EA JOURNAL VOL 24 NO 1 EA JOURNAL ... - English Australia

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EA JOURNAL VOL 24 NO 1

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E A J O U R N A L

A TESOL Publication of English Australia Pty Ltd

Volume 24 Number 1

2008

ISSN 1449-4496

English Australia, acting for and on behalf of ELICOS Association Limited (ABN 86 003 959 037)

II

THE CONFERENCE FOR THE INTERNATIONAL ENGLISH LANGUAGE INDUSTRY

18 - 20 September 2008Hotel Realm, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory

www.eaconference.com.au

“Engaging with the many dimensions of ELICOS: learning, teaching, supporting, marketing, leading”

Contents

E A J o u r n a l Vo l 2 4 N o 1

E D I T O R I A L 1

T E A C H E R P R O F E S S I O N A L D E V E L O P M E N T

Chris Conlan

Planning and conducting research in the Australian ESL classroom 3

A R T I C L E S

Andreas Pohl Language learning histories: an introduction to critical thinking 13

Denise NortonPromoting group participation: a conscious approach to collaboration 24

David Prescott & Patricia PrescottInformation literacy: the challenge of internet use in university study 32

Rose SeniorAccommodating diversity by behaving in class-centred ways 51

B O O K S H E L F 61

Focus on Grammar Level 2: An integrated skills approach (3rd edition)Irene E. Schoenberg 62

Common mistakes at IELTS Intermediate… and how to avoid themPauline Cullen 64

Dictionary ActivitiesCindy Leaney 66

Teaching Second Language ReadingThom Hudson 67

English Pronunciation in Use: ElementaryJonathon Marks 70

Five Minute Activities for Young LearnersPenny McKay & Jenni Guse 72

Grammar for IELTS (with answers): Self-study grammar reference and practiceDiana Hopkins and Pauline Cullen 73

How to Teach EnglishJeremy Harmer 76

How to Teach English with TechnologyGavin Dudeney and Nicky Hockly 78

The Experience of Language TeachingRose M. Senior 79

GrammarMichael Swan

GrammarScott Thornbury 81

The CELTA CourseScott Thornbury and Peter Watkins 83

The Practice of English Language Teaching with DVD (4th ed)

Jeremy Harmer 85

P U B L I C A T I O N S R E C E I V E D F O R R E V I E W 89

F R O M T H E E D I T O R 94

E N G L I S H A U S T R A L I A Publications 96

Guidelines for Contributors 97

E N G L I S H A U S T R A L I A Member Colleges 100

EA Journal advertising 103

EA Journal Volume 24 No 1VI

E A J O U R N A L

Editor

Germana EckertLanguage Teacher Education, University of New South Wales Institute of Languages

Bookshelf Editor

Pauline BaylisSchool of Humanities and Languages, University of Western Sydney

Editorial Advisory Committee

Anne BurnsDepartment of Linguistics, Macquarie University

Jill BurtonSchool of Education, University of South Australia

Anne CampbellDivision of Communication and Education, University of Canberra

Jonathan CrichtonResearch Centre for Languages and Cultural Education, University of South Australia

Jeremy JonesSchool of Languages and International Studies, University of Canberra

David LiDepartment of English and Communication, City University of Hong Kong

David PrescottDepartment of English Language and Applied Linguistics, University of Brunei Darussalam

Rusdi ThaibFaculty of Languages and Arts, Padang State University, Indonesia

Ruth WajnrybWriter, teacher trainer and independent consultant in TESOL

EA Journal Volume 24 No 1 VII

A NEW Insight intoIELTS

• Thoroughlyupdatedwithnewmaterialandanewdesign• IncludesanofficialIELTSpracticetestfromCambridgeESOL• focusesonrealmistakesmadebyIELTScandidatesas

revealedbytheCambridgeLearnerCorpus

Cambridge Books for Cambridge Exams •••www.cambridge.org/elt/exams

www.cambridge.org/elt

Real skills for real life

www.cambridge.org/englishskills

A brand new, four-level skills seriesBring your skills to life

EA Journal Volume 24 No 1VIII

EA Journal Volume 24 No 1 1

Editorial

Dear Readers

This issue of the EA Journal brings articles on a wide variety of areas within our scope as English language teachers.

Chris Conlan’s paper has been presented in a new section of the Journal, titled Teacher Professional Development. The paper is an extremely practical guide outlining the steps teachers should take if they are planning to conduct sound research in the classroom. I hope that some of you can be inspired by this guide to conduct practical, on-the-job research.

Andreas Pohl’s paper presents a case for the identification in English language classes of language learning histories as an effective critical thinking teaching tool. Andreas describes a course he developed in critical thinking, using his students’ experiences with English language learning as a starting point, and shares insights he gained when he taught the course.

David and Patricia Prescott’s paper describes information literacy practices of English language students. The importance of information literacy especially (but not exclusively) for our EAP students, will be familiar to most teachers. The authors set tasks for their students in order to develop information literacy skills and have reported on the perceptions of their students when it comes to complexity of information presented through the Internet compared to print text, thus highlighting issues teachers need to be alert to when setting such web-based tasks.

Denise Norton’s paper also outlines yet another challenging learning mode for students; group work. Her paper outlines the introduction of successful group work as a specific outcome in an EAP program and the effect which this had on classes and students. Denise was the winner of the first English Australia–Pearson Education Australia Award for Contribution to Professional ELICOS Practice at last year’s EA Conference in Sydney.

The final offering in this volume is Rose Senior’s paper, presented at the 2007 EA Conference, which has been largely but not exclusively developed from sections of

EA Journal Volume 24 No 12

her book The Experience of Language Teaching (CUP, 2006). The paper discusses the notion of class-centred teaching, and how successful teachers are able to develop and maintain positive class dynamics which contribute to learning through this notion. The paper was very well received at the conference and Rose’s book is reviewed in ‘Bookshelf ’.

I trust you will agree that these articles provide a range of perspectives and talking points in our diverse industry, thus, catering to a broad Journal readership.

As I come to the last volume of the EA Journal for which I am Editor, I have looked back on these few years for me. This has been a challenging role, but a role where I have been able to meet motivated industry professionals who do more than just teach. This is not to say that ‘just teaching’ is something to denigrate - not at all. However, the opportunity to work with people who have wanted to bring to our readers their views, their projects, the outcomes of their ideas put into practice, has been extremely inspiring. The next chapter in my life is a great unknown: my and my partner’s first baby is on the way, due in August! I am realistic enough to realise that we will be quite busy for a while with this great unknown, but I trust that when we have settled into our new lifestyle I will be able to still call up the inspiration these Journal contributors have given to me, and so I hope that this is not the last time that you will be reading my words in the Journal. I warmly welcome Brenda Krenus to the role and wish her all the best as Editor of the EA Journal.

Happy reading

Germana Eckert


Planning and conducting research in the Australian ESL classroom

C h r i s C o n l a n

Department of Languages and Intercultural Education

Curtin University of Technology

Western Australia

With the ongoing internationalisation of the higher education sector in Australia, ESL programmes have become an increasingly important part of the various pathway programmes being offered by Australian universities. While ESL teaching in universities has, by and large, risen to the task of providing quality preparatory programmes, there are increasing pressures on ESL teachers - for example, the proposed tiering of Australian universities into research-focussed and non-research focussed universities - to produce publishable research. This paper provides a conceptual framework and a practical guide for practising ESL teachers contemplating taking the step into publishing a first research paper.

IntroductionAs part of their professional practice, ESL teachers working in Australian classrooms are generally very skilled at reading and understanding the research of others and applying findings from such research to their own professional practice. With respect to conducting research and scholarly publishing, however, the situation is quite different, and practising ESL teachers are grossly underrepresented in professionally refereed journals. This really should not be the case, as such teachers are in an ideal position to determine the kind of research that needs to be conducted. The fact is that a vast majority of practising ESL teachers in Australia today are quite capable of writing

Teacher Professional Development


publishable research papers if the task is approached systematically, and the aim of this paper is to provide a conceptual framework for organising such papers.

Finding a Starting Point for the ResearchFor working ESL teachers, one of the easiest and most effective ways of formulating a research project is to use what is often termed an ‘identification of a problem’ approach. This approach is ideal for working teachers as it draws on a teacher’s main strengths - his or her lived professional experiences in the ESL classroom - rather than being an approach that initially requires a strong theoretical background. In the case of classroom-based ESL research, this simply means identifying a specific difficulty relating to teaching or learning. The problem should not be rigorously defined at this stage but should be used to inform and direct the literature review. An example of such a problem, and one with the potential to generate a very interesting paper, might be an observation that the kind of target-language politeness strategies used by students from a particular country - Japan, say - when used both in group work and in interactions with the teacher, would not always be considered to be appropriate by L1 speakers of Australian English and could well cause problems for them in the world outside the classroom. As we explore the issue a little further, we might find that some of these students have been studying in Australia for extended periods and that their communicative competence in English is otherwise very good. Preliminary work such as this can provide the starting point for a valuable and exciting research paper.

Locating the Research: The Literature ReviewNow that we have found a starting point for the research, the next step is to determine the nature of the work has already been done in the area. It clearly falls outside the ambit of the present paper to outline differing theoretical paradigms (or to analyse debates concerning such paradigms), but the importance of being aware of such paradigms cannot be overemphasised. A thorough and critical literature review is therefore vital so that the proposed research can be theoretically positioned within the existing body of work on the topic. And not only will such a review avoid the possibility of duplicating somebody else’s research, it will also allow us to more tightly focus our own research. One way this can happen is by allowing us to identify ‘gaps’ in research that has already been conducted. Considering the example of Japanese politeness strategies outlined in the previous section, perhaps research into this aspect of interlanguage pragmatics has focussed on Chinese speakers; or on Japanese students studying in America or Britain; or on particular speech acts at the expense of others. Or perhaps it has focussed on female students and we begin to wonder if the same would apply to male students. Or perhaps the relationship between the politeness strategies used by Japanese ESL


students studying in Australia and teaching methods such as communicative language teaching (CLT), still the dominant method used in Australia, has not been sufficiently explored. A critical reading of the literature allows us to identify research possibilities such as these.Another way in which critically reading work already published in the area can help us focus our research is that is that it allows us to challenge existing findings. For example previous research may have been based on assumptions concerning CLT, students’ learning styles, classroom dynamics and so on, that are not supported by our own professional experience. In our research, then, we can redesign a previous study to test such underlying assumptions. Similarly we might have reservations about the size or design of the study, or the ways in which data from the study were interpreted, and we can redesign our study accordingly. While the term Literature Review as a subheading or heading might not appear as frequently in published papers as it does in theses (where it is traditionally used as a chapter title), a critical examination of the literature which has informed the research must be included, although it may appear under a subheading such as Background or Background to the Research or (depending on the length of the paper) be incorporated as part of an extended Introduction.

Keeping Things Focussed: The ‘What-How-Why’ NexusThe broad topic of the research (which developed from our recognition of a practical teaching/learning problem) now has a theoretical platform (as a result of locating it within an existing theoretical paradigm) and we are now ready to design our research.

Central to a good research design is the crucial interrelationship amongst the three key components which underpin research: the Objectives/Research Question component (which might also include a statement of the research problem); the Methods component; and the Significance component. Their relationship can be visualised as in Figure 1, and each component is discussed separately below.

Methods

Objective/Research Questions

Significance

Figure 1 The ‘What-How-Why’ Research Nexus


While terms such as Objectives and Methods etc. may not always need to appear as discrete headings in the final version of a paper (although they can do), using the headings in the planning stages of the research will make sure that they are functionally present and embedded in the research design.

(i) Addressing the ‘What’ Question: Objectives and Research QuestionsThe objectives and/or research questions address the question ‘What am I trying to find out?’ and may or may not be accompanied by a statement outlining the research problem to be investigated (see Addressing the ‘Why’ Question: Significance, to follow). In a paragraph or two, this statement would set out our practice-based observations (i.e., that even quite advanced students from Japan, to continue with our hypothetical example, frequently use inappropriate politeness strategies), note the way current research has addressed the topic, and sketch why more work needs to be done in the area.

The ‘What?’ question, and again taking the politeness strategies used by Japanese ESL students as an example, could then be addressed by a research question such as:

‘To what extent are politeness strategies used by Japanese ESL students in making requests considered to be appropriate by L1 speakers of AusE?’

- or an objective such as:

‘To compare L1 AusE speakers’ and Japanese ESL speakers’ preferred politeness strategies in refusing requests’.

It is now possible to refine and focus the scope of the research. This can be done by incorporating research questions as a subset of a main objective (so that findings resulting from each research question would address a particular aspect of the overarching objective) or by incorporating objectives as a subset of a main research question (so that findings resulting from each objective would address a particular aspect of the overarching research question). The specific nature of these subsets would depend very much on the work that has already been done in the field being investigated (see Locating the Research: The Literature Review, above), but it’s easy to see how the principle operates.

With respect to the sample research question (‘To what extent are politeness strategies used by Japanese ESL students in making requests considered to be appropriate by L1 speakers of AusE?’ ) the research could be designed and the objectives framed to focus on (say) L1 speakers’ attitudes to the use of structures such as ‘please + imperative’ (as in ‘Please give me a pencil’) compared to the use of tag structures (‘You haven’t got a pencil I could borrow, have you?’) in differing speech situations. Similarly, for our sample objective (‘To compare L1 AusE speakers’ and Japanese ESL speakers’


preferred politeness strategies in refusing requests’), the research could be designed and the objectives framed to focus on preferences concerning the extent and structure of face-work strategies used in refusing - e.g. patterns such as ‘apology + expression of regret + refusal + reason for refusal’ (as in ‘I’m really sorry - I’d love to but I can’t. I have to visit someone in hospital that day’) compared to patterns such as ‘apology + refusal + reason for refusal’ (as in ‘I’m really sorry, but I can’t. I have to visit someone in hospital that day’). The subset of research questions directed towards the broader objective could include, amongst other things, a focus on use of intensifiers (e.g. ‘really’ as in ‘I’m really sorry’) and the way that they affect the structure of preferred facework strategies.

Once again the importance of conducting a thorough and focussed literature review is evident, as reading what has already been done in the field will inevitably determine the nature of second-order objectives and research questions we need to include.

(ii) Addressing the ‘How’ Question: MethodologyThe methodology section answers the question ‘How am I going to find this [the answer to the ‘What?’ question] out?’, and once again a thorough review of relevant literature allows us to examine critically the methodological approaches other researchers working in the area have employed. There are many very good introductory texts on research methods available, but the most important thing to keep in mind is that the methods chosen must give results consistent with objectives and/or research questions.

This might sound like it’s stating the obvious, but it is so very easy (even for experienced researchers) for research to have a methodology that would result in findings being tangential to objectives rather than being as firmly grounded in them as they might be. For example, data from a sample of students reporting on the strategies they use to tackle new vocabulary items does not address a research question such as ‘What decoding strategies do Japanese ESL students use in academic reading when they encounter unfamiliar vocabulary items?’ This is because self-report data-collection methods have been used - the data deal with what students say they do rather than what they do - and a quite different method would be needed to address the issue of strategies actually used as opposed to strategies reportedly used.

This is not to suggest, however, that methods need to be overly complicated; in fact, many times the most straightforward method (as long as it rigorously applied and any shortcomings are recognised - see below) is the most appropriate method. With respect to our sample research question ‘To what extent are politeness strategies used by Japanese ESL students in making requests considered to be appropriate by L1 speakers of AusE?’, for example, the method might be as simple as using audiotapes


of roleplays involving Japanese ESL speakers (but see the section on Ethics, to follow) and having them rated by L1 speakers of AusE. There are many methods that can be used to obtain data from the AusL1 speakers depending on how ‘rich’ the data needs to be and the scope of the research. For example a simple quantitatively-oriented ranking exercise (where participants simply rank-order the tapes according to how appropriate they feel each is) might be sufficient or might be augmented by a small qualitative component in which participants give reasons for the choices they have made. The data might then be coded (a procedure described in any book on qualitative analysis) to allow patterns emerge, or might be used to form the basis for a survey instrument or for interviews of specific (e.g. focussed, structured, semi-structured) types. Again, details on how to apply such methods are readily accessible from numerous textbooks.

Similarly with respect to our sample objective - ‘To compare L1 AusE speakers’ and Japanese ESL speakers’ preferred politeness strategies in refusing requests’ - a multiple-choice instrument of some kind might be developed and distributed to the two groups of participants so that their results can be compared. The way this instrument is developed will again depend on the design of the research. The instrument could simply be based on findings from the literature review; it could be developed from data derived from elicited responses from L1 AusE speakers and Japanese ESL speakers; or from spontaneous data; or from interview data; or from a combination of these possibilities and many others. Again, there is abundant literature available on data collection and analysis and the really important thing is to make sure that the data that will be elicited will be fundamental to the research objectives, and any limitations of the method (e.g., pertaining to self-report data used without corroboration etc.) must be noted.

(iii) Addressing the ‘Why’ Question: SignificanceThe significance section of the research addresses the questions ‘Why does this research need to be done? Why is this research important?’ and is the third component of the ‘What-How-Why’ research nexus. Earlier (in Addressing the ‘What’ Question: Objectives and Research Questions, above) we saw that a statement of a research problem is inextricably yoked to the objectives/research questions component of the research. Irrespective of whether or not a formal statement of the research problem is ultimately included in the paper, the issues underlying the research problem point directly to the significance of the research; and, when combined with potential outcomes of the research, provide answers to the Why question.

Continuing with the example we’ve been using throughout this paper, the observation that the politeness strategies used by even quite advanced Japanese ESL students are


frequently inappropriate addresses the ‘Why does this research need to be done?’ question, while the ‘Why is this research important?’ aspect of the significance question should address the potential value of the findings of the research to the field - in this case the possibility of developing teaching materials to address specific politeness-related issues Japanese ESL speakers encounter as they develop communicative competence in the target language.

While possible outcomes of the research are better expanded on in a final section of the paper (under a title such as Discussion, or Implications of the Research), the theoretical and practical importance of the research needs to be set out and related clearly to both the Methods and the Objectives/Research Question components of the research design early in the paper.

Ethics and Ethics ClearanceWhen we are conducting research within an institution such as a university or college, that institution will have its own guidelines concerning ethics in research. If we are working independently, however, we are still subject to ethics requirements as set out in the NHMRC (National Health and Medical Research Council) Act of 1992. Fortunately, the kind of research that TESOL involves is often (although not always) considered to involve minimal risk, and it is possible that the only documents needed will be a consent form and an information sheet. A sample consent form and information sheet are provided here as Appendix 1 and Appendix 2 respectively, but before beginning or planning any research we need to familiarise ourselves with the NHMRC Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research (2007) which can be found on the NHMRC website at the URL address provided in the References section of this paper.

Conclusion

There is a world of difference between absorbing existing knowledge (learning) and producing new knowledge (researching). As ESL teachers increasingly become recognised as professionals in a specialised field, so publishing in professional journals is increasingly being seen not as complementary to classroom teaching but rather as central to professional practice. Given this, and given also that that it falls well within the professional competence of a vast majority of ESL teachers to produce publishable research papers, now is the ideal time for ESL teachers to give high priority to conducting research and publishing from this research as an essential part of their overall professional development.


References

National Health and Medical Research Council, National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research (2007). Retrieved on 15 January 2008 from http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/publications/synopses/e72syn.htm.

Dr Chris Conlan is Coordinator of Research and Postgraduate Studies with the Department of Languages and Intercultural Education at Curtin University in Western Australia. He has published widely, is Commissioning Editor of Teaching English Language in Australia: Theoretical Perspectives and Practical Issues, and is a former editor of the EAJ.


Appendix 1

Sample Consent Form

C o n s e n t F o r m

Title of project: __________________________________________________

I have been informed of and understand the purposes of the study. I have been given an opportunity to ask questions. I understand I can withdraw at any time without prejudice. Any information which might potentially identify me will not be used in published material.

I agree to participate in the study as outlined to me.

Name of the participant __________________

Signature _________

Date: _________

Contact Details: ______________


Appendix 2

Sample Information Sheet

inFormation sheet

Title of project: __________________________________________________

The aim of this project is to__________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

You will be asked to _____________________________________. This should take about ____[length of time] . You will then be asked to ____________________

__________________________. This will take about _________[length of time]

All data you provide will be stored in a secure place and you will not be identifiable in the reporting of the results of this research.

Participation in this research is purely voluntary, and you are at liberty to withdraw your participation at any time without any negative consequences.

My contact details are:

__________________________

__________________________

__________________________

__________________________


Language learning histories: an introduction to critical thinking

a n d r e a s P o h l

Director of Studies, English Language Centre, Swinburne University of Technology

Language learning histories are often used in the classroom to encourage students to reflect on their individual learning styles and strategies. The narrow focus on the individual’s learning behaviour, however, tends to de-contextualise the learning experience. This paper argues that locating language learning histories in specific societal, political and historical circumstances can also be an effective learning and teaching tool to develop critical thinking skills.

IntroductionThis paper examines a course in critical thinking which I developed and delivered to ELICOS students studying at the Swinburne University English Language Centre in 2005.

The overall objective of the course was to develop critical reflection skills, succinctly defined by David Stein (2000:3) as follows:

Critical reflection is the process by which adults identify the assumptions governing their actions, locate the historical and cultural origins of the assumptions, question the meaning of the assumptions and develop alternative ways of acting.

It was the intention of the course to explore the language learning experiences of the students in a wider, societal context. This area for investigation was chosen for both practical and pedagogical reasons. The practical consideration was that the experience of learning English is something that all students had in common. More importantly, though, I wanted to work towards ‘turning a sceptical eye toward assumptions, ideas that have become ‘naturalised’, notions that are no longer questioned’ (Pennycook 2001:7), and the notion of English as a beneficial, international language appeared to be the logical choice in the context of pre-course ELICOS.

In the first part of this paper, I will briefly examine some of the theoretical underpinnings of the two core components of the course: language learning histories and critical thinking in the context of English for Academic Purposes. This will be


followed in the second part of the paper by a narrative covering my and my students’ efforts to put theory into practice.

Language learning historiesBiographical research methodology is traditionally situated in the field of second language acquisition (SLA) and signifies shifting the focus away from teaching towards learning issues. Traditionally, SLA has assumed language learning to be a largely internal process modified by psychological factors such as learning styles and strategies and social issues like gender, class and ethnicity. In this context, biographical research through diaries, memoirs and language-learning biographies has been regarded as an effective way to explore learner diversity. Researchers in the field aim to find the answer to the fundamental question: ‘Why do individuals who presumably possess similar cognitive capacities for second language learning achieve such varied degrees of proficiency?’ (Benson 2004: 1).

This methodology has found its way into the classroom where language learning histories are considered to be a useful approach to facilitate more effective language learning. The work of Rebecca L. Oxford and John M. Green (1996) is a prime example of using language learning histories as a teaching tool to raise awareness of learning styles and strategies. The two researchers see reflection on language learning as a diagnostic instrument for both the learner and the teacher:

Before we are able to help students to progress in their language learning abilities and skills, it is useful for the students and teacher to discover what the students are bringing from their past language learning experiences (Oxford & Green 1996:23).

However, the strong focus on language learning styles and strategies has been increasingly criticized as too narrow, neglecting, as Norton and Toohy (2001:310) put it, ‘specific social, historical, and cultural contexts and how learners resist or accept the positions those contexts offer them’.

While the inclusion of identity issues in the context of language learning as outlined above has been a positive development, it assumes a level of social agency which learners might not necessarily possess. By solely placing the onus on the individual, the impact of societal and political power constellations are relegated to the periphery of biographical investigations into language learning.

As a result, while most language learning histories try to answer the question of how can I become a better learner, not many reflect critically on such interesting questions as: ‘Why am I learning English?’, ‘Is learning English beneficial?’ and ‘Are there alternatives to learning English?’


Critical ThinkingAmong educators, the debate about how to define critical thinking and, consequently, how to teach it has been going on for years, and opinions about the very nature of critical thinking remain divided.

In his paper The critical thinking debate: how general are general thinking skills (2004), Tim Moore provides a comprehensive overview of the two main trends in defining critical thinking by contrasting the generalist view of critical thinking put forward by the educational philosopher Robert Ennis with the discipline-specific view of critical thinking by John McPeck.

The generalist view defines critical thinking as ‘a set of independent cognitive abilities which can be taught in relation to any propositional content’ (Moore 2004: 5) and is currently the most common foundation for the teaching of critical thinking in the context of Higher Education. It comprises a set of skills, such as ‘judging ambiguities, assumptions or contradictions in reasoning’ (ibid.), which strongly focus on issues of internal logic, to achieve the main objective of the universal approach to critical thinking: ‘the correct assessing of statements’ (Ennis 1962:81).

Moore considers the generalist approach too inflexible and critiques it for its narrow definition of what constitutes an argument, for its rigidly positivist approach in evaluating propositions as truthful and logical only, and, importantly in the context of this paper, for its ‘lack of social orientation in the framing of the critique’ (Moore 2004: 13).

In contrast, the context-specific approach characterises critical thinking as ‘the appropriate use of reflective scepticism within the problem area under consideration’ (McPeck 1981: 7). This approach contends that what is appropriate not only varies from discipline to discipline but even within disciplines.

While both Ennis’ and McPeck’s notions of critical thinking are essentially apolitical in nature, others have located critical thinking within the realm of transformative pedagogies. For example, David Stein (2000: 3) defines reflective scepticism as a process starting from raising awareness to exploring possibilities for change. He identifies three main steps:

• Assumptions analysis – ‘a first step to make explicit our taken-for granted notions of reality’

• Contextual awareness – the realization that ‘assumptions are socially and personally created in a specific historical and cultural context’

• Imaginative speculation – ‘imagining alternative ways of thinking about phenomena’


This relativist notion of critical thinking relates closely to the critical applied linguistics movement which aims to position critical thinking in a political and social context with the intention to raise ‘questions to do with access, power, disparity, desire, difference and resistance’ (Pennycook 2001: 6).

Critical Thinking and EAPTraditionally, EAP has been seen ‘as a benign, apolitical and highly pragmatic activity designed to assist students to assimilate and succeed in tertiary studies’ (O’Loughlin 2002: 22) through the teaching of academic language and study skills including mostly generalist critical thinking.

Critical approaches to EAP have strongly challenged the view of the political neutrality of EAP. One of the most prominent representatives in this context is Sarah Benesch who in her highly influential paper ESL, Ideology, and the Politics of Pragmatism (1993) strongly criticized the pragmatic approach to EAP as highly ideological itself, as it inherently validates existing academic practices and power relationships. Alastair Pennycook referred to her critique of EAP as adopting an ‘accommodationist ideology instead of an ideology of opposition and change’ (Benesch, 1993:714) in his paper Beyond (F)utilitarianism in which he argues that the two most common approaches to EAP course content – the discipline-specific and the issues-based - both reinforce the assimilationist nature of EAP (1994: 15).

Pennycook problematises one of the central tenets of EAP, namely the notion that language merely serves as the medium for content. Instead he views language as a ‘crucial site for investigation into how our lives are given (and denied) meaning through language’ (1994: 17), and as a result proposes for EAP to explore the role of English itself, hence the sub-title of his paper English as Academic Purpose.

Taking my cue from Pennycook, I decided to build a critical thinking course around my students’ own experiences with English, ‘to explore the ’worldliness’ of language, to look at language as always embedded in social, cultural, economic and political relations’ (1994: 20).

The CourseCritical thinking was offered as an elective for nine weeks. It was timetabled for two hours a week out of 20 hours of classroom-based tuition of the English for Academic Purposes program at advanced level (course entry level approximately IELTS band 5.5). Participants chose critical thinking from a variety of electives offered by the Centre, including IELTS Preparation, Listening and Discussion and Writing and Grammar.

The class consisted of eight females and ten males; 16 students came from South-East and Northern Asia (Thailand, China, Japan, Korea) with the remaining two


originating from Venezuela and Turkey. All 18 participants in the course were preparing for further studies at the university, with all bar four aiming to enter postgraduate courses at Masters by coursework level. The intended fields of study represented were Business (eleven students), Design (five students) and IT (two students). The median age range of 23-26 also indicated that students brought a variety of academic and life experiences to the course

I designed the program around group projects, so students could engage in sustained meaningful enquiry and at the end of the process exchange their language learning histories through posters, videos or websites.

Scene SettingThe first sessions of the course were earmarked for scene-setting activities leading into the project work.

I started the course with a pyramid discussion about possible features of critical thinking. The rationale for this activity was twofold. Through 14 statements which formed the basis of the discussion I aimed to raise awareness of the different understandings about critical thinking, and through the nature of the activity itself to foster an emerging notion of critical thinking through ‘dialogic exchange’ (Benesch 1999: 576).

This was followed up by a jigsaw reading of an excerpt from a book written by the Singaporean diplomat Kishore Mahbubani, provocatively called Can Asians Think? The text lent itself for well for a jigsaw reading, as the author provided three different hypothetical answers to the question posed in the title: Yes, No and Maybe. The reading activity was designed to reinforce the approach to critical thinking introduced by the pyramid discussion, as it is based on a ‘thorough study and consideration of various viewpoints’ (Benesch 1999: 576) through dialogic exchange.

In addition, the text also thematizes issues of power and culture by juxtaposing notions of a continuing mental colonisation of Asia by the West with the viewpoint that Asian countries have appropriated Western lifestyles to fit in with Asian values and customs, which in the context of English reflects the contrast between a view of the language as a neutral or a culturally loaded medium for communication.

Other activities in the set-up phase of the course included a discussion of the assumption that the spread of English causes development and an analysis of underlying values projected through English textbooks by examining representations of family life.

Project WorkI introduced the research project through a structured brainstorm activity that attempted to link individual experiences with cultural and societal contexts. While


students found it easy to take notes in response to personal questions such as ‘How was English taught at school and/or university?’, they found it very difficult to respond to contextual cues about cultural and societal influences.

I found one effective way to facilitate an initial transition from personal to political was to make the political personal by, for example, tackling the question ‘Which political issues influenced my learning of English?’ I asked the students whether their parents had learned English. In most cases this was not the case and the discussion of the language learning histories clarified the relationship between politics and language learning. This was particularly obvious with the Vietnamese students in the class who could trace the language learning policies of their home country along the political fault line from French colonialism and the American war, then to alliances with China and Russia through to economic globalisation.

Raising awareness of the wider context in which students were learning English, however, did not automatically result in students challenging those assumptions.

The pervasiveness of the discourse of English as ‘a key to the economic success of nations and the economic well-being of individuals’ (Tollefson 2000: 8) is demonstrated by a typical student thesis statements below:

Learning English might be the pathway to achieve the desired life, because English knowledge could lead me to have a better job, a successful career and a chance to develop my own country.

Nevertheless, by asking the student to consider the following questions a statement like the one above served as a useful springboard for further investigation along the lines suggested by David Stein (2000):

• How did you feel when you learned English?Personalising the focus might generate a more complex picture in which issues of desire and resistance are articulated

• Why specifically will English skills help your career? For which jobs / in which areas are English language skills necessary?

• What happens to the people who cannot speak English?Problematising the discourse of economic success could be the first step in questioning the assumption that English is unequivocally beneficial.

• Is it a good thing that English is so important? What are possible alternatives? • How specifically will the knowledge of English assist in the development of your

country? Are there countries which have achieved development without the strong focus on English?


Imagining alternatives add a new perspective to the status quo, even if it confirms the dominant position of English.

None of the students articulated in their initial statements that ‘the spread of English also contributes to significant social, political and economic inequalities’ (Tollefson 2000: 8). In hindsight this was probably not unexpected. Questioning the value of English beyond voicing a dislike of the personal effort spent on and the methods of learning the language, has the potential to make students feel they have to question the very choices they (or their parents) have made by coming to Australia to study.

Tolerating AmbivalencesWhile the dialogic approach outlined above was a way forward, it became increasingly clear from the responses to the questions above that the course participants found it very difficult to fit their individual circumstances and experiences into the dominant discourse of English as an international language. Instead students continued to rather uncritically reproduce many pertinent features of this discourse.

I assumed that one of the roadblocks on the way to reflective scepticism was the absence of credible voices modelling either a more contradictory attitude towards learning English or even a rejection of the notion of English as a beneficial international language. In response, I supplemented the planning activities for the project with a couple of short critical readings. Both texts expressed the antagonistic relationship between the pragmatic value of English as a means of international communication and the erosion of cultural identities associated with the use of English in the public domain. This proved to be a useful exercise to regain momentum for the project, as can be seen by the following comment taken from the student evaluation:

I enjoy reading the texts. In my opinion, there are some interesting details if I read them carefully. Some of the article affects me to look back to my own past and experiences, such as the experience of learning English.

In the discussion, all students but one agreed with the assertion that the dominance of English had a negative influence on the ‘host culture’. The only dissenting voice came from a post-graduate Japanese student who put to the group that learning English removed her from her culture, which in her view was a positive experience because it allowed her to look at her culture ‘from the outside’. This reflects Benson’s (2004:19) claim that second language learning assist ‘in the breakdown of ‘first language’ identities as part of the process by which individuals construct new identities for themselves’.

It was a telling instance of a student accepting the ambivalences inherent in the discourse of English as an international language and at the same time positioning


herself outside the simple dichotomy of English as economically beneficial versus English as culturally destructive force.

Examples of ProjectsWhile, in the end, many projects did not go beyond a decontextualized focus on individual learning experiences, a small number of projects attempted to express the contradictions and complexities of English as an international language.

One example was a brief video showing an interview of a Vietnamese student by a peer from Thailand which highlighting the various stages of his involvement with English, from initial strong dislike due to the American War, through an emerging interest driven by popular culture, particularly pop music, to an uneasy acceptance of the new economic realities of the so-called ‘socialist market economy’.

Another successful project was a poster designed by three Design students, tracking the role of English from childhood to mature age with the programmatic sub-headline:

I found that learning English was awful because I was forced to learn and use it; however, I cannot live without it

As can be seen on the reproduction of the part of the poster dealing with English in the context of schooling, the main text covers some of the ambivalences of cultural erosion versus the author’s desire to, in his words, ‘go beyond frontier’ with the help of English.

While the bottom part of the poster provides factual social, cultural and political information of relevant aspects concerning the importance of English in Thailand, I found the visuals the most intriguing part of the poster. Illustrations, such as Max the Chinese rapper or the author himself depicted as a baby saying ‘Daddy’ in anglicized Thai, succinctly illustrate a cultural hybridity caused by the dominance of English.


Lessons LearnedWith regard to David Stein’s initial taxonomy quoted earlier in the paper, I feel that the course was reasonably successful in making explicit naturalised notions of English as an international language and in raising awareness of wider historical and socio-cultural contexts in which English is learned.

Where the course fell well short of one of my original aims was in the area of challenging power relationships on both a societal and on an individual level. For example, virtually all project groups researched the rise of international business in their countries to explain their utilitarian need for English. However, while focus on the personal in language learning histories lent itself to an exploration of issues of access to economic opportunity, the course participants remained hesitant to engage with problems of exclusion from the benefits English might provide.

I felt that the top-down approach from scene-setting to project work might have been unhelpful, as it allowed students to distance themselves from the materials for too long in the important start-up period of the course. The comments in the student evaluations appear to confirm this. They clearly indicate a preference for information about the issue through readings over engaging on a personal level through project work.

A certain reticence to more deeply engage with issues of inequality is probably not surprising as such an engagement has the potential to directly challenge the privileges most ELICOS students enjoy. In hindsight it might have been more productive to start with the decontextualised language learning histories and to challenge students more directly and forcefully early in the course, so the personal accounts could have been developed into research projects which better helped ‘learners develop a critical awareness of how language works to support institutional inequalities’ (Hyland & Hamp-Lyons, 2002: 10).

Conclusion

Ken Hyland and Liz Hamp-Lyons summarize the debate about where EAP should be heading as ’whether to replicate and reproduce existing forms of discourse (and thus power relations) or to develop an understanding of them so they can be challenged?’ (2002:9).

In this context, positioning the Critical Thinking elective within the area of critical pedagogy proved to be a worthwhile counterpoint to the traditionally more pragmatic view of EAP evident in the rest of the EAP program at the Language Centre.


Overall, language learning histories can be an effective tool not only to analyse individual learning styles and strategies, but also ‘to work with students in developing their understanding of the wider context in which they are learning English’ (Pennycook 1999: 336).

Although a number of projects displayed an emerging sense of reflective scepticism, the experience of the course also demonstrated limitations in that focussing on the personal alone is not sufficient to mount a strong challenge of the myth of English as a neutral, international language.

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to thank Marianne Grey for her input during the drafting of this paper.

References

Benesch, S. (1993). ESL, Ideology, and the Politics of Pragmatism. TESOL Quarterly 27 (4), 705 – 717.

Benesch, S (1999). Thinking Critically, Thinking Dialogically. TESOL Quarterly 33 (3), 573 – 579.

Benson, B. (2004). (Auto)biography and learner diversity. In Benson, B and D. Nunan. (eds.). Learners’ Stories. Difference and Diversity in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ennis, R. (1962). A concept of critical thinking. Harvard Educational Review, 31, 82-111.

Hyland, K. and L. Hamp-Lyons (2002). ‘EAP: issues and directions’. Journal of English for Academic Purposes 1 (1), 1 – 12.

McPeck, J. (1981). critical thinking and education. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Mahbubani, K. (2000). Can Asians Think? Singapore: Times Edition Pte Ltd.

Moore, T. (2004). The critical thinking Debate: how general are general thinking skills? Higher Education Research & Development 23 (1), 3 – 18.

Norton, B. and K. Toohey (2001). Changing perspectives on good language learners. TESOL Quarterly, 35 (2), 307 – 22.

O’Loughlin, K. (2002). English for Academic Purposes: Where are we now? EA Journal 20 (2), 17 – 24.


Oxford, L. O. and J. M. Green. (1996). Language Learning Histories: Learners and Teachers Helping Each Other Understand Learning Styles and Strategies. TESOL Journal (Autumn), 20 – 23.

Pennycook, A. (2001). Critical applied linguistics: a critical introduction. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Pennycook, A. (1994). Beyong (F)utilitarianism: English ‘as’ Academic Purpose. Hong Kong Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching 17, 13 – 23.

Pennycook, A (1999). Introduction: Critical Approaches to TESOL. TESOL Quarterly 33 (3), 329 – 348.

Stein, D. (2000). Teaching Critical Reflection. Myths and Realities No. 7. ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education, Columbus, Ohio, 2 – 4.

Tollefson, J. (2000). Policy and ideology in the spread of English. In Hall, J. K. and W. Eggington (eds). The Sociopolitics of English Language Teaching. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Andreas Pohl is the Director of Studies of the English Centre at Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne. He has been involved in the teaching, coordination and management of TESOL programs in a variety of post-secondary settings both on- and offshore for more than a decade. [email protected]


Promoting group participation: a conscious approach to collaboration

d e n i s e n o r t o n

Deakin University English Language Institute

Collaborative group work has increasingly been adopted as a learning and assessment tool at tertiary level, yet despite the prevalence of group activities within the language classroom, feedback from university faculties is that international students struggle in this area. While the problem is one of communication, language proficiency is only part of the picture. Diverse cultural expectations and students’ individual personalities play a significant role. In light of this, Deakin University English Language Institute (DUELI) decided to focus on successful participation in group work as a specific learning outcome in the EAP stream. Beginning with the recognition that having students work in groups was not, by itself, sufficient to equip them with the necessary skills for successful collaboration, it was decided to develop a program designed to instill in students a more conscious awareness of group dynamics and of their own adopted roles and behaviours within groups. Our central aim was to encourage students to take responsibility for fostering a group dynamic that benefited from the diversity of the student population and to raise students’ confidence in tackling academic group work.

IntroductionThere are a number of factors driving the move to group-based learning and assessment at tertiary level: the desire to equip students for the workplace where teamwork is often as highly valued as the ability to work independently; the perception that group work affords students a richer learning experience both socially and academically; and the hope that it will reduce the burden of feedback and marking.

For international students, collaborative group work has, potentially, enormous benefits since it fosters social and academic peer interaction. However, international students’ experiences of group work are not always positive. Leki found that international students ‘reported many more instances of dissatisfaction with, even dread of, group work than instances of satisfaction’ (2001:62). International students often find themselves bypassed for inclusion in groups with domestic students, or, if included, marginalized by the group due to a perception that they would have little to contribute (Leki, 2001). There is some debate within the literature as to how much of the difficulty can be


attributed to inhibitions arising from a lack of linguistic confidence or aptitude, and how much is contributed by cultural and societal norms regarding group interactions. Where there is a diversity of cultural norms operating within a single group, the struggle to establish a group norm becomes that much more difficult. Even basic differences, such as different cultural attitudes toward time, and expectations regarding the level of interaction with the teacher, can interfere with group norm development. In a study by Fink, Andersen, Bak & Larsen, in 2002, at Aalborg University in Denmark, although all students were operating in a second language (English), international students still experienced greater difficulty in group work than domestic students, with twenty-six percent reporting group work to be ‘problematic’).

Though linguistic ability appears to be the most significant contributing factor in successful group interaction (Fink et al, 2002; Fletcher & Stren, 1989), there is some evidence to suggest that familiarity with group dynamics, and students’ own confidence regarding their skills, play important roles (Fletcher & Stren, 1989). With this in mind, it was decided to make group participation a specific learning outcome in the DUELI EAP strand, and to accompany the language components of group negotiation with activities designed to develop students’ confidence and ability in managing the dynamics of a group. This paper deals only with the activities designed to develop students’ skills in managing group dynamics, with the understanding that this was not be done in isolation from the requisite language components.

Ehrman and Dornyei’s (1998) work on the four phases of group development provided the theoretical underpinning of the participation program, with each of the four stages of the program being linked both by timing and task development to each of the four phases identified by Ehrman and Dornyei. These four phases are: The Formation Phase (characterized by politeness and a degree of harmony), the Transition Phase (characterized by conflict), the Performance Phase (when the group is at its most productive), and the Dissolution Phase (the end of the group) (Dornyei & Murphey, 2003). The ‘conscious’ approach detailed here was designed to guide students through these four stages of group formation, while at every stage encouraging students to consciously examine how they and others functioned within the group. It also encouraged students to experiment with various group roles. As students progressed through the stages of group formation, they engaged in one or more pedagogical tasks, followed by a reflective task where students were directed to discuss or write about their experience of the group. The aim of the reflective tasks was to engage students actively in the development of their understanding of group dynamics and to provide a vehicle for internalising and reinforcing their learning. As the program developed, it was found that the reflective tasks also served a vital role in conflict resolution.


In this paper, the term ‘task’ is used in accordance with the definition offered by David Nunan (2006), where ‘task’ is understood to mean ‘pedagogical task’ and refers to

‘a piece of classroom work that involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is focused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order to express meaning, and in which the intention is to convey meaning rather than manipulate forms.’ (Nunan, 2006:8)

The word ‘function’ will be used here to distinguish the group development objective which progressed side by side with the pedagogical task.

The ProgramThe program was developed over seven months with five pre-intermediate to intermediate level classes engaged in five-week EAP courses. Each class contained between sixteen and eighteen students. The students’ first languages were Chinese, Sri-Lankan, Turkish, Indonesian, Hindi, Spanish, Korean, Japanese, Thai and Arabic.

Week 1: The Formation PhaseIn week one of the participation program, students in day four or five of a newly formed class were given a short (10-20 minutes) language task such as a cloze, puzzle or grammar exercise and asked to work together in groups of four or five to complete the task. The activities varied from one class to another. In each case they were chosen because they incorporated target language in keeping with the class objectives, and because they were activities in which successful completion would likely be facilitated by working collaboratively.

The classes were each divided into four groups of four or five students. It was found that, on average, in a class composed of four groups: one group would work together successfully to complete the task; one group would make no attempt to work collaboratively; and in the remaining two groups the students would make some attempt to work together, but the successful completion of the task would be delayed or prevented because of attempts by students to defer to other group members. This was in keeping with Wilhelm’s (1997) findings that, in a new class, students are often hesitant to work together as a result of the high degree of anxiety experienced by members of a new group.

Once a sufficient amount of time had elapsed for at least one group to complete the task, the students’ attention was redirected to the following questions which they are asked to discuss within their group:

• How well did the group work together to complete the task?• In a group, people take on different roles eg. Manager, Secretary, Energizer,


Time-keeper. What role did each of you take in your group? Was it one of these roles or something different?

• What role do you usually take when working in a group?• What roles are generally necessary for successful performance of a

group task?

Students were encouraged to come up with their own names for the roles enacted in their group. A common role identified by students was ‘leader’. Students were urged to examine the specific jobs that a leader does, and to unpack this role which often incorporated a number of other more specific roles such as ‘people manager’ and ‘ideas person’.

Sometimes students identified their role or the role taken by another member of their group as one of Beene and Sheats’ ‘Individual Roles’ as outlined in Adair in 1987 – roles which are considered by many to act in a manner contrary to a group’s interest For example, in one class a student was identified as an ‘outsider’, another as a ‘comic’ – roles corresponding to the Playboy and Clown roles identified by Beene and Sheats (Adair, 1987). In the face of this ‘naming’ of the role, students seemed unable to sustain a negative role and would subsequently abandon or modify the negative role.

The groups were then asked to engage in an extended task (three hours) in order for students to explore their understanding of group roles and behaviour. In the Formation phase, groups build the positive group bonds that allow them to work through the next, more difficult, Transition phase. According to Dornyei & Murphey, (2003) if the Formation stage is rushed or omitted, a group may not have the resources to deal with the conflict inherent in the next phase. In order to further the bonding that occurs during the formation stage, a creative activity was chosen for this step. The task required students to randomly generate characters (age, name, job and personality), one character for each student, then use the characters to create a short skit. After writing the skit, the students practiced, and then performed their skit for the rest of the class. A consideration here was that although students were working within a small group, they also belonged to the larger class group. This activity allowed the students to extend their participation from the smaller group into the class.

Dornyei and Murphey (2003) point out that the formation stage is characterized by harmony and this proved to be the case, with very little conflict arising within groups at this stage. Although there was often hesitancy at the beginning of the task, all groups, if left alone, were able to negotiate the task to completion. There was a tendency for groups at this stage to adopt a consensus model, with students participating equally in the task. However, this was not true for all groups: where a


group contained a particularly goal-focused student, this student would sometimes take the dominant role.

On completion of the task, students were asked to write about their experience of the activity with particular reference to their experience of the group and their part in it. Remarks at this stage were positive, with typical comments being: ‘there are two different cultures so the way of working was interesting and very funny’, ‘members must trust each other…and make decisions publicly’ and ‘when someone has a problem, we talk together.’

Weeks 2-3: The Transition PhaseThe next step extended the work done in the previous stage by asking students to work once again in small groups to achieve a pedagogical task, but at the same time to assume a particular group role, so that one student might take on the role of Secretary, another Energizer etc. This step was carried out with various tasks over a number of lessons to allow students to experiment with different roles. The groups were not composed of the same students as in the previous stage, but varied from one day/activity to another. Roles were chosen randomly by students pulling a role card from an envelope in which cards bearing the names of various roles had been placed, (based on the outcome of the discussion of essential group roles in week one). Care was taken to ensure each student had an opportunity to experiment with a number of different roles.

In the Transition phase, the initial nervousness and careful friendliness of the Formation Stage is replaced by conflict, as group members began to relax with one another and sort out their respective differences, and to vie for their place within the group. Dornyei and Murphey point out that the ‘airing of dissenting views’ (2003:52) is a necessary part of the Transition phase.

Some students experienced a great deal of frustration when they were unable to assume a leading role – particularly if they believed the task was not being accomplished within the time frame or to a standard they felt was satisfactory. Although students were told that the function of the activity (the assumption of the role) took precedence over the ostensible task goal, goal-focused students found it very difficult to relinquish control over the task outcome. This meant that normally retiring students trying to take on active roles such as Manager faced a certain amount of resistance, making an already challenging task more difficult.

Dornyei and Murphey (2003:123) discuss the stress caused by what they have termed ‘role strain’ or ‘role distance’. This occurs when, for reasons of ability or self-image, students feel themselves to be at variance with the role they have been asked to assume. This can lead to students experiencing feelings of frustration or failure. The greatest


conflicts arose when usually dominant students were assigned passive roles. In the follow-up reflective activity, a student reported that he ‘felt bad because another student was too dominant’ and ‘I was very uncomfortable because I wanted to take control, but I was not the leader’. Another student ‘felt bad because I hadn’t the ability’.

It was found that longer tasks (more than 20 minutes) severely strained groups dealing with conflict and produced an unacceptable amount of stress for those students experiencing role strain. For this reason, it was decided to restrict the activities to 20 minutes or shorter in length. Other than this one restriction, tasks were chosen with a view to incorporating the language objectives of the class, and for their suitability for group participation.

At this stage, the reflective tasks varied between discussions and short written reports of the students’ experience of the group. Because students tended to show remarkable honesty and openness in reporting their experiences in written form, this was the preferred method when the teacher was aware that a group had experienced conflict. It was found that the reflective task served a dual purpose now. Not only did it help to consolidate students’ understanding of the group behaviour, but it also allowed students the opportunity to express their negative feelings. The process of putting into words the conflict and stress experienced in a group appeared to allow groups to then negotiate the conflict rather than becoming mired in it.

The written reports also gave the teacher a greater insight into what was happening within a group than could be provided by observation alone. For example, in one group, three students were using their L1 whenever the teacher’s attention was on a different group, much to the frustration of the single student who did not share the language. The teacher was aware the group was experiencing a great deal of conflict but not of the exact source of the conflict. In the reflective task, two of the L1 users talked openly about the feelings this must have evoked in the excluded student, and spoke of their resolve not to use their L1 again in the class.

In general, the teacher did not interfere to try to resolve conflict. Once the opportunity to reflect on the conflict had been provided, it was found students were then able to resolve issues without teacher input.

Weeks 4-5: The Performance PhaseIn this stage, students were assigned to a group in order to undertake a research report and presentation. They had almost two weeks to complete the task. Once the outline of the task had been given, the teacher allowed the students to work on their own. This was in keeping with Dornyei and Murphey’s view that too much teacher involvement ‘can stifle the performance phase’ (2003:57).


Students were asked to submit an individual report at the end of the task, detailing how group roles were divided and assigned, and discussing their experience of the group. However, the report was usually tackled by students after the project had been substantially completed and seemed to have little value for the students. In future, a running diary of the groups’ progress will be trialled.

Week 5: The Dissolution PhaseDornyei and Murphey (2003) point out the importance of marking the end of a group with some degree of closure. This took the form of a reflective discussion focusing on what the students had learned and in what ways they can put their new skills into practice in the future. Typical comments at this time included: ‘I will not be so frightened of groups’, ‘I am confident to express my opinion,’ and ‘I learned to talk to people from many countries.’

In general, there was a lot of good-natured teasing which showed both recognition of and acceptance of differences. In reply to the prompt, ‘What have you learned from this experience?’, students remarks were often variations of: ‘Not to make Peter the secretary’, or ‘that Naomi can’t tell time.’

In general, students in these classes appeared to bond more strongly than in classes that had not engaged in this program, and students expressed feelings of loss at the dissolution of their class.

Conclusion

As collaborative learning and assessment tasks are adopted at tertiary level, international students can find themselves excluded from domestic groups, or, if included, assigned a low-level status within the group. Proximity to domestic students will not encourage interaction as long as domestic students perceive this interaction to conflict with their own goals of successful task completion (Selltiz & Cook, 1963).

A greater confidence in managing group personalities and some familiarity with how various roles contribute to group performance may assist international students in adapting to the Australian tertiary environment. The ‘conscious’ approach to group participation presented here encourages students to experiment with various roles, and accustoms them to negotiating the inherent conflict involved in dealing with a diversity of personalities, attitudes and abilities.

In the early stages of the process, the reflective tasks were primarily aimed at generating and consolidating students’ understanding of group behaviour. Once the Transitional Stage was reached, the reflective tasks were also found to act as an avenue to express and manage the emotional consequences of the process, and to negotiate the inevitable conflicts that arise within groups.


References

Adair, J. (1987). Effective Teambuilding, 2nd edn. London: Pan Books.

Dornyei, Z. and Murphey, T. (2003). Group Dynamics in the Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Ehrman, M. E. and Dornyei, Z. (1998). Interpersonal Dynamics in Second Language Education: The Visible and Invisible Classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Fink, F. K., Andersen, O. K., Bak, T. and Larsen, L. B. (2002) The Internationalisation of Postgraduate Programmes. Global Journal of Engineering Education 6(2), 125-134.

Fletcher, J. F. and Stren, R. E (1989). Language Skills and Adaptation: A Study of Foreign Students in a Canadian University. Curriculum Inquiry 19 (3), 293-308.

Leki, I. (2001). A Narrow Thinking System: Nonnative-English-Speaking Students in Group Projects Across the Curriculum. TESOL Quarterly 35 (Spring), 39-67.

Nunan, D. (2006). Task-based language teaching in the Asia context: Defining ‘task’. Asian EFL Journal, 8 (3.1).

Selltiz, C. and Cook, S. W. (1963). The Effects of Personal Contact on Intergroup Relations. Theory into Practice 2 (3), 158-165.

Wilhelm, K. H. (1997) Sometimes Kicking and Screaming: Language Teachers-in Training React to a Collaborative Learning Model. The Modern Language Journal 81 (4), 527-542.

Denise Norton specialises in the area of Academic Preparation at Deakin University English Language Institute. With a background in philosophical logic, Denise has a special interest in cross-cultural studies in critical thinking and cognitive styles. She has taught in England, Australia, Turkey and Japan.


Information literacy: the challenge of internet use in university study

d av i d P r e s C o t t & P at r i C i a P r e s C o t t

Universiti Brunei Darussalam

Information literacy is an increasingly significant issue in education. Rapid growth in the Internet has led to a proliferation of information and as students are increasingly using the Internet to gather information it is considered important that they develop the ability to locate sound, accurate, and appropriate material. This paper discusses information literacy in education and its significance for students, particularly tertiary students. The paper draws on data from investigations of Internet search skills and information literacy development conducted with Universiti Brunei Darussalam students from the business and science faculties. In the paper we describe tasks undertaken by the students, explain the relationship of the tasks to the development of information literacy skills and comment on the differences between the online texts and the students’ print texts. The paper also reports the perceptions of the students with respect to information complexity and draws implications for situations where students are encouraged or expected to seek information from the Internet.

IntroductionAt the outset, it is useful to examine some of the terms used in discussions relating to information communications technology (ICT) and information literacy. There is a clear distinction between being able to use the tools of information technology and being able to understand the information those tools make available. The US National Research Council (1999) has made several distinctions helpful in understanding relationships within information literacy, computer literacy and more general technological capability. The Council relates computer literacy to the rote learning of specific hardware and software applications. The term computer fluency is used in relation to understanding the underlying concepts of technology and applying problem solving and critical thinking to using computer technology. A further distinction is drawn between this fluency and information literacy, which focuses on content identification, analysis and evaluation. It is this definition of information literacy which we use as the focus of this paper.

Students may be technologically sophisticated, but they are often deficient when it


comes to implementing effective research strategies and judging Internet information as well as in analysing the quality and accuracy of information. Separating good information from bad information on the Internet is a complex task. Almost two decades ago de Landsheere (1991) highlighted the importance of teaching students critical and autonomous judgement with regard to the mass media. His argument was that learning to react intelligently to information so as to avoid the problem of being overwhelmed or manipulated by it was an important goal of education. He predicted this would become an increasingly significant educational issue because of the expected effects of a proliferation of readily available information and the need to put it to intelligent meaningful use.

Developments since 1991 with respect to the proliferation of information available to students have shown the perceptiveness of de Landsheere’s predictions. In the United Kingdom, SCONUL (Society of College, National and University Librarians) has developed a ‘seven pillars’ model of information literacy (SCONUL Advisory Committee on Information Literacy) which includes amongst its seven headline skills, ‘compare and evaluate information from different sources … synthesise and build on existing information, contributing to the creation of new knowledge’ (Matthews, 2004). This reflects work in the United States where the American Association of School Librarians and Association for Educational Communications Technology has produced The Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education (American Library Association, 2007). The Australian and New Zealand Institute for Information literacy (ANZIIL) supports organizations, institutions and individuals in the promotion of information literacy and, in particular, the embedding of information literacy within the total education process. Bruce (1997) stresses the fact that information literacy should help students adopt a critical approach to knowledge construction and agrees with Ralph (1999) that turning data into information and subsequently into knowledge is only useful if understanding, insight and wisdom follow.

One of the principal reasons for models and approaches such as those developed by SCONUL and ANZIL is because teachers, lecturers, researchers and librarians have recognised the naivety of students concerning the content, structure, and kinds of information found on the Internet. The often blind acceptance of Internet information by many students has been one of the critical indicators that students need to be taught information literacy skills. Information literacy aims to provide students with the knowledge and skills to be able to access information efficiently and effectively, and to be able to evaluate and assess, accurately, the information they receive from any source, particularly the Internet.

Increasing digitisation of scholarly publications and the growth in online delivery and


publishing mean that fluency with information technology and the rote learning of software and hardware associated with computer literacy are insufficient attainments for tertiary students. Glister uses the term ‘digital literacy’ which he defines as, ‘the ability to understand and use information in multiple formats from a wide range of sources when it is presented via computers’ (1997: 7). Information literacy recognises the need for intellectual abilities such as understanding, evaluating, and synthesizing information – activities which may be supported in part by fluency with information technology, in part by sound investigative methods, but most importantly, through critical discernment and reasoning. It is commonly agreed that information literacy is an essential quality that initiates, sustains, and extends lifelong learning through abilities that may use technologies but are ultimately independent of them. Developing lifelong learners is central to the mission of higher and other educational institutions, and is increasingly reflected in descriptions of graduate qualities. Information literacy extends learning beyond formal classroom settings and supports individuals in self-directed learning in all arenas of life. By ensuring that individuals can think critically, and by helping them construct a framework for learning how to learn, educational institutions provide students the foundation for continued growth throughout their careers, as well as in their roles as informed citizens and members of communities.

Information literacy in educationWhile the use of information communications technology is widely spread and growing in education settings throughout the world, the status of information literacy, however, has not kept pace. Writing about the situation in Malaysia, Chan’s summation was: ‘Information literacy may be actively accepted by education authorities in many developed countries … but still not so in Malaysia and in many other countries in Asia’ (2003:10). This is similar to the situation in The Philippines where there are many examples of school and college-based information literacy initiatives (School Librarian in Action, 2006) and also a well-developed and comprehensive group of National Literacy policies (2003) for many different contexts in Filipino society but no evident official endorsement of information literacy. The Educational Testing Service (ETS) in the United States reports that students lack many basic skills in information literacy (ICT Literacy Assessment: Preliminary Findings 2006). Irvin Katz, a research scientist with ETS says, ‘These abilities need to be learned, students just don’t pick them up on their own’ (Thacker 2006). Research conducted with University of Limerick students by Murray, Hourigan, Jeanneau and Chappell (2005: 437) shows, ‘an overwhelming need for the formal teaching of … evaluative Netskills to students when using online resources’.


In Brunei an important aspect of the Ministry of Educations’ e-Education plan is the Internet for Schools Project. The Director-General of the Brunei Darussalam Economic Council has claimed that:

The project will help create a new computer-literate generation and play an important role in the preparation of human capital to assist the country in meeting the challenge of the new economy. (Wahab:October 2, 2000).

Yet information literacy skills still do not appear to be explicitly taught in Brunei, either in the school system or at university. At Universiti Brunei Darussalam the library offers an Information Skills Course in the Student Learner Development Program. However, the focus in this course is on process, that is, computer literacy and computer fluency (how to use the technology) and not on the critical discernment and reasoning that information literacy programs should emphasize. There is no clearly articulated National information literacy policy and although school-based and tertiary programs occur in Brunei they do not share a consistency of approach that would be fostered by an officially endorsed policy.

The notion that enhanced learning will automatically result from the placement of Internet-connected computers in educational institutions is the sort of meme that has infected many educational planners and providers of resources. Lankshear and Knobel (2003) contend that the ‘outsider’ mindset of standard curricula views current literacy education needs as essentially unchanged, there is simply more technology for delivery:

Many classroom constructions of literacy involving new technologies are classic instances of outsider understandings of literacy grounded in the familiar physical world (book space) being imported into cyber/virtual/information space.’ (2003:33)

Lankshear and Knobel argue that while this mindset prevails, students (‘insiders’), ‘endure learning experiences that mystify, bemuse, alienate and miseducate’. This kind of pessimism is voiced by other writers. In the UK, for instance, Valentine and Holloway (1999) have suggested that a sense of pressure to use ICT within the classroom led to an outward show of apparent use with existing practices remaining unchanged. Tyack and Cuban (1995) in the US have written of the difficulty of institutional reform and the resistance of traditional classroom culture to ICT. However Madden, Ford, Miller and Levy (2005) investigated Sheffield, UK, secondary school teachers’ views of the Internet and its usefulness as an educational tool and found strong support for it as a source of learning and teaching materials. These findings were somewhat


more positive than other studies referred to by the researchers, a fact they put down to integration of younger, more Internet-familiar teachers into the teaching profession and the gradual change process of older teachers adapting to new technologies.

Whether institutions actively promote information literacy or not, the fact remains that students increasingly use ICT to support their academic study. Work conducted by Sharif and Zainab (2004) at Universiti Malaya found Computer Science and Information Technology undergraduate students stated preferences for the Internet as a source of information for their studies. This preference was predicated on the belief that the Internet was the quickest method of providing the information they needed. The perception that the Internet provides easy access to a vast array of information is a powerful inducement for students to utilize it for conducting research. Lazonder (2005) found that pairs of students, engaged in peer-to-peer collaboration in web search tasks employed a richer repertoire of search strategies and were more capable in monitoring and evaluating the search behaviour than were single students. Other writers in this field (Lee: 1999, Towndrow: 2007) also support the use of collaboration and Internet work as a way of exploiting possibilities that lie beyond the capacity of individuals to achieve.

Students at Universiti Brunei Darussalam are frequent users of computers and generally rate themselves as ‘moderately skilled users’ (Prescott & Prescott, 2005:6). They are also insiders in many of the new literacies of information communications technology (emailing, social networking, chatting, blogging, multi-mediating [multi-tasking] with heavy use of icons, sound/audio, graphics, animation). To what extent are they also insiders in the literacy of technology-based information for academic purposes? How successfully do they make the transfer from book space to information space within the academic context?

Information overloadResults from studies conducted at Universiti Brunei Darussalam in 2004 and again in 2005 suggested that the greatest barrier to these students’ effective use of the Internet was information complexity. In these studies we were concerned with the performance of students drawn from the Faculty of Science (FOS) and the Faculty of Business Economics and Policy Studies (FBEPS) on a series of information literacy tasks. In this section of the paper we describe the tasks, explain their relationship to the development of information literacy skills and comment on the differences between the online texts and the students’ print texts in terms of structure, design and content. We also comment on the considerable amount of student qualitative feedback the 2005 study generated and the two recurrent themes which dominated these comments.


Internet search tasksOur studies were based on a method initially developed by Marcia Fisk Ong (2003) and further developed with Universiti Brunei Darussalam students. This method assigns tasks that require students to access information through the Internet both independently and collaboratively, to evaluate the relevance of the information in relation to assigned tasks and to synthesize information from different sources in order to complete tasks. A context for the Internet search is established, a series of increasingly demanding tasks is set, and URLs for websites containing the information required to process the tasks are provided. The method allows teachers to target students’ use of Internet resources while at the same time nurturing higher-order thinking skills. The independent tasks are less complex than the collaborative tasks but still progress from relatively straightforward to more cognitively demanding. The collaborative tasks are a response to the increasingly vast amount of information on the Internet. McNamee and Roberts (2001) have pointed out that collaborative learning offers considerable potential for enhanced learning but requires carefully controlled input from teachers and course designers. Lazonder (2005), referred to earlier in this paper, has endorsed the facilitative effect of peer-to-peer collaboration in web search tasks. Increasingly, educators are encouraging collaborative use of Internet resources and are providing clear direction on what to look for. In our experience, this trend aids students in identifying appropriate information, in analyzing it and in evaluating it – the intellectual abilities that allow information to be used appropriately.

In 2004 Faculty of Science (FOS) students were directed to sites on the topic of black holes while Faculty of Business, Economics and Policy Studies (FBEPS) students investigated sites about brand piracy (URLs at Appendix One). In 2005 the FOS students were directed to use the Internet to seek information on the topic of super giant stars. They were given six tasks to be completed independently, ranked from least to most demanding and three more cognitively challenging tasks to be completed collaboratively. The FBEPS students were assigned international finance and development as their topic. They were given four tasks to complete independently, ranked from easiest to most demanding, and three tasks requiring analysis, synthesis and evaluation to be completed collaboratively. Both groups were given a set of URLs (Appendix Two), eight for science, four for business.

Relationship between tasks and information literacy skillsTo make the links between the tasks in our studies and information literacy clear to our students we took the following steps. Firstly, in both the 2004 and 2005 studies the students had one week to complete the independent tasks, then their findings and the website sources were discussed in class. For these tasks the students self-evaluated their performance. Secondly, for the collaborative phase of the studies


the students formed into self preference groups of three or four and spent a further week completing the tasks. Responses to the collaborative tasks were read by the researchers, who provided written comments on task completion, use of information sources, selectivity, discrimination and synthesis. Thirdly, there was more follow-up discussion in class. Such discussion is significant for developing search awareness in students, such as their use of internal website search facilities, use of website glossaries or topic lists, the search characteristics of probabilistic search engines as opposed to Boolean search engines, cross linking hits from search engines and so forth. Post-task discussion about where information is located and the different pathways available to locate that information is an important part of the method.

Discussion, coupled with written comments on students’ collaborative work, relating to their selection and effective use of appropriate information are important steps in helping students acquire the key qualities of information literacy. The Council of Australian University Librarians (2001) has defined information literacy as ‘an understanding and a set of abilities enabling individuals to recognise when information is needed and to have the capacity to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information.’ The underlying assumption is that students will develop the capability to take active responsibility for their own information literacy; the understandings and abilities are in this sense liberating rather than constraining. Our experience, and a fundamental tenet of the method described here, is that most students need clearly structured guidance to develop these abilities and understandings. This concurs with work of other researchers in this field, some of whom have been cited earlier in this paper.

The Internet search method requires students to work through tasks that are increasingly demanding; as the cognitive requirements become more challenging so the more complex abilities and behaviours of information literacy are called on. A sample of this structure is shown in Figure One.


Sample Independent Tasks [SIT] for Topic Super Giant Stars

SIT1. Stars of 4 >solar masses (such as our sun) will have different final stages from red supergiants. What is the anticipated future of the sun?

SIT2. Our sun may end up a white dwarf like Sirius-B. If so, what will be the altered characteristics that will indicate the sun’s eventual status as a white dwarf?

Sample Collaborative Tasks [SCT] for Topic Super Giant Stars

SCT3. Consider the significance of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram in stellar astronomy. Write a short text (300 – 350 words) explaining the relationship of the main sequence, supergiants, luminosity and the life of stars as depicted in the H_R diagram

SCT4. In terms of stellar classification what is the significance of the mnemonic ‘Oh Be A Fine Girl, Kiss Me’. What solution does this mnemonic offer with respect to Wien’s Displacement Law? Write a short text (>300 words approximately) that relates these two items of information to the classification criteria for main sequence stars.

Figure One: Sample independent & collaborative tasks, FOS students 2005

The relatively uncomplicated requirements of the two independent tasks contrasts with the complexity of the collaborative tasks which necessitate higher order literacy competency standards such as analysis, synthesis and knowledge construction (American Library Association, 2007).

A similar structure is apparent in the tasks shown in Figure Two, which were part of the set given to Faculty of Business, Economics and Policy Studies (FBEPS) students in 2005. Again, the complexity of the collaborative tasks and the need to exercise higher order literacy competency standards in order to complete these tasks contrasts with the less demanding nature of the independent tasks. In our experience, even when the students worked collaboratively, they found the more complex tasks demanding and the amount of available information to be very challenging. This issue we discuss in more detail at the end of this section of the paper.


Sample Independent Tasks [SIT] for Topic International Finance & Development

SIT1. The IMF has recently concluded Article IV consultations with both Egypt (June 05) and Islamic Republic of Mauritania (June 05). What does Article IV contain and what is its purpose?

SIT2. The World Bank consists of 5 associated agencies. What are these agencies and what are their different roles?

Sample Collaborative Tasks [SCT] for Topic International Finance & Development

SCT3. Compare the policies of the IMF, the WB and the ADB towards improving the status of women and towards gender equity. What are the stated policies of the respective organizations? Write between 350 and 400 words.

SCT4. The IMF is active in the international fight against money laundering in that it provides surveillance over the exchange systems of its members. How else does it assist in this work? What are the stated roles of the ADB and the WB against corrupt financial practices?

Figure Two: Sample independent & collaborative tasks, FBEPS students 2005

Differences between online texts and print texts Students in Brunei Darussalam do not generally come from cultures with strong traditions in reading. Brunei Malay culture (the main culture of the country) has a long oral tradition (Maxwell, 1996; Othman, 2005) but reading has not received the same emphasis, with the exception of Koranic reading which is based on rote learning and memorization of a canonical text. Students entering Universiti Brunei Darussalam are generally comfortable with the genre characteristics of pedagogic (schools) texts, where the range of verb tenses is restricted, sentences are simple, paragraphs short and plenty of synonymous language aids understanding but they find the linguistic demands of academic (university) texts to be more difficult. Academic genre characteristics typified by complex sentences, technical and specialist vocabulary, passive verb forms and objectivity certainly challenge Bruneian tertiary students’ reading abilities. However, the recognized conventions of layout and organization and the use of glossaries, chapter summaries, footnotes and endnotes, as well as a definition-exemplification text structure are print text features that students readily adapt to and draw meaning from.


Web site texts, by contrast, do not consistently display comparable layout and organisation elements which aid meaning construction. However our experience is that science and institutional sites are generally more approachable than commercial and business sites. The scientific sites used in our studies are generally well organised, exhibit helpful, consistent layout and have easy-to-use navigation features. They are also mostly government (.gov) and educational (.edu) sites and one of them, a NASA site, has been referred to as ‘an exemplary site’ Berger (1999). Similarly, the institutional sites (World Bank, Asian Development Bank and International Monetary Fund) are well organised and while they are complex they are not linguistically obscure. The commercial sites (the .com sites) are generally less well-organised, but they too do not use language that is inaccessible. Obviously, to do so would be counter-productive to their commercial purposes.

Students’ qualitative responses – information complexityOne positive outcome of our studies was the amount of student feedback given, both in surveys and informally. Students were surveyed following their completion of the independent tasks and again once they had completed the collaborative tasks. They were asked about the ease of finding relevant information, the ease of selecting relevant links, the extent that their work was aided/unaided and their perceptions concerning the difficulty of the tasks. Students were asked to add pertinent comments to the survey forms and many took the opportunity to do so. Our observations in this section relate to the comments provided by students in fourth semester Faculty of Science students and 90 fourth semester Faculty of Business, Economics and Policy Studies students. Two themes dominated these comments: the amount of time Internet searching requires and the complexity of information available.

We chose to focus on the theme of information complexity as it relates to what we know about the explosion of information, a point well illustrated in the following passage.

The University of California, Berkeley’s School of Information Management and Systems estimated that newly created information in 2002 was 5 exabytes (equivalent in size to the information contained in 37,000 new libraries the size of the Library of Congress book collections). This information was stored in print, film, magnetic and optical media; ninety-two percent of the new information was stored on magnetic media, mostly in hard disks. Notwithstanding the fact that this figure is an estimate, that it includes a good deal of duplication of information and that there is no unambiguous way to measure digital information and its compression capability, it is clear; that information growth is immense. (Prescott, 2007).


The students’ comments about information complexity took two forms. Many students wrote brief statements, both in the designated places on the survey forms and next to questions throughout survey documents. A sample brief statements relating to information complexity is shown in Figure Three.

Science Students Business Students

Information not clear

No clear answer

Understanding needed

Website not clear

Many websites not direct

Information difficult to understand

Information difficult

Too much information on website

Need to compare information

Different explanations confusing

Difficult to understand

Lots of info, confusing.

Bulky

Very difficult to understand the language they used

Many websites not direct

Hard to understand

Difficult to summarize

A lot of reading required

Confusing amount of information

Information not straight forward

Understanding required

Too much information

Need to compare information

Information not explicit

Information difficult, complicated

Hard to choose relevant information

Too much words [sic]

Takes time to understand the information

Very high standard language [sic]

Figure Three: Students’ brief statements on Internet information complexity

Students also wrote longer, more reflective observations, where much fuller responses elaborated their views of the problems of information complexity. Students who produced these more reflective comments made observations similar to the sample selection shown in Figure Four.


It’s just that the facts /information that we are going to find are so many. In the Internet we find so many notes about red super giants. Needs a lot of reading. And this takes time. Quite a long time perhaps. A time to read, and a time to complete the tasks.

Using the Internet for academic purposes is a great way to find info but some of the websites are not too helpful in … that the amount of info they present on a page is a lot and complex.

The sites had a lot of info, we didn’t know which were the specific answers to a number of questions.

Even though finding the info is quite easy it is quite confusing as there is too much info.

The information for this question was quite buried in the text and there were many articles under the subheading of Articles of Agreement and therefore [it was] quite hard to find the information’.

The information from the IMF was the hardest to find as it turns out that there was no precise answer’. Much of the information was located at hard-to-find pages.

[The] Internet has vast information, however the problem is knowing where and how to find it. Most big organization websites have no problem and are well presented. A certain level of IT knowledge and English is a must to carry out the task properly.

Using the Internet for academic purposes is a great and easy way to find info but some of the websites are not too helpful in the way that the amount of info they present on a page is a lot and complex.

A negative effect from Internet research could be that there is a lot of info needs to be gather[ed]. With too much info obtained from websites this results in selecting or extracting the most important info.

It is always easy to look for information on the Internet with the help of search engines but it is extracting the important points that needs some effort.

Figure Four: Students’ reflective observations on Internet information complexity

The students’ statements and observations show concern about the volume and complexity of the information they needed to deal with in order to with engage the


tasks we had set. Reference to text complexity was a persistent theme in these responses: ranging from the hapless, ‘I did find the website but it contain [sic] big words’ to the more astute, ‘It is always easy to look for information on the Internet with the help of search engines but it is extracting the important points that needs some effort’.

It seems reasonable to interpret a good many of the students’ observations as comments about quantity complexity rather than about content complexity. In other words transfer from academic book space to information academic cyber/virtual /information space hasn’t been particularly successful for these students. Students used to the conventions of print literacy in pedagogic and academic textbooks often seem overwhelmed by the complexity of the web that hits them with multiple levels of sites of related and hyper-linked academic information using unfamiliar layout conventions. Being able to deal with those levels and conventions in a way that makes content identification, analysis and evaluation of information possible is the aim of information literacy. Without the development of these skills students will find an abundance of ‘raw data’ (Lanham, 1994 as cited in Lankshear & Knobel, 2003:62) on the Internet but they will be unable to give it ‘attention’; that is they will not be able to turn the raw data into useful information.

Conclusion

The findings in the studies reported on here are not only important for tertiary students but also carry significant implications for teachers in secondary schools in Brunei, many of whom are increasingly encouraging students to use the Internet as a source for aspects of their school studies. The work of the American Library Association in establishing the Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education and also the The Nine Information Literacy Standards for Student Learning carry performance indicators that specify behaviors that reveal the standard. Other institutional organizations itemise evaluation measures to make clear what can be expected of students who are able to access information efficiently and effectively. These measures necessitate students attaining and demonstrating abilities to sort fact from opinion, to assess validity of information by identification of point of view, to identify inaccurate or misleading information and to be able to deal with different resources promoting conflicting facts. Independence in learning and a sense of social responsibility are other general attributes that are commonly associated with information literacy. A number of writers (Simon, 1971; Lanham, 1994; Goldhaber, 1997; all cited in Lankshear & Knobel, 2003) claim that all these qualities are increasingly important in order to deal with the mushrooming information revolution associated with digital technologies. As Simon (1971, 40-1) pointed out many years ago ‘information … consumes the attention of its recipients.


Hence a wealth of information creates a poverty of attention and a need to allocate attention efficiently…’.

Tertiary students in Brunei need their information literacy skills to be nurtured and developed to get them ‘up to speed’. A useful starting context is the kind of Internet search work described earlier in this paper where critical thinking and discernment skills are required and can be encouraged. The work outlined in this paper show that Universiti Brunei Darussalam students need help to build and utilize these skills and they need this help in the context of authentic tasks. Lecturers are faced with the task of helping their students develop abilities that make possible content identification, analysis and evaluation, and enhance learning in information communications technology contexts.

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Appendix One

Sites used in Internet Search 2004 – ScienceCambridge University

http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/gr/public/bh_home.html

Dr Chris Miller

http://www.eclipse.net/~cmmiller/BH/blkbh.html

NASA

http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_uni.html

http://universe.gsfc.nasa.gov/home.html

University of Tennessee

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/cosmology/gravity.html

University of Illinois

http://archive.ncsa.uiuc.edu/Cyberia/NumRel/GenRelativity.html

Sites used in Internet Search 2004 - BusinessBrandcops

http://www.brandcops.co.nz/newsroom_pressrelease_02.html

Dechert LLP

http://www.dechert.com/

Bsecure

http://www.bsecuregroup.com/

International Risk

http://www.intl-risk.com/fact-sheets/bps.htm


News sites

http://www.cnn.com/TECH/computing/9908/02/cybersquat.idg/

http://in.news.yahoo.com/031020/137/28nmb.html

Appendix Two

Sites used in Internet Search 2005 – ScienceGeorgia State University

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/astro/redsup.html

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/starlog/staspe.html#c2

Andrew P. Harmsworth

http://www.harmsy.freeuk.com/betelgeuse.html

News siteshttp://www.google.com/, http://www.yahoo.com/, http://www.ask.com/

Dr Richard Powell

http://www.anzwers.org/free/universe/hr.html

Linked to NASA & Smithsonian Institute

http://www.astro.keele.ac.uk/workx/starlife/StarpageS_26M.html

Sites used in Internet Search 2005 – BusinessAsian Development Bank

http://www.adb.org/

http://www.adb.org/Documents/reports/operations/2003/default.asp

International Monetary Fund

http://www.imf.org/

The World Bank

http://www.worldbank.org/


Patricia Prescott lectures in the Academic English programme at Universiti Brunei Darussalam. Prior to this post she was an Advanced Skills Lecturer with AMES in Western Australia, teacher-trainer on the RSA Cert. TESL programme, and Senior Teacher for The British Council. Her interest in teaching and learning processes in an academic setting extends to curriculum design, assessment, and programme management concerns.

David Prescott is Associate Professor in the Department of English Language and Applied Linguistics at Universiti Brunei Darussalam. He is currently conducting a British Council funded research project concerned with quality factors in online English language teacher training courses and is editor of the recently published English in Southeast Asia: Varieties, Literacies and Literatures [Cambridge Scholars Publishing ISBN: 9781847182241], to which he contributed a chapter on Information Literacy.


Accommodating diversity by behaving in class-centred ways

r o s e s e n i o r

Senior Lecturer

Curtin University of Technology

This paper introduces the notion of ‘class-centred teaching’, a term that describes the flexible, class-oriented behaviour of successful teachers. The term emerged from extensive research into the classroom behaviour of a large number of experienced language teachers. It reflects the fact that successful teachers maintain a sense of dynamic equilibrium within their classes by constantly attending to the social as well as the learning needs of their class groups, and by adjusting what and how they teach in myriad small ways. This behaviour enables successful language teachers to develop a spirit of community and forward momentum within their class groups, to accommodate diversity in their classes, and to capitalise on that diversity for the learning and social benefit of all class members. This paper defines class-centred teaching, outlines the principles that underpin it, and provides examples of how teachers accommodate diversity in their classrooms.

IntroductionWith the scales tipped firmly in favour of English as the preferred language for international communication, English language teaching is now big business. The commercialisation of English language teaching has meant that English language courses are now commodities that, like any other product, can be advertised and sold. Since customers have different requirements, language courses in Australia may vary significantly in terms of goals, length, syllabus type, course content, focus and so on. English language provision is therefore increasingly characterised by diversity. Teachers must be able to design and deliver courses in flexible ways, including face-to-face and on-line modes. They must be able to design and deliver language courses for a wide range of purposes and for a wide range of client groups. Language courses in which teachers meld language and content are increasingly common.

Diversity is also evident in terms of class composition. Although language classes may be homogeneous in terms of the student group (a collection of Hong Kong trainee teachers in Australia for a ten-week language immersion program, for example), the chances are that language classes will contain a heterogeneous mix of students.


Classes in university pathway programs, for example, may contain students from countries from all five continents. Such classes will naturally be disparate, not only in terms of the ethnic, linguistic, social, cultural and educational backgrounds of the students, but also in terms of each student’s language learning wants, needs and expectations. There may also be significant differences in terms of deeply held cultural, religious and educational values. Few language classes are evenly balanced in terms of representatives from different cultural groups: in some classes students from a single cultural background may predominate, while in others students from two or three different cultures may make up the majority of the class.

Language teachers routinely cope with diversity because they have to. Yet some teachers are far more successful than are others at managing complexity in their classes. Such teachers are able to make myriad adjustments to what and how they teach in a confident and seemingly effortless way. How do they do this? What is the basis of their on-the-spot classroom decision-making? Are their decisions random and haphazard, or governed by underlying principles? Do these principles fit within any broad theoretical framework?

This paper presents a class-centred framework for understanding how successful language teachers accommodate diversity within their classes. The framework was developed and progressively refined in a series of five interlinked qualitative studies conducted over a period of 12 years. Grounded theory development procedures were used to analyse the perceptions and classroom practices of 100 experienced language teachers and to integrate them into a theoretical framework that emerged from the data (Senior, 2006a:14-35). Further analysis of the data enabled a socio-pedagogic theory of classroom practice to be formulated (Senior, 2006a:270-287).

Class-Centred Teaching (CCT)The term ‘class-centred teaching’ (hereafter abbreviated to CCT) was first used in an article in the ELT Journal that described how selected language learning tasks are successful on two levels: the pedagogic and the social (Senior, 2002). A class-centred perspective on language teaching was proposed four years later in The Experience of Language Teaching (Senior, 2006a:279). A number of dimensions of CCT have subsequently been described in various articles in the practice-oriented magazine English Teaching Professional (Senior, 2006b, 2006c, 2007).

CCT takes as its starting point the fact that classroom learning is a collective rather than an individual experience. In language classes, as indeed in any class, students find themselves in an educational institution learning alongside others under the direction and watchful eye of a teacher – rather than in the privacy of their own homes. Although different tasks may be completed individually, in pairs or in small


groups, classroom learning is essentially a whole-class experience: students are required to learn in the presence of others, rather than alone.

CCT means acknowledging that classes of learners function as groups – and that groups have considerable power to influence the behaviour of individuals (just as individuals have the power to influence the behaviour of groups). CCT means teaching and managing classes in ways that are in line with well-established group dynamics principles – rather than pressing on regardless and ignoring the social dynamics of the class group. For a practical guide to the application of group dynamics theory to classroom language teaching see Dörnyei and Murphey (2003).

CCT means accepting that the quality of the class group is related to the quality of the learning that occurs within it. It means acknowledging that, if there is a purposeful and enthusiastic atmosphere within the class, quieter individuals are likely to be drawn along by the positive energy exuded by the class as a whole so that they participate more fully in learning tasks. Equally, CCT means acknowledging that, if a spirit of negativity prevails within the class – for whatever reason - everyone’s learning will suffer: instructions and explanations will become more lengthy, interactive tasks will be less successful, and valuable teaching time will be spent pulling individuals into line. As a result, teachers will have less time, energy and enthusiasm to teach in dynamic ways.

CCT is particularly important when the communicative approach, which prioritises the development of interactive skills, is used. When learners are required to interact with their peers in class in a variety of ways and in a range of permutations it is vital that the prevailing atmosphere within the overall group is one of friendliness, supportiveness and mutual trust. The quality of the class group might not be so vital in traditional ‘talk-and-chalk’ classrooms – but it is certainly a crucial variable in communicative classrooms.

CCT requires teachers to accept that their own behaviour can have a positive or a negative effect on the overall atmosphere of the class - and on the receptivity and willingness of students within the class to learn. CCT requires teachers to be self-aware and to admit to themselves when things are not going as well as they might. It requires them to think of ways of doing things differently, to have the courage to modify certain teaching or class management strategies – and to monitor the effect of changes in their own behaviour on the quality of the class group. This requires imagination, flexibility, courage and determination - all of which are qualities of people who have reached high levels of expertise. For a review of research into the development of expertise, and on the attributes of experts, see Tsui (2003.)


CCT requires teachers to be constantly alert and sensitive to classroom ‘vibes’. This is akin to having the proverbial eyes-in-the-back-of-the-head: noticing what is going on in every corner of the room of the room. It means noticing when things are in danger of going wrong – or may already have gone wrong – and being prepared to take appropriate on-the-spot action to address the situation and smooth things over. Small adjustments, in terms of a quick word here or a quick decision to do things slightly differently there, are often enough to smooth ruffled feathers or restore the self-esteem of individuals who may feel temporarily disheartened. In this way the class can continue to move forward in a collective, collaborative way.

CCT means viewing language classes as flexible organisms that are constantly adjusting to changing circumstances in response to positive or negative feedback. It means not regarding language classes as inflexible systems that must be tightly controlled in order for teaching and learning to take place. (See Senior, 2006a:275-277, for a comparison of language classes with biological organisms.)

CCT means accepting that pedagogically and socially driven classroom behaviours are inextricably linked. It means understanding that the ways that teachers teach their classes, and the kinds of learning tasks they set up, both influence and are influenced by the social atmosphere of the class. (See Senior, 2006a:281 for the image of the double-stranded DNA molecule twisted into a helix to represent the socially and pedagogically oriented ‘strands’ of successful classroom teaching.)

Most experienced teachers are intuitively class-centred in their approach. Being familiar with a range of teaching materials and techniques, and having learnt from experience how best to relate to individuals and manage tricky situations, such teachers are outward looking and able to focus on the learning and social wellbeing of their class groups. Rather than focusing on themselves and how to survive the lesson, class-centred teachers focus on their students, on how they are feeling at any given moment in time, and on how effectively they are learning.

Even teachers who already behave in class-centred ways can find that having a deeper understanding of the significance of their intuitive classroom behaviour is helpful, enabling them to lift their performance to a higher level. Can any underlying principles of CCT be identified?

Principles of CCTA close analysis of the behavioural patterns of class-centred teachers has enabled a number of principles to be formulated. These principles, which act as broad guidelines for classroom behaviour, require teachers to:


• Alternate between whole-class, individual, and pair or small-group activities

• Ensure that tasks are effective, both pedagogically and socially• Alternate between roles • Value all students equally• Develop rapport with individuals and with the class as a whole• Respond to student initiatives• Be flexible (prepared to change the tenor, pace, nature or extent of

classroom activities as necessary)• Be goal-oriented (keep the class united and moving collectively towards

the achievement of learning goals)• Maintain control over the social environment of the classroom• Take action when all appears not to be well with the class• Adjust the task type, pace, and pressure of the lesson in line with the

collective mood of the class• Encourage the development of a supportive, learning-oriented classroom

cultureThe following sections provide illustrative examples of how the first four principles outlined above can be applied to practice. In each case they show how the application of the principle enables language teachers to accommodate diversity in their classrooms.

Alternating between whole-class, individual and group workStudents come to class with disparate views about what constitutes effective teaching and classroom management practice - together with individual learning styles based on past educational and language learning experiences. Class-centred teachers recognise the importance of behaving in teacher-centred ways for at least part of every lesson. Although they routinely organise small group interactive tasks, they also require the attention of the whole class when giving instructions, presenting new language, explaining unfamiliar words or concepts, drawing together the findings from different groups, providing remedial input and so on. By so doing they not only instil confidence in themselves as teachers and language teaching experts: they also satisfy the unspoken expectations of those students who feel that the role of the teacher is to dispense knowledge in time-honoured ways. Many students (particularly adults who completed their schooling some years previously) are amazed - and sometimes shocked – to discover the unfamiliar ways in which they are expected to behave in order to develop their communication skills. While most students are quick to recognise the benefits of active participation in learning tasks, they also value the opportunity to


be in receptive rather than participatory mode, with time to think for themselves and absorb the input provided by the teacher. By the same token, few students wish to be in receptive mode all the time: most prefer a balance between active participation and reflective thought. By alternating between acting as dispensers of knowledge and as facilitators of small group activities, teachers are able to accommodate the disparate needs and expectations of a range of students within the class.

Ensuring that tasks are effective both pedagogically and sociallyThese days few students enter English language classes as blank slates. Even adult migrants in beginners classes for their statutory 510 hours of intensive English language tuition are likely to have encountered a range of English words and expressions through global advertising, the Internet, the media and so on. The problem is that class members are disparate in that each student has a thorough (or hazy) knowledge of a unique range of words: no two students share the same knowledge base. Class-centred teachers accommodate this diversity by setting up tasks that have both a pedagogic and a social function. The technique of brainstorming is particularly effective in this regard (Senior, 2002; 2005). When teachers begin their classes by establishing individual students’ prior knowledge of words, idioms, concepts or grammatical structures, they are taking advantage of a golden opportunity to draw disparate individuals more fully into the collective learning experience of the class as a whole. More knowledgeable students are happy to have their fuller contributions acknowledged, while less knowledgeable students are boosted if they can contribute even a single word that has not been thought of by anyone else. This technique demonstrates how learning activities not only enhance learning, but also help classes composed of students with different levels of knowledge to become more unified.

Alternating between rolesClass-centred teachers routinely alternate between roles: behaving as traditional teachers whose brief is to control the classroom environment and ensure that learning takes place on the one hand, and behaving as integral members of their class groups on the other. Class-centred teachers sense that, for group-enhancing social processes to occur, they must be prepared to react naturally and spontaneously themselves – even if only briefly - to unexpected classroom events or behaviours. In this way they ensure that the group processes that naturally occur in any group situation include themselves. This might involve, for example, laughing alongside the class when miscommunication (which is part and parcel of language learning in communicative classrooms) inevitably occurs. By reacting as normal human beings - rather than functioning solely as distant and aloof authority figures - class-centred teachers encourage the development of a positive group feeling within the class as a whole. This enables both extroverted individuals and students who feel more comfortable in


the role of onlookers to feel that they are members of a unified class group. Individual differences appear less important as a result.

Valuing all students equallyClass-centred teachers recognise the importance of showing that they value every student in the class equally – and that everyone will be respected and treated fairly, come what may. In multicultural classrooms – and indeed in monocultural ones – there is always the potential for subtle pecking orders to develop. Certain individuals or groups of students may consider themselves superior to others for linguistic or cultural reasons, or may simply decide that they do not like the personality or behaviour of certain students in the class. Class-centred teachers find themselves working hard to ensure that their classrooms are places in which every class member is seen to have equal value. They work hard to ensure that no student feels excluded by never being required to answer to a question, or never being chosen to do a more high-profile task. They show, through the ways that they address individual students, such as thanking them for asking good questions or for making good guesses, that they consider all students to be valuable class members who can contribute in different ways to the collective learning experience of the whole class. By showing that they value individuals equally, class-centred teachers are not only modelling appropriate behaviour, but also accommodating diversity in their classrooms.

Conclusion

This paper has described the key features of the class-centred approach, suggesting that experienced language teachers intuitively behave in class-centred ways. After presenting the principles underpinning class-centred teaching, the paper has provided selected examples that show how, by being class-centred in orientation, language teachers can successfully accommodate diversity within their classes.

The notion of class-centredness may prove to be a useful concept for enabling a deeper understanding of why some language teachers are more successful than others. ‘Class-centredness’ might perhaps be used as a framework for helping language teachers in general to reflect on their practice and to reach a deeper understanding of what effective language teaching is all about. It could also be that the specific principles of practice outlined in this paper prove to be helpful for the professional development of language teachers wishing to reach a higher level of expertise.


References

Dörnyei, Z. and Murphey, T. (2003). Group Dynamics in the Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Senior, R. (2002). A class-centred approach to language teaching. ELT Journal 56 (4), 397-403.

Senior, R. (2005). The benefits of brainstorming. English Teaching Professional 41 (November), 26-27.

Senior, R. (2006a). The Experience of Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Senior, R. (2006b). Class-centred teaching is successful teaching. English Teaching Professional 46 (September), 71.

Senior, R. (2006c). The principle of balance. English Teaching Professional 47 (November), 59.

Senior, R. (2007). The importance of goals. English Teaching Professional 48 (January), 63.

Tsui, A.B.M. (2003). Understanding expertise in teaching: Case studies of ESL teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Rose Senior is an experienced language teacher and classroom-based researcher. She holds a PhD in classroom dynamics and is now an independent consultant in TESOL. [email protected]


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Bookshelf

Write a review

Reviewing books is a great start to a career in writing and there are many opportunities to write reviews for the EA Journal. Each of the two issues per year features up to 16 reviews of new books in the field, in several categories. Applied linguistics, teaching methodology and practice, and classroom resources are the main ones, offering scope to potential reviewers with a diverse range of interest and experience. The additional benefit is that you can add the book to your reference library for free.

Classroom teachers with a keen sense of what works in the classroom are in great demand as reviewers to evaluate the huge range of classroom-focused textbooks, workbooks, practice and revision texts which are published each year, and to share this knowledge across the industry via the EA Journal. A good review by an experienced colleague is an invaluable support for a busy classroom teacher looking for new, high quality resources.

We are also looking for colleagues interested to review the more academically-oriented books which underpin and can challenge thinking in the profession. These usually fall into two classes: those which are reference books for the practice of language teaching and those which offer new insights into TESOL from research.

If you are interested to review a resource for the next issue of EA Journal please contact me, your Bookshelf Editor, on (02) 9772 6316 or by email at [email protected]. An up-to-date list of resources available for review can be accessed on the EA Journal section of the English Australia website, www.englishaustralia.com.au.

Pauline BaylisBookshelf Editor


Focus on Grammar Level 2

An integrated skills approach

(3rd edition)

i r e n e e . s C h o e n b e r g

Pearson Longman 2005

r e v i e w e d b y J a n i C e h ay e s

The Focus on Grammar series is an integrated course of five levels which aims to help students move from knowing particular grammar rules to using grammatical structures accurately when communicating in real language tasks. The series aims to do this through what the publishers claim is a unique four-step approach which moves from Grammar in Context to Grammar Presentation, Focused Practice and Communication Practice. For each level – Beginning, High-Beginning, Intermediate, High-Intermediate and Advanced – there is a student book, a teacher’s manual, an audio programme of accompanying CDs, a CD-ROM, an assessment package and a companion website. This is an impressive undertaking and presents well.

This third edition of the series includes the new features of colour coding for the four steps, new and updated reading texts with additional exercises as well as an internet activity for each unit. The grammatical structures addressed in Level 2 are those typically associated with High-Beginners including, for example, the present, past and future verb forms, simple question forms, countable and uncountable nouns, modals, possessives, and comparative and superlative adjectives. Each unit addresses a specific grammatical structure contextualised within a particular theme and with activities across the four macro skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing). The themes are sometimes topic related and sometimes function related. For example, the topic for Unit 1 is The First Day of Class and focuses on the function of Introducing Yourself.

Appendices include a glossary of grammatical terms, verb form charts, basic grammar, spelling and pronunciation rules, as well as selected vocabulary lists of time and measurement, body parts and medical problems. An answer key is included for the review tests at the end of each unit – a necessary inclusion for students working independently. Of lesser interest in the Australian context are the maps of Europe and the US, and US and Canadian official holiday dates. However, although the materials are obviously ‘made in America’, there is an effort to be more internationally inclusive in both reading texts and exercises.


The layout of the book is more appealing than that of most grammar books, with clearly defined colour-coded sections in each unit, and a variety of brightly coloured illustrations on most pages which add interest and vibrancy. In many ways, the book looks like a general course book, but, as the title suggests, with a particular focus on grammar.

Although the conceptual framework of the book purports to present students with contextualised grammatical structures, it would seem that the grammatical structures are decided on first and then texts are created to showcase them, rather than presenting texts in which specific grammatical structures feature naturally. Because of this, the texts sometimes appear contrived. Moreover, the focus is only on the pre-determined grammatical form; the other elements of how that grammatical form creates meaning in the text are ignored as are the important elements of tenor and mode. Of course, experienced teachers can always develop the materials to accommodate these other dimensions.

The Grammar Presentation section of each chapter is clearly set out with succinct charts and helpful grammar notes and examples. Each exercise is cross-referenced to, and practises, a particular point made in the grammar presentation section. The inclusion of this section as an integral part of each chapter, rather than its relegation to an appendix section at the end of the book as in most course books, is refreshing. This arrangement would particularly appeal to analytical language learners. However, the Focused Practice section merely presents a series of traditional grammar type exercises such as sentence completion, cloze and reformulation.

The Communication Practice section is the most exciting for teachers who use communicative methodology since it provides ready made activities which engage students in negotiating meaning while at the same time, hopefully, using and practising the specific grammatical forms studied in the chapter. Of course, the practice of the targeted grammatical structures is reliant on the students themselves and the careful monitoring of language by the teacher for its success.

Overall, the book provides both teachers and students with an interesting and practical tool for studying and practising grammar. For students, the book seems to make grammar accessible; for teachers, it provides a ready and varied source of materials. The book would be of particular use to new (or old) teachers who are not confident about teaching grammar as the book provides them with excellent support and also provides them with a template for developing their own communicative activities which integrate a grammar focus with other language skills.

Janice Hayes is the Curriculum Coordinator, English Programs (ELICOS) at UWS College, Sydney.


Common mistakes at IELTS Intermediate… and how to avoid them

P a u l i n e C u l l e n

Cambridge University Press 2007

r e v i e w e d b y s a s h a w a J n r y b

Common mistakes at IELTS Intermediate…and how to avoid them is one of the most recent additions to the IELTS shelf at your local ELT bookshop. Written by Pauline Cullen and published by Cambridge University Press, it’s a valuable resource.

As the number of students sitting the IELTS exam increases, the demand for new IELTS-focussed materials continues to grow. Newer materials, designed to supplement traditional materials such as course books and practice tests, are entering the market. However, at only 64 pages and in A5 size, there is no mistaking ‘Common mistakes’ for anything other than a supporting player.

The book contains 30 mainly grammatically focused units. Each unit takes up one A5 page. The explanation of the grammar makes up two thirds of each page. This is followed by a small cartoon question, then eight sentence – completion/modification activities. A two page test follows every group of three units.

There’s not much that’s new with this ‘grammar explanation + questions’ format. Murphy’s Essential Grammar in Use has done it before, as has Swan and Walter’s How English Works. Judging from the wear and tear on our college’s copies of these books, this format is very popular. With this book, it’s understood that the teacher has seen this type of material before – so much so that there’s no foreword or instructions for the teacher. However this book claims to be designed for IELTS students. It asks ‘How can you avoid the most common mistakes students make at IELTS Intermediate?’ and states it will explain ‘how to make sure you get it right’ (back cover). Does it achieve this aim?

This book is aimed at the Intermediate level student who often has many holes in his/her grammar. Anyone who has taught IELTS has encountered Intermediate level students who need to score 6.5 as quickly as possible. It’s a tough ask, particularly to achieve both grammatical range and accuracy. For a book like this to be relevant, the key will be the grammar points it chooses to address.


Fortunately the majority of the content areas have been chosen carefully. Useful areas include relative pronouns, ‘-ing or infinitive’ structures, register and adjectives/adverbs.

Yet, I don’t think choosing IELTS topic areas is enough as ‘IELTS English’ often involves formulaic genres with particular structures. Cullen has realized this, and has often incorporated IELTS-style writing tasks in her grammatical tasks. The Test that reviews the section on passives wisely mimics an Academic Task 1 procedure

‘First a tree is chosen and then the bark is stripped off in one piece’ (p 39). Articles are reviewed with a typical topic sentence from an IELTS Academic Task 2 essay: ‘The [sic] Globalisation has had an enormous impact on many parts of the world’ (p. 9). The task for ‘-ing or infinitive structure’ resembles a General Training Task 1 Letter: ‘I look forward to hearing your reply’ (p. 21).

So how could these materials be used? Well, the book is clearly designed to supplement other materials. Though some students will undoubtedly buy the book and work through the chapters methodically (as they do with Murphy), these materials would be best used as optional extras. Picking and choosing units when appropriate seems to be the teacher’s likely course of action. It may be worth matching the units with the grammatical points tackled in the teacher’s primary materials. The materials could also be given as homework.

The review tests that follow each set of three units are unusual. While useful for the aforementioned student who meticulously works through all the units, it’s doubtful that a teacher would use the book in the same way. A test that reviews three different grammatical units wouldn’t be particularly relevant, particularly as some of the unit groups could have been ordered differently in the classroom. Why group adjective/adverb, adverb, noun and adjective and Verb Confusion 1 in one group, then Verb Confusion 2, Verb Confusion 3 and Noun Confusion 1 in the next group? Rather than tests, I would have preferred to see the extra pages used for longer (perhaps two page) units. However, this is a relatively minor complaint!

Overall, it is well worth investing in Common mistakes as a useful supplement to your existing IELTS course. Our college has two levels of IELTS, and this resource will be a worthwhile addition to the materials used for students in the lower of the two classes.

Sasha Wajnryb is Director of Studies at Greenwich College, Sydney.


Dictionary Activities

C i n d y l e a n e y

Cambridge University Press, 2007

r e v i e w e d b y i s a b e l d o y l e

Cindy Leaney’s excellent book, Dictionary Activities is designed to build students’ confidence and skills in the use of dictionaries. It explains the information that is provided in dictionaries, how to find it, and how to use it in a practical way. It assists teachers in helping students to get the most out of their dictionaries and to select from the different types of dictionaries on the market. Teachers are also provided with a range of very useful dictionary based activities. These activities include the aim, focus, level and preparation needed, and they are ready for the classroom, with only minimal modifications needed to adapt them to meet the needs of particular students.

Even though the focus of the book is on the use of dictionaries, it explores a range of topics within English linguistics, especially relating to words and their meanings, including: grammar, lexicon, pronunciation, writing, reading, collocations, slang, connotation and denotation, and others. An example of an activity is ‘2.14 Comparatives Patchwork’. It asks questions that will make the students really think about words and their meanings. The following are examples of the questions asked:

1. Which is bigger – a pond or a lake?2. Which is longer – a river or a stream?3. Which is hotter – tepid water or boiling water?4. Which is later in the day – twilight or dawn?5. Which is funnier – something that is amusing or something that is hilarious?

This type of exercise will teach students the importance of constantly expanding their vocabulary. It will also make them think carefully about the contexts in which particular words are used as well as help them to develop their spelling and grammatical skills.

This book can be used with students of all levels, even students who are learning the Latin script, as it has activities for this purpose, i.e. practising the order of letters in the English alphabet, and putting words in alphabetical order. It would be most useful however, for ESOL and ELICOS students of intermediate, high-intermediate, and advanced levels, especially students who are planning to continue on to higher education in areas related to language such as law, interpreting/translation and teaching.


The layout is very clear and appropriate for the target audience. Each activity is presented as a lesson plan, with its aim, focus, level of learners targeted, time required, extra preparation needed, and a step-by-step procedure to follow. At the end of the book there are lists of resources, including lists of dictionaries for different levels of learners, online learner dictionaries, online etymology dictionaries, concordances and corpora and other useful websites. It also has an index.

Dictionary Activities could be used as part of a course on a regular basis because it includes activities on writing, doing searches in dictionaries and the Internet, speaking, and reading. I would not use it as the main textbook, but rather as a supplementary resource.

Leaney really achieves what she sets out to do in this text. Its great strength is that the lessons are designed ready for teachers, who will only need to make minor modifications in order to adapt them to their class. It will appeal to new teachers because the activities are easy to explain to students and they can be used as models for other activities. It is a resource to be used in class, with groups of students, and not so much for self-study purposes.

I liked this book because it presents activities that are dynamic and fun to do. I will certainly be using it for my high-intermediate ESOL classes this semester.

Isabel Doyle is a teacher with TAFE in Sydney.

Teaching Second Language Reading

t h o m h u d s o n

Oxford University Press 2007

r e v i e w e d b y m a r g a r e t m i l l e r

Hudson’s book gives a thorough overview of the research that has been done in the field of learning to read, both in first language and second language reading. It is directed mainly towards academics in the field and to students and teachers studying the process of reading. It is a good reference for anyone who wishes to gain an in-depth knowledge of the processes involved in learning to read and the research that has been carried out in this area.


The book is one of a series of handbooks for teachers published by Oxford and, as stated by Hudson, ‘is designed to provide a source of reference for both teachers and teacher trainers’. It consists of 11 chapters that are clearly written in accessible language. Each chapter has a succinct summary at the end followed by discussion and study questions. The final chapter of the book, ‘Wrap-up of second language reading: teaching issues,’ gives a summary of all previous chapters as well as some implications for teachers. This chapter is the main source of practical information that teachers could use in their teaching of second language reading. There is also a glossary and bibliography included at the back. The content of the book and the discussion and study feature at the end of each chapter makes it ideal as a textbook within a post-graduate TESOL course.

Chapter 1 deals with issues in reading and raises the underlying theme of the whole book – that reading involves a large number of acts and varying factors all of which come into play during the process. These factors all vary in importance depending on particular reading contexts and the individual. There are some interesting and entertaining examples in this chapter to illustrate this point.

Chapters 2 and 3 look at the different theories of learning to read in the first language and then in the second language. It also studies research on whether the reading skills in the first language are transferable to the second language. From all the research, Hudson concludes that second language proficiency is more important in reading than the first language reading ability and this second language proficiency seems to be the main indicator of success in reading in a second language – perhaps as one would expect.

Chapter 4 looks at the reading skills but Hudson first spends some time on the varying usages of the terminology that exists among researchers and practitioners in the field. The numerous skills mentioned in the chapter are very useful for beginning teachers or student teachers in coming to understand what happens in the process of learning to read. Again, it is stressed that these skills depend on context, purpose, text and many other factors with individual readers.

Chapter 5 examines reading strategies and the research in this area. The conclusion reached is that better readers seem to use more strategies than less successful readers. Thus, Hudson recommends training second language readers in how to use reading strategies.

Chapters 6 through to 10 address the role played by such things as background knowledge, genre and vocabulary in comprehension in second language reading. Background knowledge of the text topic (chapter 6) is essential for comprehension and Hudson gives many interesting research examples to prove this. There are also some


good examples of how cross-cultural differences not only affect the comprehension but the content of the reading passage as well. His example of a story by Jon Updike told to students in West Africa showed this. The story is about Sammy and his emotional development as an adolescent but the class in West Africa could not get past the three girls who walked into the shop in their bathing suits. For them it became a story about the three girls and their lifestyle.

Chapter 7 addresses the role of knowledge of formal schema in such areas of syntax, cohesion of text and text structure. Again, Hudson makes the point that there appears to be a linguistic threshold for successful processing. Chapter 8 follows on with this idea by looking at the effects of text genre on the process of reading. It notes that text structures in different languages may differ and that this can affect comprehension.

Chapter 9 deals with vocabulary and a strong link is seen between a good reader and a rich vocabulary. Hudson gives some of the better-known word frequency lists which can be useful but he stresses the need for ‘meaning-in-context’ vocabulary learning strategies. As in previous chapters, there are many examples of research carried out in the area of vocabulary learning and its role in reading.

Chapter 10 looks at the relationship between reading and writing. Hudson argues that the two skills need to be taught together rather than in isolation and he includes research in the chapter which supports his view. He states that concentrating on the similarities between reading and writing provides more focused teaching and learning and helps to develop critical thinking. Extensive examples of texts can enhance the writing process.

Chapter 11, as stated before, is a synopsis of the whole book with implications for teachers.

Hudson states in the blurb that ‘this book is designed to be both a textbook for teachers in training and a reference for those teachers and researchers who wish additional information’. With that as the purpose of the book, it succeeds. It is not a practical book that all teachers need on their shelf to give tips and suggestions for their day-to-day teaching of reading. It gives a sound background into the process of learning to read in a second language with examples and research from different countries and cultures. Thus, it has a global appeal.

In conclusion, I would recommend this book for researchers as well as for students in post-graduate TESOL courses at university and for practising teachers wishing to expand their knowledge in the field. It is not recommended for the classroom teacher’s daily use as Hudson himself says that he has no answer to teaching reading and encourages teachers to think about their own personal reading activities and their own opinions on reading.


‘In the end, we are left knowing that there is no magic bullet, no single explanation for what teachers can do to ensure that their students learn to read a second or foreign language. Nor is there a single explanation for why students do not learn to read. Learners vary widely as do the contexts in which they study and learn.’ (Hudson, 2007)

Margaret Miller is the English Program Manager at UWS College.

English Pronunciation in Use: Elementary

J o n at h o n m a r k s

Cambridge University Press, 2007

r e v i e w e d b y l e o n i e b y w at e r

English Pronunciation in Use: Elementary targets the elementary adult learner of English who is looking to improve pronunciation skills. It provides short practical lessons aimed primarily at self-study or to be used as classroom material that is supplementary to a course book.

English Pronunciation in Use: Elementary works to progress the student through a series of lessons with the aim of developing control of sounds, stress and intonation. The course consists of a class or self-study book, with five accompanying audio CDs as well as a CD-ROM with additional interactive exercises, and is divided into fifty short lessons, each focusing on a different pronunciation point. The lessons are divided into four sections, with a further reference section. Section 1 focuses on sounds and how to spell sounds. Section 2 is about joining syllables to make words. Section 3 is for pronunciation in phrases and sentences. Section 4 looks at pronunciation in conversation.

The lessons are designed to be followed sequentially from 1–50, or by alternating one lesson from each section 1–4. The layout is clear and easy to follow. Each section within a lesson has an explanation, clear examples of key points (left hand page) and a range of exercises on the facing page. The exercises provide practice of both productive and receptive skills The answer key for all exercises can be found at the end of the book. The reference section includes a handy guide to which exercises are most appropriate for speakers of different languages.


The lessons begin simply with the pronunciation and spelling of single sounds and groups of sounds. This mastered, students move onto joining these sounds to make words, followed by pronunciation in phrases and sentences, and finally to pronunciation in sentences. This chronological approach is very straightforward, making good use of a tried and trusted learning method.

Voices with very clear, mild British English accents are recorded on the audio CD for pronunciation practice. The listening exercises make use of a variety of accents, including non-native speakers. This presents the student with a very natural assortment of voices.

Both the illustrations and the text are entertaining. The illustrations that accompany features such as the exercises are hand drawn in a cartoon-like manner, which means the look of the book won’t date quickly. It’s also handy for photocopies. A small drawback in the book’s design is the extensive use of red, which is employed as a contrast, a highlight, a marker, in titles and for arrows indicating intonation. This means the book has moments where is it confusing to the eye, or visually uninviting.

The CD-Rom is packed with additional exercises, as well as audio recordings, progress checks, tests, games (a little childish) and a wonderful interactive phoneme chart. This is definitely aimed at self study, which makes the main problem the system requirements needed to run it, that is, Administrator privileges on a WindowsR 2000/XP or MacTM OSX, a 1GHz processor and Internet Explorer 5.5 or above. This is a combination that the majority of my students don’t have access to, so I fear the fate of the CD-ROM is to be frustratingly unused. This is the destiny of most CD-ROMs, and certainly since it is additional to the book and audio CDs which are complete in themselves, it is no major shortcoming.

In summary, the language and content are both easily accessible to a learner working alone, which makes it an excellent self-study book. The lessons are well presented. The design and layout are good. The use of humor makes the lessons enjoyable. Overall, the book is well suited to the self-studying student who wishes to improve their pronunciation.

Leonie Bywater teaches General English at Greenwich College, Sydney.


Five Minute Activities for Young Learners

P e n n y m C k ay & J e n n i g u s e


r e v i e w e d b y m i C h a e l r at C l i F F

Five Minute Activaties for Young Learners is the most recent title in the series Cambridge Handbooks for Language Teachers. The book contains 108 low-resource activities for teachers of English to children aged from six to twelve years of age. These activities are organised into themes of interest to child learners. The topics (Animals, Journeys, Fantasy & Adventure, the World Around Us, Healthy Bodies, and About Me) reflect the content covered in young learner English exams such as the Cambridge Young Learner English Tests. Each activity is outlined in less than a page using an easy to read format that, more often than not, is accompanied by useful examples, tables and illustrations.

All four macro skills are covered in the book, using a variety of generally engaging games and activities, most of which could be used with either small group or large classes of learners. There is a good variety of activities and various types of learners are well catered for with a strong emphasis on using the child’s imagination.

There is an index at the back of the book which can be used to locate activities that relate to a particular macro skill, however the activities are only referred to by number making it difficult to skim-read for ideas when planning lessons. A table of contents related to vocabulary, structures and the four macro skills would have been a helpful addition.

The back of the book also contains a two page list of web links which direct readers to sites where they can listen to some of the songs and stories mentioned in the book. Most links are to the British Council website which seems to have been revamped recently making it difficult to locate the items in the book in the manner described. The web links idea is a good one, and would be improved if the items were linked to a website under the publishers control so that they remained valid for a longer period of time.

In their introduction the authors note that the book is for those teaching primary school aged children, in both ESL and EFL contexts. They have provided a rating system to indicate levels of difficulty. One star indicates the lowest level of difficulty while three stars the highest. However, even one star activities require the learners to


understand simple instructions in English so there are few activities suitable for EFL learners who may be learning for only an hour or two each week.

This is particularly true for these teaching younger EFL learners. For example, the first two one star activities in the book both require that the students ‘write down the names of as many animals as they know’. For many EFL learners encountering English for the first time this will be zero. The problem is further compounded by the complex use of meta-language, for example in activity 2.1 (A Beach Holiday) the instructions ask the teacher to say: ‘Imagine you are going on a beach holiday, choose eight of these people to come with you’. This is listed as a one star activity, but would be well beyond the reach of students learning English for the first time.

The activities themselves are generally more complex than those in books like W.R Lee’s Language Teaching Games and Contests (OUP 1990) and many could easily be used with older learners, or even adults. This could be an asset if you are working with students in an English speaking environment, such as an international school or primary school ESL class. However teachers working overseas might find many of the activities too difficult for their students.

Michael Ratcliff is the Academic Director of Greenwich College, Sydney.

Grammar for IELTS (with answers): Self-study grammar reference and practice

d i a n a h o P k i n s a n d P a u l i n e C u l l e n


r e v i e w e d b y n i C h o l a s m a n n

As a teacher of an IELTS preparation course that is communicative, topic-based and designed to teach skills needed to pass the test, there is often a need for materials that address particular grammar points for either individual students or the class as a whole which are not explicitly addressed by the course materials. Cambridge Grammar for IELTS provides a perfect supplementary for such a course.

The book aims to provide complete coverage of the grammar needed for the IELTS test, while familiarizing students with the style and format of the test and developing listening skills at the same time. Its intended target is upper-intermediate students, or in IELTS terms, candidates in the 6 and above band score.


Hopkins and Cullen provide an answer key (the book is also available without one), which helpfully includes model writing answers (though they are not annotated), an audio CD, listening transcripts, and two appendices. ‘Appendix 1’ has a list of irregular verbs, and ‘Appendix 2’ has a list of common phrasal verbs. Near the front of the book there is a practical, multiple-choice diagnostic or ‘entry’ test which can be used to identify students’ weak areas. The answer key directs users to the chapter in the book which deals with the grammar point tested in each question. The book can be effortlessly navigated due to the clarity of its contents page and the large type chapter numbers and topics printed on the top of each page.

Cambridge Grammar for IELTS is organized into 25 chapters each concentrating on a different grammar point, with linguistic complexity increasing as you progress from ‘present tenses’ in Chapter 1 to ‘nominalization in written English’ in chapter 25. The authors suggest that students and teachers could work through each section from front to back, or they can pick and choose as required. Each chapter is about 9 to 10 pages in length and contains a variety of IELTS tasks from the Academic and General Training Reading, Writing and Listening modules.

Chapters follow a standard format. Each chapter begins with introductory photos or drawings and questions intended to activate the students’ background knowledge of the listening topic. Then there is an IELTS style listening (a variety of part 1, 2 and 3 listening types) and questions which aim to draw students’ attention to the grammar in focus. Because the aim of the introductory listening is to demonstrate the target language in context rather than to simply provide test practice, the question types only occasionally replicate IELTS exam type questions.

The following clear and precise grammar reference section, which consists of a grammar glossary and explanations reminiscent of Murphy’s Essential Grammar in Use, gives students an opportunity to explore the language in focus. Next, standard (and not terribly original), grammar exercises, mainly gap-fill, allow the students to test their knowledge. Each chapter then has a test practice section which is in the form of either an IELTS style listening, reading or writing task. Finally, there is a ‘grammar focus task’ which helpfully reminds the students of the grammar they have been studying and its use within the context of the particular IELTS task.

Importantly, the practice IELTS tasks are designed to either illustrate or elicit the target language. For example, in Chapter 6, which covers future tenses, the test practice section consists of an Academic Writing Task 2 essay requiring students to speculate on the future, while in Chapter 4, which concentrates on past tenses, the test practice is an Academic reading (with 12 questions) with a passage titled ‘The history of the biro’.


Although Cambridge Grammar for IELTS is aimed at upper-intermediate students preparing to take the IELTS exam, it could also perform a useful role in any upper-intermediate to advanced General English class as its contents, though drawing from typical IELTS themes and replicating IELTS task and question types, represent a treasure chest of appropriate listening, reading and writing materials. In fact, it is extremely rich in materials. There are 25 different listening tasks, 20 reading passages, and eight writing questions, which constitute a plethora of material to augment any English course.

Cambridge Grammar for IELTS performs well in many aspects. As a support tool it is an excellent and readily accessible resource which allows the teacher to respond quickly and precisely to needs as they arise in the classroom. The grammar covered by the book seems to me to be comprehensive, from those troublesome articles and prepositions to the grammar required for essay writing such as text organization, passive voice, text cohesion and nominalization.

It must be said at this point, that although the book is not explicitly intended for either Academic or General English modules, the book does have a strong academic bias. This is particularly evident in its choice of reading and writing tasks, of which sixteen are Academic Module tasks and only four are General Training Module tasks. It seems to me that the book could be made more classroom-friendly by introducing speaking practice within each chapter. This would not only enliven the lesson, but would also allow the students to produce the target grammar in spoken language. Having said that, the most useful function of the book seems to be to provide students with reference to materials not covered in a course which focuses on the macro skills rather than the nitty-gritty of language, and as such it is best used as homework or set as individual work to address individual student’s needs.

To sum up, Cambridge Grammar for IELTS gracefully answers a pressing need in that it lets the teacher deal with tricky grammatical problems without being distracted from the main goal: preparing the students for the exam. It is elegantly and logically organized, expertly written and would complement not only IELTS preparation classes, but also higher level general English students.

Nicholas Mann teaches an IELTS Preparation course at Greenwich College, Sydney.


How to Teach English

J e r e m y h a r m e r


r e v i e w e d b y s u s i w o o l F

When I was first trained as a teacher of English to speakers of other languages in the mid-eighties, one of the most practical texts we used was Harmer’s The Practice of English Language Teaching. Since then, in our field, we have engaged with various methodologies before arriving at our current ‘postmethods’ position. Harmer encourages us to keep our minds open to possible change and improvement in our teaching practice and has questioned and reinterpreted things that in the past he considered fixed. According to Harmer ‘New developments, new technologies and new interpretations…keep us alive and make us better teachers’.

The new edition of How to Teach English contains valuable materials to support current approaches and is an asset for trainees, new teachers and experienced practitioners. It is an update of the 1998 edition and is part of the How to… series which, in the words of the series editor, Jeremy Harmer, aims ‘to build confidence, knowledge and classroom abilities in teachers – and inspire them to try out new ideas’.

It is a methodology text providing a balance of theory and practice for trainees and new teachers and, as well, professional development for more experienced teachers interested in upgrading their skills and improving their teaching. As an experienced classroom teacher, I found the book a refreshing stimulus and an encouragement to reflect on my teaching practice.

Since 1998, when the first edition of How to Teach English was published, technology has changed in an unprecedented way. Education has in many ways benefited from these changes and exciting new possibilities for using technology in language teaching have emerged.

One of the main changes since the previous edition is the inclusion of an easy-to-use DVD containing recordings of classroom practitioners teaching their classes. There are activities based on these real classroom scenarios designed to raise awareness and provide models for trainees and new teachers and, for experienced teachers, to expand horizons. As well, there are discussions and explanations about procedures and practical application of techniques. There are 10 sections on the DVD covering topics such as classroom management, student levels, the role of the teacher in the


classroom, vocabulary, reading and speaking activities and games. The DVD task file provides a focus for learning and reflection. I think this multimedia resource offers opportunities for teacher trainers as well as classroom teachers.

This new edition of How to Teach English contains some new materials and techniques, including a new chapter on testing and a useful glossary of ELT jargon. At the same time Harmer has kept some older materials that have withstood the test of time.

The book can be divided into three sections: the first on language learning in general, the second on practical teaching skills and the third on teaching and the resources for learning, with each of the fourteen chapters concluding with a clear, concise summary.

Part One consists of Chapters 1 to 5. The first three chapters introduce the theory of language learning considering areas like learner contexts, learning styles, teachers’ roles and skills and classroom management. Chapter 4 provides an introduction to language acquisition and a brief history of ELT and supports principled eclecticism, giving students exposure, motivation and opportunities for language learning. Harmer outlines lesson sequences based on the engage-study-activate model, and lesson planning using combinations of these components. Chapter 5 gives an overview focussing on language. It deals with language meaning in context, the elements of language functions and forms and discourse. The second part of the book, Chapters 6 to 10, covers practical teaching skills. Chapter 6 deals with teaching the language system and error correction and Chapters 7, 8, 9 and 10 cover reading, writing, speaking and listening skills. Clearly explained examples help to link theory and practice. In the third section of this text, using course books, including choosing, using and adapting them is covered in Chapter 11, and lesson planning in Chapter 12. The new chapter on testing, Chapter 13, provides a clear introduction to testing and covers topics such as why we test, test validity and reliability and design. Finally, Chapter 14 deals with frequently asked questions about management issues and how to deal with problems. The four appendices are valuable although I think the inclusion of a phonemic chart would be great (Appendix D).

How to Teach English is a user-friendly text with language easily accessible both to trainee teachers and teachers. The clearly laid out, easy-to-use index makes searching painless while the task file with its clear answer key keeps readers active.

Susi Woolf is a classroom teacher and lecturer in TESOL Methods at the University of Western Sydney.


How to Teach English with Technology

g av i n d u d e n e y a n d n i C k y h o C k ly


r e v i e w e d b y P a m b at h

If webquests, blogs, wikis and podcasts sound terrifyingly mysterious, then help is at hand. Although much of the information provided in this book is available for free on the net, the artistry here lies in the sifting and simplifying of information to provide clear start-up skills for a range of useful technologies and the demonstration of how these apply in a TESOL context. However, this is more that just a how-to book. Dudeney and Hockly are careful to also address the why of each technology as an English learning tool.

There is something here for everyone from using Word and email to using virtual worlds. The tidy layout makes it easy to dip in and out, depending on the reader’s focus, needs and confidence in their own technological abilities. In addition, as this book has been written by educators, the reader has a pleasant sense of being scaffolded through the technological processes and their workings, unlike much of the material on the net.

Refreshingly, the authors also demonstrate an awareness of the real contexts in which TESOL teachers operate. For instance, they do address the practicalities of what to do with one computer and many students, just as they also address the need for a Plan B in case of computer breakdown. They also tackle working with students of lower level language proficiency in the chapter on web-based materials.

Instructions on how to use the technologies are simple and explicit and, yes, it does come with lots of sample lessons which, although not particularly innovative, are generic enough to serve as models and could be easily applied across the spectrum of TESOL contexts, including school settings, ELICOS and AMEP.

Each of the 12 chapters starts with a bulleted synopsis of key points and concludes with a list of summarised information on the topic. Each also has a quick pointer to further information available on the accompanying CD Rom. This CD Rom is probably worth the purchase price alone, as it contains a wealth of teacher tips, tutorials and further web links which extend and enrich the book into what could be days of exploration on a topic.


A small criticism is that parts of the book seemed very wordy. Perhaps the small type face used is a contributing factor. However, to their credit, given the breadth of the topic and the number of questions they address, they have kept the book to a readable length and there are plenty of screen shots, diagrams and quick guides. Each chapter also has a task file (mini-test) so the reader can self-test their knowledge and then check an accompanying answer key.

This is a well-planned and timely book that will prove useful to TESOL teachers motivated to learn about technology in a range of learning environments. It would also prove particularly useful to those who provide professional development.

Pam Bath is Education Coordinator for the AMEP program at UWS College.

The Experience of Language Teaching

r o s e m . s e n i o r


r e v i e w e d b y e r i C a g a r v e y

Speaking at the 2007 English Australia conference, Rose Senior’s passionate commitment to language teachers and their professional development was clear. The source of this passion is revealed in her award-winning book The Experience of Language Teaching. Drawing on interviews with more than 100 language teachers over a 12 year period, Senior outlines ‘what it is like to be a language teacher today’. She ranges from the classroom experiences of novice and experienced teachers to employment practices and constraints in the profession.

Senior is careful to explain that her data is drawn primarily from native-speaker teachers in English-speaking countries (primarily Australia) and their practice of communicative language teaching. One disappointment is that there are few references to the experience of non-native speaker teachers, given the increasing number of teachers from bi/multi-lingual backgrounds who are working in western contexts. Senior’s description of issues affecting student teachers is based primarily on novices who have completed short intensive courses such as the CELTA, though teachers who have completed other initial teacher education courses will find they have much in common. Overall, teachers at different stages of their career and in many locations


will find reflections of their experience and, probably, quite a few ‘aha’ moments as they read this book. Personally, I found it reassuring to discover my own and many of my student teachers’ experiences acknowledged and validated.

One of the strengths of the book is that it includes much more than a description of current teaching practices. The first chapter outlines a framework integrating the huge amount of data gathered in the interviews. Chapter 11 identifies the key assumptions, beliefs and values of experienced language teachers underpinning this data, while sounding a caution on the limitations of evidence supplied through teacher interviews. In the last chapter Senior proposes ‘a teacher-generated theory of classroom practice’ based on the data. Her theory and accompanying framework is insightful, balancing the social and pedagogic processes of language teaching to explain teaching behaviours. As language teachers are increasingly encouraged to reflect on their practice and engage in classroom-based research, it is very helpful to have a window into this process. Senior makes the process accessible. This is especially encouraging for those of us who are sometimes bemused or even intimidated by ‘theory’ and its connection with the classroom.

The book is well organised and very readable. Each chapter explores a distinct theme which is summarised for easy reference at the end of the chapter. The happy balance between practice and theory which characterises the book is reflected in sections of comment inserted in the text with directions to further reading. In terms of content, two chapters are devoted to the experience of training and becoming a committed language teacher. Subsequent chapters focus on how language teachers create positive classroom environments, with particular reference to communicative classrooms. The use of humour and the exercise of authority in setting the tone in classrooms are explored. A chapter devoted to diversity and its impact on the social character of a class is followed by a discussion about meeting the needs of individual students while maintaining the cohesion and ‘social well-being’ of the class. A central premise of the book is ‘experience-based teaching’, that is, the capacity of teachers to draw on previous classroom experience in order to make quick and confident decisions. Senior examines the ability of experienced teachers to behave flexibly and, in this context, their approach to lesson planning and course books. She discusses ‘why flexibility does not lead to chaos’. Later chapters explore more deeply how experienced teachers energise learning and maintain a sense of community that contributes to learning.

The focus of the book then shifts to broader issues identifying the frustrations and rewards felt by language teachers. This injects a rather depressing but necessary marketplace reality into the discussion. Senior acknowledges that, while the profession is rapidly growing, most employment is part-time, low paid and casualised. She aptly says, ‘The extrinsic rewards of language teaching are limited’. Given the enormous


intrinsic rewards described by language teachers in their interviews with Senior, we can only hope that efforts to address the broader employment and political issues of language teaching might yield some similar rewards. Senior’s contribution here is to highlight the issues.

In her preface Senior speaks about her motivation for writing this book. ‘I’ve always wanted to share with others the wealth of insights that I’ve collected over the years through interviewing language teachers about their work’. I, for one, am very glad she has done so and believe this book makes a valuable contribution towards our understanding of language teaching.

.

Erica Garvey teaches on the Grad Cert TESOL at Macquarie University and in the MA(TESOL) at University of Western Sydney.

Grammar

m i C h a e l s w a n


Grammar

s C o t t t h o r n b u r y


r e v i e w e d b y P a u l m e r C i e C a

Oxford University Press recently published two books with the same simple, yet promising title. Both books, with their concise title and relative brevity – at around 130 pages each – offer readers the tantalising prospect of distilling the essential aspects of such a potentially vast topic. To a great extent, both books deliver, although they are aimed at different audiences. I feel that both books are successful as they explore grammar as a range of overlapping macro- and micro-systems, rather than as a list of rules. They also suitably approach grammar as inseparable from written and spoken text, although Thornbury tries harder than Swan to derive all examples and exercises from actual linguistic corpora.


Michael Swan’s book is aimed at the general reader and is basically an overview, what he terms a ‘wide-angle’ panorama of grammar. Early in Chapter 2 he notes that ‘basic grammatical devices necessarily bring other features with them’ and proceeds in the next few chapters to carefully explore such key areas as word class, agreement, morphology and mood. He draws on many languages to do this, a difference in approach to Scott Thornbury, who essentially focusses on English.

Swan’s later chapters tackle the issues of language change, ‘correctness’ and standardisation. He also looks at the innatist/behaviourist debate, indicating that Chomsky’s ‘universal grammar’ nowadays appears to be a much more problematic construct. Like Thornbury, Swan provides a useful glossary, though both sensibly dodge such troubling and disputed terms as, for example, ‘sentence’. Overall, this is a very readable book, handy as a portable work of reference and not afraid to take a position in areas of controversy.

Scott Thornbury aims his book more narrowly at ‘teachers, trainers and trainee teachers’. It is divided into three sections, looking at word grammar, sentence grammar and text grammar. This division is generally sensible, although it prevents a more holistic understanding of such key issues as information structure, an area described in his Chapter 5 by Swan as ’information flow’. Thornbury uses a range of text types to explore grammatical issues, such classroom ‘exercises’ being consciousness-raising activities in essence.

Thornbury is very keen to develop a ‘generic’, post-method approach to classroom work, avoiding, as he claims in his introduction, ‘activities that target just one area of grammar. Grammar emerges from natural texts in his book and he has drawn together a number of familiar techniques, such as ‘dictogloss’, and less familiar ones, such as ‘input flood’. This is an accessible book, though I suspect that many more traditional teachers will source activities via the ‘index of grammatical items’ at the back of the book, despite the author’s worthy intentions.

Paul Mercieca is a lecturer in the Department of Languages and Intercultural Education at Curtin University.


The CELTA Course

s C o t t t h o r n b u r y a n d P e t e r w at k i n s

University Press Cambridge 2007

r e v i e w e d b y s o P h i a k h a n

In all of CELTA’s incarnations over the past three decades, there has never been an ‘official’ accompanying coursebook – until now. The time seems ripe for it: EFL publishing for pre-service and new teachers is booming, and CELTA’s international reputation and the quality of its standardisation has never been higher. Top this with a team of well-respected EFL writers like Scott Thornbury and Peter Watkins, and a CELTA coursebook seems set for success. But it might still have a few obstacles to overcome.

Thornbury and Watkins have looked at the five areas of the CELTA syllabus and reorganised them into four sensible categories: the learners and their contexts, classroom teaching, language awareness and professional development. The Trainee Book works through each of these areas in turn, providing 40 input sessions in total, although the lion’s share of content naturally goes to classroom teaching (24 units) and language awareness (13 units). Each chapter consists of a warm up with four to five follow-up tasks to develop students’ awareness of the target areas. There are supplementary sections on teaching practice, classroom observation, and tutorials/assignments, plus a useful ‘resource file’ of warmers and fillers, an overview of tenses, a glossary and reading list. The Trainer Book provides clear notes on all sessions and supplementary sections, as well as some extra fun activities.

One of the best things about this book is that it keeps things simple and clear, without overloading trainees with TESOL-related jargon, such as PPP versus TBL, inductive versus deductive and so on, although all of these terms are explained in the glossary. The uncluttered black and white layout is visually varied and easy to navigate. Also, unlike many worthy methodology tomes, it’s a small, slim volume, for which paper-laden CELTA trainees will surely be grateful. There are particularly useful units on classroom management, choosing and using teaching resources, teaching one-to-one and teaching literacy. The teaching practice overview features helpful ‘top tips’ for planning, teaching and reflection (including journal tasks). There’s a variety of observation tasks too, as well as hints on making the most of tutorials and advice on the written assignments.


Trainees new to language analysis will appreciate the concise tense overview. They will also find the warmers and fillers file handy, although they could benefit from seeing a wider range of them actually demonstrated by their trainer, in place of some of the many discussion-based ones. There are a few areas which need more explicit and detailed attention, including lesson-planning frameworks, practising new language, integrating pronunciation, and genre-based writing. Trainers might find the Trainer Book more useful if it made more reference to wider sources and current research, and to recurring issues that trainers face such as the management of feedback.

If you were setting up a CELTA course from scratch, this book would definitely be the place to start, and in the absence of existing course materials it would make a useful coursebook. It’s certainly very practical – there is a strong focus on classroom application and reflection, and task types are based as much as possible on real life classroom situations. By regularly using examples of classroom language, student comments and complaints, and trainer-trainee language, the book reinforces the trainees’ growing awareness as the course progresses. Teaching points are frequently illustrated with examples from coursebooks in current usage, eg: Headway, New English File and Matters, and trainees are encouraged to analyse, evaluate and adapt these materials. Authentic texts are also used frequently, giving trainees a chance to think of appropriate tasks, and to become more sensitive to the issues involved in using these kinds of texts. It’s also up-to-date in that chatrooms, podcasts, Moodle, and interactive whiteboards all come up, and the categorised reading list includes websites.

However, in spite of the market readiness for such a book, The CELTA Course might still struggle to find itself a place. The Trainee Book is without ‘answers’ and relies on being delivered through a trainer, which may mean it loses out to books such as Scrivener’s Learning Teaching (1994), which has a much more comprehensive and detailed coverage of the same methodological content and which can be used by the individual before, during and long after the course. Established centres may not see the need to adopt a new coursebook, when they have already developed, tailored and refined their own material over the years. Experienced trainers, likewise, have their own bag of tricks to address the CELTA syllabus – in fact they will recognise many of the activities in this book, having developed something almost identical themselves. And the Trainer Book is no substitute for the experience of trainers in specific contexts who know where trainees fall down and have developed strategies for reinforcing good practice in these areas.

In short, this book provides everything you need to set up a new CELTA programme at a new centre. Trainers-in-training would benefit from using it, as would experienced trainers looking for a new slant on old sessions. It could also be a useful resource for other TESOL courses, ‘train the trainer’ courses, or for the Cambridge ESOL


Teaching Knowledge Test (TKT) preparation as well as for in-house teacher training. Thornbury and Watkins offer some fresh ideas for activities, and awareness raisers that can give centres alternatives to their current content, so it would be worthwhile for centres to acquire a copy (at least of the Trainee Book) for this purpose. However it is not a substitute for the experience of different centres and trainers in their particular contexts. Use this book as a dip-in and a framework rather than the be-all and end-all.

Sophia Khan is a teacher trainer at the Australian TESOL Training Centre in Sydney.

The Practice of English Language Teaching with DVD

(4th edition)

J e r e m y h a r m e r


r e v i e w e d b y s o P h i a k h a n

Since 1991, The Practice of English Language Teaching has become a staffroom stalwart. It provides a wide-ranging overview of all things ELT, from its place in the world today, to the nitty gritty of how to teach language and skills. It broadly defines different approaches to teaching and discusses examples and activities. It also contains information on learners, teachers and teaching contexts, as well as practical tips for classroom management, using technology, planning, testing and self-development for both learners and teachers. This new edition is the fourth, and it contains two significant areas of expansion. One is the influence of new technologies, resources and support materials. The other is our changing awareness of who and where teachers are, and what this means for how and what they should teach. There is greater recognition of the dangers of ‘one size fits all’ methodology, and more emphasis on context-sensitive teaching. Also, for the first time, an accompanying DVD provides edited extracts from real lessons, bringing to life many of the issues, approaches and activities discussed in the text.

The new emphasis on cultural and contextual awareness in ELT is evident in the early chapters of the book. Harmer discusses how the rise of World Englishes is challenging the old dominance of native speaker teachers and their favoured methodologies,


and tries to redefine the boundaries of ELT for a changing world. There are thought-provoking additions on language death and the possible future of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF). Learners and teachers themselves are also discussed in more depth: there is new material on the elusive question of motivation, and timely attention to the ‘native speaker vs. non-native speaker teacher’ debate.

The chapters on general classroom management and microskills are fairly similar, but have been sensibly re-organised: tips for dealing with mistakes and feedback can now be found here, along with new commentary on learner training, peer evaluation, and how to deal with a heavy marking workload. In this edition, ‘problem behaviour and what to do about it’ has become ‘managing for success’, and this positive attitude is backed up with new tips on how to establish codes of conduct, strategies for promoting successful behaviour, and more sensitive discussion of how to deal with problem behaviour.

The content of the latter half of the book, which examines language and skills teaching approaches and activities, has changed little. However, the activities have been updated and extended, and ideas for using resources such as grammar books, dictionaries and pronunciation games can also be found here. A new chapter questions the divide between receptive and productive skills and the teaching of skills in isolation, and offers advice on integrating skills and combining skills and language work (to this end there is an interesting addition on project work, including webquests). Techniques for using film and video, songs, portfolios and journals have also been integrated into the relevant skills chapters, and the speaking chapter now includes attention to different types of speaking and conversational strategies as well as offering ideas on encouraging reluctant students.

One of the most useful additions in the fourth edition, however, is a new chapter on learning contexts, including in-company and virtual learning environments, as well as monolingual, bilingual and multilingual classrooms. Harmer gives practical strategies for dealing with two areas that are often ignored: very large and mixed ability classes. The question of whether, and if so, when and how much to use L1 in the classroom has been appropriately removed from the previous edition’s ‘problem behaviour’ section and included in this chapter. The issues in the debate are discussed. Another ‘new’ chapter on educational technology and resources pulls together information that was unhelpfully scattered in the last edition. Lengthy commentary on language laboratories has disappeared in favour of newer technologies such as data projectors, interactive whiteboards and podcasts. The sections on computer use have been significantly updated to encompass features such as blogging, webquests and virtual learner environments, and there’s a useful checklist to help evaluate new technology prior to adopting it.


The Practice of English Language Teaching covers a vast amount of ground, so it’s an advantage that the new edition is easier to navigate using the content pages. Sections have been re-sequenced, re-categorised and sometimes renamed to allow a more logical flow from theoretical and background issues to specific issues of classroom management and then of teaching. The comprehensive index is still very useful in filling in the gaps, although it’s a shame that indexed terms are no longer bolded where they occur in the text. It’s also unfortunate that covering so many topics means that none of them are covered in much depth: literacy is mentioned almost in passing, and the chapter on planning and syllabuses is noticeably thin; typical ESP situations such as teaching migrants, or teaching business are scarcely touched on. Also, whilst some neglected issues such as class size have been addressed, it remains disappointing that others have not: for example, the issue of ‘being well’ doesn’t really go beyond drinking herbal tea to soothe one’s voice; there are few practical ideas for counteracting stress.

However, those who like the practical side of things will love the DVD. It shows nine edited lessons, from three to fifteen minutes in length, each prefaced by a brief introduction, and followed by a short reflective interview with Harmer. A range of techniques and technologies can be seen in action, such as live listening, using an interactive whiteboard, finger-highlighting, roleplay and dictagloss. There are lessons on skills, grammar, functional language and vocabulary, and almost all integrate skills and language to some extent. The teachers featured have from two to thirty years of experience, and include teacher trainers.

There are, of course, a few drawbacks. Despite the fact that inexperienced teachers are often concerned about how to recognise and deal with the differences between levels, seven of the nine lessons show only pre-intermediate to upper-intermediate students. There is one elementary class, but no advanced class, and sadly the beginners in the elementary clip are never seen at all. Also, while a sense of the general pattern of skills lessons emerges, the same cannot be said of systematic language focus and practice, and this is something many new teachers could benefit from. Finally, all extracts show similar multi-lingual classes of 10-15 adult students, in very similar classroom environments – it would be useful to see a bit more variety.

All things considered, the Practice of English Language Teaching casts a very wide net indeed, making it one of the best teacher’s guides on the market. Although by its nature, it cannot give in-depth advice on particular issues, it is a good starting point for research, with further readings listed at the end of each chapter. The DVD will help teachers reflect on their own teaching and give them new ideas, and could provide useful observation material for training courses. In short, it is a valuable addition to any staffroom shelf.


Teach English in Australia

English Australia is the professional association of quality institutions delivering English Language Intensive Courses to

Overseas Students (ELICOS) in Australia.

English Australia member colleges are seeking suitably qualified and experienced teaching staff for a range of programs including General English, EAP and exam

preparation courses (IELTS, Cambridge etc).

Positions are available around Australia.

For more information go to www.englishaustralia.com.au


Publications received for review

For a current list, please go to the EA Journal page at www.englishaustralia.com.au

Basics for Children: Listen & Do Hana Svecova OUP 2007 Build Up To Countdown (Grammar Book with Key) Megan Roderick OUP 2007 Build Up To Countdown (Student’s Book, Teacher’s Book,Workbook, Audio CD) Jenny Quintana OUP 2007Challenges Level 3 Students’ Book Michael Harris, David Mower and Anna Sikorzyńska Pearson Longman 2007 Dictionary Activities (Teachers Book) Cindy Leany CUP 2007 EAP Now! (Preliminary) Kathy Cox & David Hill Pearson Longman 2007 English for the Automobile Industry Marie Kavanagh OUP 2007 English for Human Resources Pat Pledger OUP 2007 English for Life (Beginner) Tom Hutchinson OUP 2007 English for Life (Elementary) Tom Hutchinson OUP 2007


English for life – Pre-intermediate (Teachers Book, Students Book, Work Book, and Class Audio CDs) Tom Hutchinson OUP 2007 English for Marketing & AdvertisingSylee Gore OUP 2007 English Pronunciation in Use – Advanced (with CD ROM & audio CDs) Martin Hewings CUP 2007 English for Socializing Sylee Gore and David Gordon Smith OUP 2007 English for Specific Purposes Keith Harding OUP 2007 English for Telephoning – Express series David Gordon Smith OUP 2007 English for the Humanities Kristin L. Johannsen Thomson 2006 Focus on Grammar (3rd Edition) Marjorie Fuchs, Margaret Bonner & Miriam Westheimer Pearson Longman 2006 Focus on Skills for IELTS (Foundation) Margaret Matthews & Katy Salisbury Pearson Longman 2007 Forbidden Words: Taboo and the Censoring of Language Keith Allan & Kate Burridge CUP 2006 From Corpus to Classroom: Language Use and Language Teaching Anne O’Keeffe, Michael McCarthy and Ronald Carter CUP 2007


Grammar Practice for Pre-intermediate Students (with key) Vicki Anderson, Gill Holley and Rob Metcalf Pearson Longman 2007 Language and the Internet (2nd Edition) David Crystal CUP 2006 Literature Alan Duff & Alan Maley OUP 2007 Longman WordWise Dictionary Michael Mayor (Ed.)Pearson Longman 2008 New Cutting Edge Intermediate (Students Book, CD Rom) Sarah Cunningham & Peter Moor Pearson Longman 2005 New Matrix Pre-intermediate (Work Book, Teachers Book and Students Book) Rosemary Nixon with Kathy Gude and Michael Duckworth OUP 2007 New Matrix – Intermediate (Work Book, Teachers Book and Students Book) Anne Conybeare, Simon Betterton, Kathy Gude and Jayne Wildman OUP 2007 New Matrix – Upper-Intermediate Anne Conybeare, Simon Betterton, Kathy Gude and Jayne Wildman OUP 2007 Oxford English for Careers: Commerce 2 (Teachers Resource Book, Students Book and Class CD) Martyn Hobbs and Julia Starr Keddle OUP 2007 Oxford English for Careers – Tourism (Teachers Resource Book, Students Book and Class CD) Robin Walker and Keith Harding OUP 2007 Oxford English for Careers: Nursing 1Tony Grice OUP 2007


Oxford English for Careers: Technology David Bonamy OUP 2007 Preparation Series for the New TOEIC Test, Advanced Course, Fourth EditionLin Lougheed Pearson Longman 2007

Professional English in Use – ICT Santiago Remacha Esteras & Elena Fabre CUP 2007Professional English in Use – Medicine Eric Glendinning & Ron Howard CUP 2007Staying Safe: The kitchen; The living room and bedroom; The bathroom and laundry NCELTR

Tactics for TOEIC – Listening and reading test Grant Trew OUP 2007 Tactics for TOEIC – Speaking and writing test Grant Trew OUP 2007 Task-Based Language Education – from theory to practice Kris Van Den Branden CUP 2006 Teaching Other Subjects through English Sheelagh Deller & Christine Price OUP 2007 Teenagers Gordon Lewis OUP 2007 Thesis and Dissertation Writing in a Second Language Brian Paltridge & Sue Starfield Routledge 2007 Total English Pre-Intermediate (Students Book) Richard Acklam & Araminta Crace Pearson Longman 2007


World Englishes: Implications for International Communication and ELT (with audio CD) Andy Kirkpatrick CUP 2007 Writing (2nd Edition): Resource Books for Teachers Tricia Hedge Series Editor: Alan Maley OUP 2005 Young Learners English Test – Movers (Teachers Book and Movers) Petrina Cliff OUP 2007 Young Learners English Test – Starters (Teachers Book and Starters) Petrina Cliff OUP 2007


From the Editor

EA Journal is published twice each year, in April and September. It welcomes contributions from those involved in TESOL teaching, training and research.

Guidelines for contributorsDetailed guidelines for contributors may be found on pages 95-96 of this issue. Contributors are asked to refer to these and observe them closely. Copies may also be obtained from the Editor and from the English Australia website. Please direct any queries to the Editor before submitting copy.

Documents should be in Microsoft WordIf you have any queries about submitting your copy on email, please contact the Editor.

Deadlines for copy April issue: 30 February September issue: 30 July

AdvertisingEA Journal is read by professionals involved in TESOL throughout Australia and, increasingly, overseas. Advertising for relevant courses, publications, computer software, hardware or any other products is welcome. Details of rates are to be found on page 100.

For further information please contact:

English Australia (ELICOS Association)PO Box 1437Darlinghurst NSW 1300Australia

Telephone: (02) 9264 4700Facsimile: (02) 9264 4313Email: [email protected]


Correspondence should be addressed to:The EditorEA JournalEnglish AustraliaPO Box 1437DarlinghurstNSW 1300Australia Telephone: (02) 9264 4700Facsimile: (02) 9264 4313Email: [email protected]

Book review enquiries should go to:Bookshelf EditorPauline BaylisEmail: [email protected]

EA Journal is published by English Australia Pty Ltd


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Guidelines for contributors

Contributors are asked to read and observe these guidelines carefully. The Editor reserves the right to return for retyping and resubmission manuscripts which deviate substantially from them.

ArticlesArticles submitted for publication in the EA Journal should be of a practical nature and should preferably not exceed 3,000 words. It may not be possible to publish without modification articles which are longer than this.

The contents of articles should be relevant and of interest to practising classroom teachers of adult TESOL who do not necessarily have extensive specialist knowledge of linguistics.

Articles which are of a theoretical nature are also welcome but should contain clear and explicit relevance to classroom practice.

The EA Journal is a peer-reviewed journal and each article will be reviewed anonymously by at least two readers.

Please send your articles by e-mail attachment to the editor: [email protected]

Letters to the EditorReaders are invited to write to the Editor on current and controversial issues relating to TESOL, or in response to articles appearing in earlier issues of EA Journal. Letters should be concise and may be edited for reasons of space.

Book reviewsIf you are interested in reviewing new titles for EA Journal, please contact the Bookshelf Editor. Please note that unsolicited reviews cannot normally be accepted for publication. There are separate guidelines for writers of reviews which will be sent to you together with a request for a review.

Originality of materialAll contributions will be presumed to be original and unpublished unless otherwise indicated. Appropriate permission to reprint must be supplied for contributions which have previously appeared in other publications.

Please note that editorial policy is to give preference to previously unpublished material.


StyleContributions should be easy to read, but in generally formal style. Care should be taken that TESOL and linguistics jargon is used correctly and sparingly.

Contractions (‘isn’t’, ‘doesn’t’, and so on) should generally be avoided in the main text of articles, although they may, where appropriate, appear in samples of teaching materials reproduced within an article. Editorial preference is for a neutral pronoun reference system (‘s/he’, ‘his/her’, ‘their’, etc) except where a specific female or male reference is essential to the meaning.

ManuscriptsSend your articles by email attachments to the Editor: [email protected] Manuscripts should comply with the following guidelines.

Layout

• Type in double space on one side of A4 leaving generous margins on all four sides of the page.

• Number all pages and name your manuscript clearly.• Paragraphs should not be indented. Leave an extra double space between

paragraphs.• Please include at the beginning of your manuscript, following the title and by-line,

an abstract (150 words maximum) summarising the main points of your article.• Do not use double spacing after full stops.• Points should be made using bullet points rather than numbers.• Use sentence case for titles and authors' names except in references (see notes under

References)

Quotations

• Single marks should be used for short quotations, words used in special senses, etc. Quotations within quotations should be enclosed within double quotation marks.

• Short quotations (30 words or less) should be included within your text and should preserve the punctuation and capitalisation of the quoted text: e.g. Littlewood (1984:27) states that ‘There are many instances where it is not possible to decide whether overgeneralisation or transfer is the cause of specific error’.

• Longer quotations should be indented at the left, typed in single spacing and separated from the surrounding text by a blank line above and below.


ReferencesAll original sources must be acknowledged.

Direct and indirect references within the text to their works should be followed, in brackets, by the author, date and, where applicable, page number(s), e.g. (Brumfit 1984 39-40).

List of references: Names and publication details of works referred to in your articles should be listed in alphabetical order at the end of your article under the heading References. The examples following illustrate the preferred style for various types of publication:

References

Graddol, D. (2000). The Future of English. London: The British Council

Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (1999). Linguistic Human Rights: Are you naive, or what? TESOL Journal 8 (3) 6 - 1

Stafford, R. (2001). Media education in the UK. Accessed 14 February 2008 at http://mediaed.org.uk/posteddocuments/mediauk.htmlNotesNotes will not be printed as footnotes at the end of each page, but collated as end notes at the end of the whole article. They should be indicated in your text by sequential numbers (where possible in superscript) immediately after the relevant word(s) or sentence(s), and should appear at the end of your manuscript following the same numbering system.

IllustrationsIllustrations to be included in your text should be attached, each one on a separate sheet of paper. If hand-drawn, they must be clearly drawn in black ink and be camera-ready. They should be clearly labelled and you should indicate prominently in the text of your article where each is to appear.

Biographical detailsPlease supply, at the end of your article, brief biographical details. These should not exceed 50 words, should be written in the third person, and should preferably contain some information about your professional background as well as your present place and area of work. In addition, please ensure you include your e-mail and mailing address.

Guidelines may be downloaded from the EA Journal page of www.englishaustralia.com.au


English Australia Member colleges

April 2008

AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY

ANU CollegeUniversity of Canberra, English Language InstituteNEW SOUTH WALES

Ability Education Pty LtdAccess Language CentreACL - Sydney English CentreAustralian College of English (Bondi Junction, City & Manly)Australian Pacific CollegeBilly Blue School of EnglishCentre for English Teaching, University of SydneyEF International Language SchoolsEmbassy CES SydneyGEOS Sydney: St Mark’s International CollegeInsearch, UTSInternational House SydneyKaplan Aspect SydneyMeridian International School - SydneyMilton CollegeNational Centre for English Language Teaching & Research (NCELTR)NSW English Language Centre TAFE NSW Hunter InstituteOISE SydneyPacific Gateway International College SydneySpecialty Language CentreStep One CollegeSydney College of EnglishSydney English Language Centre (SELC)TAFE English Language Centre, Northern SydneyTAFE International Education Centre, Liverpool TAFE NSW Sydney Institute English Centre (SITEC)TOP Education Institute


Universal English College (GV Sydney)University of New England, English Language CentreUniversity of New South Wales, Institute of LanguagesUniversity of Newcastle Language CentreUWS College P/LWollongong College AustraliaNORTHERN TERRITORY

ACL Darwin English CentreQUEENSLAND

Australian College of English - BrisbaneBond University English Language InstituteCairns Language CentreCentral Queensland University Language CentreEmbassy CES Brisbane & Gold CoastGEOS Cairns College of EnglishGEOS Queensland College of English BrisbaneGEOS Queensland College of English Gold Coast (GEOS QCE GC)Griffith University English Language Institute, Brisbane & Gold CoastInstitute of Continuing & TESOL Education University of QueenslandInternational House Queensland English Language CollegeLangports English Language CollegeLanguage Studies InternationalPacific Gateway International CollegeQueensland University of Technology International College English Language ProgramsSarina Russo Schools Australia English Language CentreShafston International College / University of New England Brisbane CentreSouthbank Institute Language CentreSun Pacific CollegeWhitsundays College of English (SACE)SOUTH AUSTRALIA

CELUSA (Centre for English Language in the University of South Australia)Eynesbury College Academy of EnglishGEOS Adelaide


Intensive English Language InstituteSA Adelaide Language CentreSouth Australian College of EnglishTAFE SA Adelaide English Language CentreTASMANIA

University of Tasmania English Language CentreVICTORIA

AMES InternationalChisholm Institute of TAFEDeakin University English Language InstituteEmbassy CES MelbourneGEOS Melbourne College of EnglishHawthorn English Language CentreHolmes English Language CentreLa Trobe University Language CentreMelbourne Language CentreMeridian International School - MelbourneMonash University English Language CentreOzford English Language CentreRMIT English WorldwideSwinburne University English Language CentreVictoria University English Language InstituteWESTERN AUSTRALIA

Australian College of English - PerthCentre for English Language Teaching, The University of Western AustraliaDepartment of Languages & Intercultural Education, Curtin University of TechnologyEducation & Training International (ETI)Embassy CES PerthEurocentres PerthKaplan Aspect PerthMilner International College of EnglishPIBT International English CentrePerth International College of EnglishPhoenix English Language AcademySt Mark’s International College


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