them
has become mental development and their ZPD for critical literacy
in L2 requires less conceptual information than adults who are
CALP challenged.
Collaborative Learning
Another instructional strategy useful for teaching critical
literacy skills is collaborative learning (Marzano & Kendall,
2007). Vygotsky also championed the need for human interaction in
order to learn (1978). Since our internal language, or verbal
thought, originates from our mother and other people around us,
it follows that we acquire most of our information from other
people and our environment. Indeed, language is the tool of
communication so it only makes sense that we interact with other
people in order to learn. Examples of collaborative learning to
assist in the development of critical thinking include: partner
work to fill out a Venn diagram; a class debate; and creating
hypotheses about characters in small groups.
154
Chomsky and Universal Grammar
An idea that Chomsky has become famous for is universal
grammar, or the similarity of grammars amongst languages (2006,
p. 40). Chomsky argues that although superficial grammar might
vary from language to language, the deeper structures for making
meaning out of language are very similar (2006). What does this
have to do with critical literacy? Universal grammar suggests
explains that students with CALPS in their L1 will begin to
understand immediately on a deep level once they get a whiff or a
slight glimmer that the instructor wants them to infer, evaluate,
or synthesize the information. These students already have the
deep idea of synthesize and even a word for it in their L1.
Universal grammar also suggests that students who are CALP
challenged probably have a deep idea and even experiences of
synthesizing, they just might not recognize it as a literacy
skill. For instance when students go to fix a car you check out
the situation (gather information), try to change or replace
something (based on the hypothesis that a part is faulty), and
155
hopefully keep trying various things until the car runs
(evaluation and further hypotheses). Universal grammar suggests
that adult students who demonstrate CALP challenges may not have
analytical higher order thinking challenges in all aspects of
life, but maybe they do with literacy.
Surface Grammar and Deep Grammar
Chomsky also elaborates on universal grammar, theorizing
that grammar is composed of several aspects, two being surface
grammar and deep grammar (2006, p. 111). Surface grammar is the
mechanism that creates meaning from phonemic structures; deep
grammar creates semantic meaning. The correlation here between
BICS and CALPS is quite clear. Students who have BICS could be
said to have good command of surface grammar but not of deep
grammar. Examining surface grammar and deep grammar further, it
seems that critical literacy skills require possibly more deep
grammar. Still the connection between possibly undeveloped deep
grammar and lack of CALPS and critical literacy is merely
explanation.
156
Finally, two other mental abilities associated with Chomsky
are metal lexicon, the ability to learning irregularities in
language such as phrasal verbs, and mental grammar, or the
ability to learn the regular use of language, the rules of
language (Sanz, 2004). Mental lexicon and mental grammar explain
the language acquisition process. Whereas, surface grammar and
deep grammar explain how people interpret the language they
acquire. Mental lexicon and mental grammar will be important in
guiding instructional strategy for critical literacy as evidenced
by the D/P Model.
D/P Model
The Declarative/Procedural Model attributed to Ullman (Sanz,
2004), offers a possible mechanism that language is stored in
long-term memory. Both the declarative and procedural memory
systems store different types of long-term memories. According to
Ullman, the declarative system is used in low proficiency L2
acquisition more than the procedural system. However, the
procedural system is more useful in acquiring grammar at higher
157
levels (Sanz, 2004). Instructionally, one interpretation of the
D/P model is that declarative memory can be served by contextual
or implicit instruction. Procedural memory would best be
supported by explicit or direct instruction. If Ullman is correct
and declarative memory is used more prevalently at lower levels
of L2 acquisition, then beginning and intermediate levels of
English language instruction should have a significant component
of contextual learning. It follows more advanced levels of
instruction would do better with more direct or explicit
instruction.
According to the D/P model, the declarative memory system is
more active under the influence of the hormone estrogen (Sanz,
2004); therefore, women would tend to learn better with
contextual instruction. Also young female adults, this being the
main population that might not have developed CALPs, might need
more contextual instruction and males might need more explicit
instruction.
Culturally Defined Higher Order Thinking
158
While we are striving to make students here in the U.S.
think more analytically because emerging technologies are
changing and acquiring data to memorize is not seen as important
as being able to navigate data (Marzano & Kendall, 2007), other
cultures seem to have different definitions of higher order
thinking (Durkin, 2008). In Durkin’s qualitative study using
grounded theory case methodology, over 4 years in several Asian
countries, found that Chinese and Asian students found the
Socratic method of dialogue and debate uncomfortable. The Asian
students were used to respecting the teacher by listening and
experiencing the effect of the instruction using their mental
digestive properties to learn. Durkin concluded that it was
Chinese higher order thinking to say less with communication and
learn more. The point of the matter being for critical literacy
skill development that students from other cultures, particularly
Asian cultures for sure, may have trouble expressing critical
literacy in front of other students or the instructor. They may
need other outlets to demonstrate the ability to read and write
159
critically, perhaps through multiple choice tests, essays,
videos, or individual conversations.
Conclusion
Theories on second language acquisition, a model from
neuroscience, and research pointing out cultural semantics, help
give this presentation some rich ideas for instructional
strategies, which develop critical literacy skills. Language
instruction and critical literacy activities need to include
vocabulary and enhance phonemic and morphemic awareness in order
to promote superficial grammar, which is necessary for deep
grammar. Instructors of adult English language learners
challenged by CALPS would do well to check student background
knowledge, especially if they have BICS in L2, for evidence of
higher order thinking skills outside of literacy skills.
Instructors should also remember that if students are not
expressing critical literacy skills perfectly they are still
learning. Finally, by using a mix of contextual and direct
instruction instructors may optimally facilitate long-term
160
memory. Research-based instructional best practices for
developing critical literacy along with contextual and explicit
instruction is indicated for helping students develop CALPS.
161
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APPENDIX
Colorado Teachers to Speakers of Other Languages, COTESOL, Feedback
Overall, participant comments after the presentation were very positive suggesting that the depth of the presentation content illuminated knowledge of adult language acquisition. One very experienced instructor told me, “You helped remind us that we are teaching not only language acquisition but communication.”There were about 35 participants. Unfortunately, only about 8 participant rubrics were completed. All participants reported their understanding of second language acquisition and higher order thinking were somewhat improved and the majority reported improvement. A few even reported significant improvement.
Main themes of areas for improvement are timing, and more examples of instructional applications.
1. Theme: Condense presentation
Action plan for theme 1:a. Insist on 1.5 hours instead of 45 minutes. b. Provide a handout with theories. c. Ask for audience participation with theories and talk about how the theories directly relate to critical literacy. Complete by April 1 and pilot at the 2011 Colorado Mountain College DevEd Summit.
2. Theme: Increase numbers of instructional examples.
a. After the jigsaw exercise for graphic organizers where participants develop instructional plans for 4 different ELL levels, the same jigsaw leveled design will be used to discuss debate.
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b. After discussion of scaffolding give a short matching quiz with a PowerPoint slide to match movie critique scaffolded instruction for the 4 ELL levels.
Complete by April 1 and pilot at the 2011 Colorado Mountain College DevEd Summit.
