The Archaeology of World Religion, AR 3075, Student number: 139044731

IDENTIFYING RELIGIOUS PRACTICES: A STUDY TO A MEDIEVAL VULGATE

BIBLE AND AN AFRICAN CHARM GOWN

Introduction:

Since archaeologists study ways of life of people who lived in the past, they can only try to

reconstruct the world of those people by studying objects which are related to them, like

religious objects. I would say that in the archaeological record it is often easier to identify

practices, in this case religious practices, rather than believes, since believes are simply ideas

which are, or in this case, were, in people’s minds. In this essay I will discuss this hypothesis

by focusing on two case studies. The first one is a Latin Vulgate Bible, printed in 1466 by

Heinrich Eggestein in Strasbourg. The second one is a 20th-century African charm gown with

Islamic inscriptions made in Nigeria.

Latin Vulgate Bible

The Bible was the first substantial book to be printed in Europe. The first Bibles were printed

by Johannes Gutenberg, around the year AD 1455-1456 (De Hamel, 2001, vi). The book has

remained in print ever since (De Hamel, 2001, vi). Although it is impossible to obtain exact

figures, there is little doubt that the Bible is the most best-selling, most widely distributed and

even most read book in the world (Dutch Bible Society, 2013; Guinness World Records,

2014; Publishing Perspectives, 2010).

A certain version of the Bible is the so-called Latin Vulgate Bible (or simply:

Vulgate). This is a fourth century version of the Bible, which is largely composed by St.

Jerome. The term ‘Vulgate’ is derived from the Latin words ‘editio vulgata’, which literally

means ‘the common version’ (Bible Research, 2012; Latin Dictionary, 2014). This is the

current or regularly used version of the Bible that became the standard work in western

European churches and monasteries during the Middle Ages (De Hamel, 2001, 38; Bible

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The Archaeology of World Religion, AR 3075, Student number: 139044731

Research, 2012).

The Kirby & West special collections of the Library of the University of Leicester is in

possession of 32 Latin Vulgate Bibles (University Library Catalogue), from which the oldest

one was printed in 1466 by Heinrich Eggestein in Strasbourg (Amelung, 1989, 420-421;

Catalogue Data, 2014; Geldner, 2014; Kelchner, 2014). This book is catalogued as: ‘Biblia

Sacra Latina cum prologis S. Hieronymi’, which can be translated as: ‘The Holy Latin Bible

with a prologue of St. Jerome’ (Catalogue Data, 2014). It was printed in two volumes and

bound in morocco leather (Catalogue Data, 2014: item numbers: 630265-1001 (part 1)/

630265-2001 (part 2)). However, as was customary in the time of early printed books

(incunables or incunabula), Eggestein did not print a whole Bible at once. A printer and

publisher, usually the same person, only printed the actual text of a work in black ink (Web

Gallery of Art, 2014). After he was finished; titles, initials and sometimes illustrations were

added by hand in other colours by rubricators and illuminators (Web Gallery of Art, 2014).

Rubricators were specialized scribes who added text to the original manuscripts in red ink for

emphasis. ‘Rubrication’ is derived from the Latin word ‘rubrico’, which literally means ‘to

colour red’. Later on rubricators started to use other colours of ink as well, like blue and green

(Winckler, 1983, 206; University of Alberta, 2014). Illuminators were painters who added

decorations to a manuscript, such as initials and miniature illustrations (Catholic

Encyclopaedia, 1913; Shailor, 1991, 40). The work of both the rubricators and illuminators

can be found at several places in Eggestein’s Bible. First of all, the first sentence on every

page was added in red. Secondly, titles of Bible-books and of chapters, chapter numbers and

initials were added to every page in red and blue. Finally, the first letter of every sentence was

highlighted in yellow (Figure 1). No illustrations appear in this manuscript, however, another

kind of decoration can be found on the sides of the pages. These were decorated with gold

painting (Latin Vulgate Bible, 1466).

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The Archaeology of World Religion, AR 3075, Student number: 139044731

Rubricators and illuminators were often helped by the original scribe or printer of a

work. Often this person provided notes to the rubricators and illuminators in the margins of

the text. Normally, these notes would be erased when a book was finally bound. However, in

many manuscripts, like in Eggestein’s Bible, these are still visible (Latin Vulgate Bible, 1466;

Shailor, 1991, 40). Numerous manuscript annotations appear on flyleaves and text margins in

both volumes. Parts of these texts are crossed out and other text is added, using red or black

ink.

Since Christianity played a major role in people’s lives in the Middle Ages, printing

and publishing Bibles must have been an honour for people like Eggestein. He, as printer and

publisher, decided where to add initials, titles and decorations. Perhaps, those added texts

were for some reason important to Eggestein. So, I believe this version partly represents his

believes. It partly represents St. Jerome’s as well. As mentioned before, St. Jerome used

several manuscripts of Bible-texts when he wrote the ‘Vulgate’. He must have chosen those

parts of the texts, which seemed the most important to him. Therefore, I would argue that the

‘Vulgate’ is a representation of his ideas and believes about the Christian religion. Probably,

people in the Middle Ages had different believes than both St. Jerome and Eggestein.

Therefore, I would conclude that Eggestein’s Bible helps us to understand some more about

the production of medieval Bibles and that this particular copy represents partly St. Jerome’s

and partly Eggestein believes. It will, in my view, be more difficult to understand about

Christian ideas and believes in the Middle Ages, when we read this book.

African charm gown with Islamic inscriptions and protective amulets/ talismans

For thousands of years, African artists have incorporated writing and graphic symbols into

their art (Nooter Roberts, Harney, Purpura & Mullen Kreamer, 2007, 13). For this, they did

not only use local languages and signs, but they also used the Arabic script, which was seen as

a symbol of power (Silverman, 2007, 122; Tuchscherer, 2007, 44). The Arabic script arrived

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The Archaeology of World Religion, AR 3075, Student number: 139044731

in north-eastern Africa with the Islam in the 7th century AD and spread to the west during the

following centuries (Tuchscherer, 2007, 44; History of Islam, 2013). In Africa, Arabic texts,

especially texts from the Qur’an, can for instance be found on pieces of paper in amulets and

talismans (Mbiti, 1991, 165; Nooter Roberts, 2007a, 60; Robinson, 2004, 45). There is a

difference between these two. An amulet, on the one hand, is seen as an object that protects its

owner from danger or harm. A talisman, on the other hand, is believed to bring luck; though it

can offer protection as well (Eduardo Campo, 2009, 40; Gonzalez-Wippler, 1991, 1).

Therefore I will use the term ‘amulet/talisman’.

According to Muslim theologians, the use of protective amulets/talismans is forbidden

in Islam. They consider it to be a form of idolatry (shirk; Ishaq, 2014; Nooter Roberts, 2007a,

61). However, other Islamic groups, especially those in Africa, claim the opposite (Nooter

Roberts, 2007a, 61; Silverman, 2007, 122; IMA, 2013). In African cultures protection against

various dangers, like magic, sorcery and witchcraft, was, and still is, very important (Mbiti,

1991, 165; Robinson, 2004, 45). However, since I will discuss a case study from the 20th

century, I will write in the past tense. The more protective amulets/talismans a person had, the

better it was. For the production of these amulets/talismans at least two people were needed.

One of them had to be a scholar who knew Arabic and holy texts. He wrote certain verses,

appropriate for an individual’s need, on paper. A second person had to be a leather worker,

who could place this paper inside a leather pouch and construct a string or necklace to attach

the amulet/talisman to the body (Nooter Roberts, 2007a, 60; Robinson, 2004, 45). Frequently,

these texts were written in so-called khatem or hatumere, two-dimensional forms, which

would offer curing, protection and overall well-being (Nooter Roberts, 2007a, 60; see: case

study and Figure 8).

The more protection a person could get, the better is was. Therefore

amulets/talismans could also be sewed to the collar of a gown; and protective texts and

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The Archaeology of World Religion, AR 3075, Student number: 139044731

depictions could be drawn, printed and/or painted on garments called charm gowns (Picton &

Mack, 1979, 163-167; Robinson, 2004, 45; IMA, 2013; see: case study, next paragraphs;

Figures 3-8). These garments were, and still are, seen as enormous amulets/talismans (Nooter

Roberts, 2007, 62). Since 2005, a charm gown can be found in the World Arts Gallery of

the New Walk Museum & Art Gallery in Leicester (Dudley, 2006, 167). This gown is made in

the mid or late 20th century in Nigeria (Figures 3-8; World Arts Gallery, 2005; Dudley, 2006,

167-168) and is probably distributed by and/or produced for the Hausa-people (Britannica,

2014; Mrs. Kraamer, 2014; Mrs. Stanley, 2014). However, it could very well have been

another group of people in West-Africa (Mrs. Kraamer, 2014), like the Zarma, Senufo or

Ashanti (Picton & Mack, 1979, 163-166; NALRC, 2010). The gown is catalogued as a

‘Charm gown/ Muhammedan Priest robe’ (Mrs. Kraamer, 2014). This could probably have

been the case, since a priest is an important person and wearing a piece of garment on which

inscriptions are to be found, like a charm gown, made someone important and powerful

(Inscribing Meaning, 2007b). However, as I already mentioned before, many people in Africa

liked to be protected by all kinds of amulets/talismans and religious texts. Therefore I believe

it to be possible the gown could have been used by anyone else as well (Mbiti, 1991, 165;

Robinson, 2004, 45). Unfortunately, I cannot be sure either about the producers of the gown

or the users, since the museum does not give any more specific information. So I must be very

careful with these claims.

Only one side of the gown is visible in the museum. On this side three texts from the

Qur’an and a supplication can be found, which all denote protection and a demand for help.

Whit the help of the Union of Islamic Students of the Free University in Amsterdam these

texts could be translated. Whit the help of the curator of the museum, I could get a small

photograph of the other side, which is partly covered with texts. Unfortunately, I could not

sent this photograph to the Free University for translations, because the texts were not

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The Archaeology of World Religion, AR 3075, Student number: 139044731

readable on the small picture. Therefore I will only discuss the texts on the side of the gown

which is visible in the museum. This side is almost completely covered with text. I believe it

to be the back. Africans, namely, believed that a great deal of writing was necessary on the

back of a charm gown, since this part covered the most vulnerable area of the body

(Heathcote, 1974, 621). Here two certain lines from the Qur’an are repeated constantly. The

first one (horizontally) can be found in the Surah (or: Chapter) Maryam (Nelson, 1985, 25). It

says about the prophet Idrees (Surah Maryam, 19.56): ‘And We raised him to a high station’

(Surah Maryam, 19.57; Union of Islamic Student; see Figure 4). The second line (vertically)

is a part of verse 5.67 of the Surah al-Ma’idah. It can be translated as follows: ‘And Allah

will protect you from the people’ (Surah al-Ma’idah, 5.67, Union of Islamic Students; Figure

4).

Next to these two lines, depictions of amulets/talismans can be found as well. These

have the form of circles with triangles, which makes them look like stars (Figures 5-6). In

these amulets/talismans, text is written as well. The text in the biggest one is partly written in

black and partly in red. The black part of the text can also be found in the Surah al-Ma’idah.

It says ‘Every time they kindled the fire of war [against you], Allah extinguished it’ (Surah al-

Ma’idah, 5.64, Union of Islamic Students; Figure 5). The text in red can be translated as

follows: ‘Indeed, Allah is able to return him [to life]’ (Surah at-Tariq, 86.7, Union of Islamic

Students; Figure 5). The text written in three smaller amulets/talismans is a supplication for

the prophet Muhammad and his family, which says: ‘O Allah, bless Muhammad and the

family of Muhammad and let peace be upon him’ (Union of Islamic Students; Figure 6).

Finally, a few small stars can be found as well (Figures 5-6).

At the other side of the gown, which is, as I argued, probably the front,

amulets/talismans in leather pouches can be found. These are sewn to its collar (Gillow, 2009,

99). An amulet/talisman in the form of a circle appears as well (Figure 7). However, a certain

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The Archaeology of World Religion, AR 3075, Student number: 139044731

kind of amulet, a khatem/hatumene, draws the attention. This is a two-dimensional form; a

combination of a square and triangles (Figure 8). Often the large square is composed of nine

smaller squares, which are seen as ‘houses’ or ‘palaces’ of God. Usually, the name of the

owner of the gown is written in the central square, which is protected by evocations and

prayers inscribed in the eight other squares (Nooter Roberts, 2007b, 95; Inscribing Meaning,

2007a). Text can be found in the squares on this khatem/hatumere as well, but, as I already

mentioned, these texts could not be translated, because the text on its photograph is not

readable. However, the curator of the museum and I, will probably take a closer look at this

side of the gown, within a few weeks.

Let us now return to the hypothesis once more. By studying charm gowns, we can

learn some things about the production and use of these garments. By studying people who

still use charm gowns nowadays, we can understand that believe in the need of protection

against all kinds of dangers is deeply rooted into African societies. I believe we can only

speculate about the question why this protection was, and still is, so important. And, for

example, which amulets/talismans could protect you from which danger. Again, I would say,

it is easier to identify religious practices, like the production and use of gowns, rather than

identify the underlying believes for the use of the texts on the gowns for protection.

Conclusion:

This essay started with the hypothesis that in the archaeological record it is often easier to

identify religious practices rather than beliefs. For both case studies, I believe this to be true.

Eggenstein’s 15th century Latin Vulgate Bible is a print of the version written by St. Jerome in

the 4th century. This is partly St. Jerome’s version of the Bible, which represents his ideas and

believes and partly Eggestein’s version, since he decided where to add titles and initials that

draw the reader’s attention. Their ideas and believes were probably not the same as those of

people in the Middle Ages had. Therefore, I would conclude this Bible helps us understanding

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The Archaeology of World Religion, AR 3075, Student number: 139044731

the production of medieval Bibles and both St. Jerome’s and Eggestein’s interpretation of

Bible texts, instead of helping us to understand Christian ideas and believes in the Middle

Ages. The same applies to the charm gown. Protection from all kinds of danger was, and still

is, a very important element in African cultures. I believe we can only speculate about the

question why this was, and still is, the case. By studying charm gowns, we can, in my view,

learn more about the production and use of these garments than about the underlying religious

believes. In both cases we have to deal with ideas and believes, which were, and are, in

people’s mind. Since understanding the human mind is a complicated thing, I will conclude

that although certain believes can be derived from religious practices, those practices itself,

especially the use of objects which are related to them, are indeed usually better to identify.

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The Archaeology of World Religion, AR 3075, Student number: 139044731

Bibliography:

Original sources:

- World Arts Gallery, 2005: Charm gown with Islamic inscriptions and protective

amulets based on texts from the Qur’an to guard the wearer from evil. Cotton and

leather, made in Nigeria, mid/late 20th century. To be found in World Arts Gallery

in the New Walk Museum and Art Gallery, Leicester, new permanent exhibition

since 2005. Several visits between the 20th of January and the 12th of May 2014.

- St. Jerome, Latin Vulgate Bible, 1466, original title: Biblia sacra Latina cum

prologis S. Hieronymi, printed by Heinrich Eggestein in Strasbourg. To be found

in: Library of the University of Leicester, Special Collections.

Ancient sources:

- Passages from The Noble Qur’an:

o Surah al- Ma’idah, 5.64 & 5.67.

o Surah Maryam, 19.56-57.

o Surah at-Tariq, 86.7.

Secondary literature:

- Amelung, P. 1989 ‘Heinrich Eggestein’, in: Corsten, S. (Hrsg.) Lexikon des

gesamten Buchwesens völlig neu bearbeitete und erweiterte Auflage Band II.

Stuttgart: Hiersemann. 1989, 420-421.

- De Hamel, C. 2001, History of the Bible. London/ New York: Phaidon Press.

- Dudley, S. 2006, ‘Gallery Reviews: World Arts Gallery, New Walk Museum and

Art Gallery, Leicester, from summer 2005’, in: Journal of Museum Ethnography,

18, 167-170.

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The Archaeology of World Religion, AR 3075, Student number: 139044731

- Eduardo Campo, J. 2009, Encyclopaedia of Islam. New York: Facts on File, Inc.

- Gillow, J. 2009, African Textiles: Color and Creativity Across a Continent.

London: Thames and Hudson.

- Gonzalez-Wippler, M. 1991, Complete Book Of Amulets & Talismans. St. Paul:

Lewellyn Publications.

- Heathcote, D. 1974, ‘A Hausa Charm Gown’, in: Man (New Series), 9.4, 620-624.

- Mbiti, J.S. 1991, Introduction to African Religion. Oxford: Heinemann

Educational Publishers.

- Mullen Kreamer, C. M. 2007, ‘Inscribing Power/ Writing Politics’, in: Mullen

Kreamer, C.M.; Nooter Roberts, M.; Harney, E. & Purpura A. 2007, Inscribing

Meaning: Writing and Graphic Systems in African Art. Calenzano (Florence):

Conti Tipocolor/ 5 Continents Editions, 127-145.

- Nelson, K, 1985 (reprinted in 2001), The Art of Reciting the Qurʾan, Cairo, Egypt:

American University in Cairo Press.

- Nooter Roberts, M. 2007a, ‘Inscribing Identity: The Body, in: Mullen Kreamer,

C.M.; Nooter Roberts, M.; Harney, E. & Purpura A. 2007, Inscribing Meaning:

Writing and Graphic Systems in African Art. Calenzano (Florence): Conti

Tipocolor/ 5 Continents Editions, 55-69.

- Nooter Roberts, M. 2007b, ‘Sacred Scripts’, in: Mullen Kreamer, C.M.; Nooter

Roberts, M.; Harney, E. & Purpura A. 2007, Inscribing Meaning: Writing and

Graphic Systems in African Art. Calenzano (Florence): Conti Tipocolor/ 5

Continents Editions, 89-106.

- Nooter Roberts, M.; Harney, E.; Purpura, A. & Mullen Kreamer, C. 2007,

‘Inscribing Meaning: Ways of Knowing’, in: Mullen Kreamer, C.M.; Nooter

Roberts, M.; Harney, E. & Purpura A. 2007, Inscribing Meaning: Writing and

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The Archaeology of World Religion, AR 3075, Student number: 139044731

Graphic Systems in African Art. Calenzano (Florence): Conti Tipocolor/ 5

Continents Editions, 13-27.

- Robinson, D. 2004, Muslim Societies in African History. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

- Silverman, R.A. 2007, ‘Drinking the Word of God’, in: Mullen Kreamer, C.M.;

Nooter Roberts, M.; Harney, E. & Purpura A. 2007, Inscribing Meaning: Writing

and Graphic Systems in African Art. Calenzano (Florence): Conti Tipocolor/ 5

Continents Editions, 117-123.

- Tuchscherer, K. 2007, ‘Recording, Communicating and Making Visible: A History

of Writing and Systems of Graphic Symbolism in Africa’, in: Mullen Kreamer,

C.M.; Nooter Roberts, M.; Harney, E. & Purpura A. 2007, Inscribing Meaning:

Writing and Graphic Systems in African Art. Calenzano (Florence): Conti

Tipocolor/ 5 Continents Editions, 126-145.

- Winckler, P.A. 1983, Reader in the History of Books and Printing. Englewood:

Information Handling Services.

Websites:

- ‘Best-selling book of Non-fiction’, on Website: Guinness World Records, last

update: 2014, date of consultation: May, 1st, 2014, URL:

http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records-1/best-selling-book-of-non-fiction/

(Referred to as: Guinness World Records, 2014).

- ‘Catalogue Data: Bible. Latin. Vulgate. 1466, printed by Heinrich Eggestein’, on

Website: Catalogue of the University of Leicester Library, last update: 2014, date

of consultation: May, 5th, 2014, URL: https://library.le.ac.uk/uhtbin/cgisirsi/?

ps=qB49ESFwmE/DWL/20420057/9

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- ‘Catalogue Results: Latin Vulgate Bible’, on Website: University of Leicester,

Library Catologue, last update: 2014, date of consultation: May, 5th, 2014, URL’s:

https://lib rary.le.ac.uk/uhtbin/cgisirsi/?ps=mN4nBwSyAp/DWL/228600307/9

(Results 1-20); https://library.le.ac.uk/uhtbin/cgisirsi/ ?ps=UX6borpD5z /DWL

/228600307/9 (Results 21-40); https://library.le.ac.uk/uhtbin/cgisirsi/ ?ps=7Ij2

PDu1gt/DWL/228600307/9 (Results 41-44) (Referred to as: University Library

Catalogue)

- ‘Decoration and Illumination’, on Website: University of Alberta: Calgary

Manuscript Studies: Medieval and Early Modern, last update: 2014, date of

consultation: May, 1st, 2014, URL: http://www.ualberta.ca/ ~sreimer/ ms-course/

course/ dcrtn-il.htm (Referred to as: University of Alberta, 2014).

- ‘Eggestein, Heinrich’, written by Geldner. F, on Website: Neue Deutsche

Biographie/ Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Historischen Kommission bei

der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, last update: 2014, date of

consultation: May, 9th, 2014;

URL: http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd100965024.html (Referred to as:

Geldner, 2014).

- ‘Eggestein, Heinrich’, written by Kelchner, E., on Website: Neue Deutsche

Biographie/ Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, Historischen Kommission bei

der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, last update: 2014, date of

consultation: May, 9th, 2014; URLl:

http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd100965024.html?anchor=adb (Referred to

as: Kelchner, 2014).

- ‘Hausa’, on Website: Encyclopaedia Britannica, last update: 2014, date of

consultation: May, 9th, 2014; URLl:

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The Archaeology of World Religion, AR 3075, Student number: 139044731

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/257081/Hausa (Referred to as:

Britannica, 2014).

- ‘Illuminated Manuscripts’, in: Catholic Encyclopaedia, 1913, on Website: Catholic

Encyclopaedia Online, Catholic Online, date of consultation: May, 1st, 2014, URL:

http://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=6045 (Referred to as: Catholic

Encyclopaedia, 1913).

- ‘Incunables (early printed books) (1451-1500)’, on Website: Web Gallery of Art,

created by Dr. Emil Krén (consultant in information technology at KFKI System

Integration Ltd., Budapest, Hungary) and Dr. Dániel Marx (researcher at the

Department of Computer Science and Information Theory, Budapest University of

Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary, last update: March, 2014, date of

consultation: May, 1st, 2014, URL:

http://www.wga.hu/html_m/zgothic/miniatur/1451-500/5incunab/index.html

(Referred to as: Web Gallery of Art, 2014)

- ‘Inscribing Power’, on Website: Inscribing Meaning: Writing and Graphic

Systems in African Art, Exhibition of the National Museum of African Art and the

Fowler Museum, May 9th 2007–August 26th, 2007, last update: 2007, date of

consultation: May, 9th, 2014; URL:

http://africa.si.edu/exhibits/inscribing/power.html (Referred to as: Inscribing

Meaning, 2007b).

- ‘Over de Bijbel’ (‘On the Bible’), on Website: Nederlands Bijbel Genootschap

(Dutch Bible Society), last update: November, 27th, 2013, date of consultation:

May, 1st, 2014, URL: http://www.rondomdebijbel.nl/ (Referred to as: Dutch Bible

Society, 2013).

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The Archaeology of World Religion, AR 3075, Student number: 139044731

- ‘Sacred Scripts’, on Website: Inscribing Meaning: Writing and Graphic Systems in

African Art, Exhibition of the National Museum of African Art and the Fowler

Museum, May 9th 2007–August 26th, 2007, last update: 2007, date of consultation:

May, 9th, 2014; URL: http://africa.si.edu/exhibits/inscribing/scripts.html (Referred

to as: Inscribing Meaning, 2007a).

- ‘The Bible vs. Mao: A “Best Guess” of the Top 25 Bestselling Books of All

Time’, on Website: Publishing Perspectives, a project of the Frankfurt Book Fair,

posted on: September, 7th, 2010, last update: 2014, date of consultation: May, 1st,

2014, URL: http://publishingperspectives.com/2010/09/top-25-bestselling-books-

of-all-time/ (Referred to as: Publishing Perspectives, 2010).

- ‘The Curve of the Evil Eye’, Dr. Gazala Ishaq, Research Scientist & Freelance

Writer, Nottingham, UK, on Website: Stunning Hijab, Hijab Education, last

update: 2014, date of consultation: May, 7th, 2014, URL:

http://www.stunninghijab.com/pages/The-Curse-of-the-Evil-Eye.html (Referred to

as: Ishaq, 2014).

- ‘The History of Islam: The Khalifs (Khalifahs)’, on Website: Answering Islam: A

Christian-Muslim dialogue, last update: 2013, date of consultation: May, 9th, 2014;

URL: http://www.answering-islam.org/Nehls/tt1/tt3.html (Referred to as: History

of Islam, 2013).

- ‘The Vulgate’ by Samuel Angus, The International Standard Bible Encyclopaedia

(1915)’, on Website: Bible Research, Ancient Versions: Latin, last update: 2012,

date of consultation: May, 7th, 2014; URL:

http://www.bible-researcher.com/vulgate1.html (Referred to as: Bible Research,

2012).

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- ‘Un art secret: Les écritures talismaniques de l’Afrique de l’Ouest’, on Website:

Institute du Monde Arabe’, Exhibition in Museum of Civilizations (Musée des

Civilisation), February, 14th, 2013- July, 28th, 2013, last update: 2013, date of

consultation: May, 1st, 2014; URL: http://www.imarabe.org/exposition-ima-9624

(Referred to as: IMA, 2013).

- ‘Vulgo’, on Website: Perseus, A Latin dictionary, Charlton T. Lewis, Charles

Short, last update: March, 21st, 2014, date of consultation: May, 1st, 2014; URL:

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext

%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3Dvulgo2 (Referred to as: Latin Dictionary, 2014).

- ‘Zarma’, on Website: National African Language Resource Center (NALRC),

Indiana University & University of Wisconsin-Madison, last update: 2010, date of

consultation: May, 6th, 2014, URL:

http://www.nalrc.indiana.edu/brochures/Zarma_Niger.pdf (Referred to as:

NALRC, 2010)

Other sources:

For charm gown:

- Contact with the Union of Islamic Students, connected to the Free University

Amsterdam, ‘Islamitische Studentenverening Amsterdam, Vrije Universiteit

Amsterdam’. (Referred to as: Union of Islamic Students, 2014)

- E-mail contact with Mrs. M. Kraamer, curator of the World Arts Gallery in the

New Walk Museum and Art Gallery, Leicester. Contact between the April, 3th

and May, 12th, 2014. (Referred to as: Mrs. Kraamer, 2014)

- E-mail contact with Mrs. J.L Stanley, Librarian, Warren M. Robbins Library,

National Museum of African Art/ Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Contact

between May, 1st and May, 11th, 2014. (Referred to as: Mrs. Stanley, 2014)

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- Several visits to World Arts Gallery in the New Walk Museum and Art Gallery,

Leicester between January, 20th and May, 12th, 2014

For Latin Vulgate Bible:

- Visit to the Special Collections of the Library of the University of Leicester,

March, 27th, 2014.

APPENDIX: FIGURES, MAPS AND PHOTOGRAPHS

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The Archaeology of World Religion, AR 3075, Student number: 139044731

Figure 1: First page of Latin Vulgate Bible, printed by Heinrich Eggestein in Strasbourg

(1466). Initials in red and blue can be found. The first sentence of the text is added in red and the first letter

of every sentence is marked yellow. Source: University of Leicester, Library Special Collections:

‘Incuanbula in Special Collections’, posted by S. Dixon on April, 10th, 2014, date of consultation: May,

7th, 2014; Url: http://staffblogs.le.ac.uk/specialcollections/2014/04/10/incunabula-in-special-collections/

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The Archaeology of World Religion, AR 3075, Student number: 139044731

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The Archaeology of World Religion, AR 3075, Student number: 139044731

Figure 2: Map of West-Africa. Islamic charm gowns were, and still are, often used in West-Africa,

especially in the Asante Empire (modern Ghana, marked: small rectangle in the middle of the map).

The charm gown in the World Art Gallery in the New Walk Museum is made in Nigeria (large

rectangle on the right side of the map). Source: Website UNOWA: United Nations Office of West

Africa, last update: 2014, Url: http://unowa.unmissions.org/Default.aspx?tabid=793

Figure 3 (right): Visible side of charm gown with Islamic

texts from the Qur’an and protective amulets/talismans. This

is probably the back. To be found in the New Walk Museum

& Art Gallery in Leicester, England. Source: Own

photograph.

Figure 4 (right): Charm gown detail: Texts from the

Qur’an. Horizontal text to be found in the Surah al-

Ma’idah (5.67). Vertical text to be found in the Surah

Maryam (19.57). Charm gown to be found in the New

Walk Museum & Art Gallery in Leicester, England.

Source: Own photograph.

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The Archaeology of World Religion, AR 3075, Student number: 139044731

Figure 5 & 6 (below): Charm gown details: Figure 5 (right): Protective amulet/talisman with text

from the Surah al-Ma’idah (Surah al-Ma’idah, 5.64; black part) and the Surah at-Tariq (Surah al-

Tariq, 86.7; red part). Figure 6 (below) Protective amulet/talisman with supplication to the prophet

Muhammed and his family. Charm gown to be found in the

New Walk Museum & Art Gallery in Leicester, England.

Source: Own photographs.

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The Archaeology of World Religion, AR 3075, Student number: 139044731

Figure 7: Charm gown, non-visible side.

This is probably the front. A big

amulet/talisman (khatem/ hatumere) in the

form of a rectangle and triangles can be

seen, just as a smaller one and other

Qur’anic texts. A few small stars and circles

(all amulets/talismans) are visible as well.

Source: Gillow, J. 2009, African Textiles:

Color and Creativity Across a Continent.

London: Thames and Hudson, page 98.

Figure 8: Charm gown, non-visible side,

detail. A big amulet/talisman (khatem/

hatumere) in the form of a rectangle and

triangles can be seen, just a a few small

stars and circles (all amulets/talismans)

Source: Gillow, J. 2009, African Textiles:

Color and Creativity Across a Continent.

London: Thames and Hudson, page 98.

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