Integrating scientifically and culturally based worldviews in understanding the deforestation of the Amazon Jungle

Unit 6 Science and Culture in Education for Sustainability Coursework Assignment Plan

Title: Why and to what extent can integrating

scientifically-based and culturally-based

worldviews and thinking, improve understanding of

the degradation of the Amazon River and the

deforestation of the Amazon Jungle in the Madre

de Dios region in Peru through illegal gold

mining.

1


In order to determine why and to what extent integrating

scientifically-based and culturally-based worldviews can

improve understanding of the degradation of the Amazon

River and deforestation of the Amazon Jungle in the Madre

de Dios region in Peru through illegal gold mining; it is

first necessary to examine exactly what science and culture

are and what the subsequent worldviews might look like. It

is then necessary to examine the sustainability issue of

illegal mining in the Madre de Dios (MDD) region and

determine why it is necessary to employ both worldviews and

to what extent these perspectives can be integrated to

promote greater understanding. For the purpose of this

discussion, the promotion of understanding will be focussed

primarily in the education sphere with particular reference

to Socioscientific Issues theory.

The following terms are defined in Appendix 1 Definition of

Terms: human development, ecology, ecological processes,

ecological sustainability, sustainable development,

theories and perspectives, and vernacular society.

The scientifically-based and culturally-based perspectives

are different lenses through which different worldviews are

developed. The examination and analysis of each

2

Unit 6 Science and Culture in Education for Sustainability Coursework Assignment Planperspective is important in order to determine where

overlapping occurs and how this overlapping can support the

understanding of sustainability and development issues. In

order to define scientifically-based thinking, it is

necessary to first determine a clear and simple explanation

of what science is and what is specifically characteristic

about this type of thinking. At this point, it is

important to note that the discussion is about

scientifically-based thinking that leads to a certain

perspective and not the scientific processes or even

scientific knowledge. This paper will examine and analyse

a way of thinking and seeing the world that demonstrates

attributes of the scientific process. Science is defined

as the systematic study of natural events and conditions

based on observation, experiment, and measurement in order

to discover facts and to formulate laws and principles

based on these facts. It can, therefore be concluded that,

thinking in a scientifically-based way would necessarily

mean that empirical measures would be required in order to

prove or disprove a hypothesis. In other words, data,

observation and measurements would be required to prove

that a fact, law or principle true.

Culture is the characteristics of a particular group of

people, defined by everything from language, knowledge,

meanings, hierarchies, religion, roles, symbols, spatial

relations, cuisine, social habits, music, art and material

objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in

3

Unit 6 Science and Culture in Education for Sustainability Coursework Assignment Planthe course of generations through individual and group

striving.

Culturally-based thinking, therefore, relies on cultural

behavior and the totality of a person's learned,

accumulated and socially transmitted experience to

determine a worldview. It derives from the beliefs,

values, and attitudes, acquired notion of time and concept

of the universe learned from a particular cultural group.

Culturally-based thinking is manifested through cultural

expression and diversity, for example, in today´s

western/northern world, through consumerism and

materialism. It is important to acknowledge the fact that

a culturally-based worldview is as diverse as the thousands

of different cultures existing in the world today and the

thousands of vernacular societies that have existed since

the dawn of time. Whilst some culturally-based worldviews

emanate from the belief that ´man is not the measure of all

things, but exists as but one small part of a very complex

ecosystem´, an alternative culturally-based worldview

´places human beings above the rest of nature´ (Pierotti &

Wildcat, 1999:195)

Scientifically-based and culturally-based worldviews and

thinking have always been inextricably linked - from the

ancient (and present day) teachings and beliefs of simple

vernacular societies to our post-industrial and globalised,

contemporary societies. It is, therefore, impossible to see

these two interpretations of the world, as separate, and as

Maiteny (1999) concludes, “Facts and scientific findings

never speak for themselves. They are made meaningful

4

Unit 6 Science and Culture in Education for Sustainability Coursework Assignment Planthrough framing and interpretation”. That framing and

interpretation arise from the cultural perspective through

which these scientific findings are viewed – the cultural

lense. It is true to say, however, that the two types of

thinking really did not exist until the modern era and that

in pre-modern times, the way of understanding the world and

explaining the ecological environment, the weather and

natural events, was very much tied up with mythology and

the merger of science, culture and religion. This also

holds true for still-existing vernacular societies, some of

which still exist in the Amazonian jungle in remote regions

of MDD, Peru.

Within vernacular societies it can be said that there

was/is no such thing as two types of thinking – that the

way of life in ancient cultures was/is an amalgamation of

scientific and cultural based thinking. This amalgamation

can be seen to exist because of the very

rudimentary knowledge and understanding these people

have/had in relation to ecological and biological issues,

occurrences and situations. Bermann (1984:2) describes the

relationship that pre-modern Westerners (and indeed modern

vernacular societies) had with the environment as

´participating consciousness´ and goes on to state that

this perspective ínvolves merger, or identification, with

one´s surroundings, and bespeaks a psychic wholeness´ that

has been lost to modern man.

The development of what we consider to be scientifically-

based worldview and thinking began in the Age of Science5

Unit 6 Science and Culture in Education for Sustainability Coursework Assignment Plan(Scientific Revolution) in the 1600s and developed through

The Enlightenment. Ít was believed by advocates that the

enlightenment could better the human condition by combating

ignorance, superstition, and tyranny as the Church and

Christian principal directed society at the time of the

Enlightenment´ (Brians, 2000:1). The scientific revolution

changed the way in which the people of Europe approached

science and technology and, as a result of the work of

people like Bacon with his notion of inductive reasoning,

the Scientific Method was born. People began looking at the

world in a scientific way and everything was / is

controlled by natural laws. The science of man became the

dominating force.

The Enlightenment also had a profound effect on the

development of culturally-based worldviews and thinking, as

it rejected the traditional attitudes of the Catholic

Church and encouraged the questioning of all things based

in faith, mystery and all things unable to be proved

scientifically. It reduced the unscientific basis of the

cultural traditions, beliefs and customs of vernacular

societies to uncivilised remnants of primitive cultures and

ártefacts´. Adam Smith´s concept of free market

capitalism sent European economics in a new direction which

eventually brought the modern world to the level of

consumerism and globalisation it experiences today. The

Enlightenment stressed the unlimited progress of humans in

their thoughts, in their actions, in the development of

control over the environment through science and technology

and the development of control over other living creatures

6

Unit 6 Science and Culture in Education for Sustainability Coursework Assignment Plan– including humans as evidenced through colonisation and

the slave trade.

From the time of The Enlightenment, there arose a distinct

difference between the scientifically and culturally based

worldviews and thinking and this difference has continued

to exist with varying degrees of separation throughout the

last four hundred years. It is important now to analyse

and explore the ways in which these worldviews

overlap in relation to the socioscientific issue of illegal

gold mining and to what extent integrating these two

worldviews can improve understanding of this issue.

Artisanal (small scale miners work independently, mining

or panning for gold using their own resources) gold mining

is widespread in Peru and are mostly informal or illegal.

This illegal gold mining produces 20% of Peru´s gold. The

Peruvian Ministry of Energy and Mines reported that in 2012

Madre de Dios was Peru´s third largest gold producer,

producing USD 848 million worth of gold. In Madre de Dios

97% of all mining is illegal. Artisanal and small scale

illegal mining, therefore, has gone unchecked for decades

and it´s proliferation since gold prices increased in

recent times has impacted dramatically on sustainable

development in the Madre de Dios area.

Álluvial mining is done in a number of ways: through gold

panning in the rivers; by large river boats (dredges) that

suck up water from the rivers; and by cutting down trees,

flooding the deforested areas, sucking up the water, and

sluicing the gold from the water. ´ (Verité, 2013:37)7

Unit 6 Science and Culture in Education for Sustainability Coursework Assignment PlanFrom this description it is clear to see that there are two

particular aspects of illegal gold mining of the Amazon

Jungle in the Madre de Dios region in Peru requiring

examination - the mercury pollution of the Amazon River and

its tributaries and the ecological degradation of the

Amazon Jungle. Through this examination, it will become

very clear that the illegal gold mining in Madre de Dios is

a Socioscientific Issue (SSI) and as such, is a societal

dilemma with conceptual, procedural, or technological links

to science. SSIs are typically contentious in nature, can

be considered from a variety of perspectives, do not

possess simple conclusions, and frequently involve morality

and ethics. (Sadler & Zeidler, 2002:5) By seeing this

sustainability issue as an SSI, we are also able to promote

it´s understanding through linking both scientifically and

culturally-based thinking in the education sphere, both

locally and globally. Appendix 2 Socioscientific Issues:

Theory and Practice describes the theoretical model for

using SSI in the classroom in order to engage students in

dialogue, discussion and debate based on the use of

scientific-based reasoning and requiring a degree of moral

reasoning or the evaluation of ethical concerns in the

process. This theory blends both worldviews and

strengthens the argument of why it is beneficial to

consider both world views when looking at sustainable

development.

Whilst the use of mercury and other dangerous chemicals,

such as cyanide in the gold mining process, is a chemical

process and therefore, inherently scientific in nature; it

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has implications on human wellbeing as well as ecological

sustainability. Examining mercury pollution through the

lense of the scientifically-based perspective would focus

on the scientific action and consequences of using mercury

and how this could be subsequently cleaned up and the

ecology remediated. Looking at the situation through the

lense of the culturally-based thinker, one would be focused

on the implications of such poisoning and what impact this

would have on the human and non-human stakeholders of the

community and all associated activities including the

resultant health issues. Initially, mercury is used during

the amalgamation process as a cheap way to collect small

gold particles from sediment. As most of this illegal

mining occurs on the Amazon River or its tributaries,

excess chemicals are distributed directly into the

waterways where the inhabitants of the mining camp and all

communities downstream bathe, wash, collect water, catch

their seafood from and feed and water their livestock.

Once it becomes embedded in soil or water it becomes methyl

mercury and can easily accumulate in fish and all other

predators of fish, including humans. There is also the

additional emission of mercury as a result of burning

amalgams. Once mercury and gold are combined to create

amalgam, the amalgam is typically burned with a blowtorch

or over an open flame to separate the mercury from the

gold. This usually occurs on the dredges in the river, in

huts beside the river or in the process centres close to

the mining operations. The mercury emission is released

into the atmosphere and subsequently leached back into the9

Unit 6 Science and Culture in Education for Sustainability Coursework Assignment Plansoils and aquatic environments in rainwater. It goes

without saying that the emissions are also inhaled by those

conducting the process. This is the greatest ecological

issue related to illegal gold mining and has been the focus

of research conducted by many governmental agencies, NGOs

and scientific groups including the Royal Swedish Academy

of Science, USAid, the Canadian International Resources and

Development Institute.

The physical effect on the ecology and on human life is

essentially observable and measurable in scientific terms

(empirical) and therefore, part of the problem can and is

being investigated and addressed through scientific-based

thinking. In Veiga and Meech (1995) the clean-up techniques

and remedial procedures are presented but interestingly,

the role of the mercury ´sponge´ - accumulated mercury over

a geological timescale that is released back to cycling

during erosion and forest fires – is also presented in this

paper. The place of scientific research and the

application of scientific

method are invaluable in this particular aspect of this

socioscientific issue. It has not limited its focus to the

obvious cause of mercury poisoning through the mining

process, but also the release of mercury as a result of

mining-related activities such as deforestation and erosion

caused by deforestation and mining on riverbanks. A

scientifically-based perspective has allowed us to

únderstand and clarify the dynamics of what is required to

prevent the ´human system´- individual, collective,10

Unit 6 Science and Culture in Education for Sustainability Coursework Assignment Planphysical, social, economic, cultural and physiological –

from destroying the environment on which it depends´

(Glasbergen & Blowers, 1995:15). Scientifically-based

thinking has also drawn attention to the fact that there is

a scarcity of information on remedial procedures for

polluted aquatic environments and that much more scientific

research is required. This issue has initially been

examined through a scientifically-based worldview but

mercury pollution has a human face and, therefore, should

be explored through the lense of the culturally-based

perspective also. The issue is entwined around human and

non-human stakeholders and as such requires an integrated

understanding.

In 2012, three quarters of adults in the Madre de Dios

region registered 300% more mercury than the acceptable

level. Research conducted by Vireté in 2012 found that

there were several indicators of vulnerability to the

direct and peripheral labor present in the illegal mining

sector. According to this report, this vulnerability stems

from a number of issues including the presence of forced

labor and indentures, child labor and prostitution, sex

trafficking, inadequate housing and amenities and poor

health facilities. This vulnerability also stems from the

real threat of mercury poisoning as a result of mercury

pollution. Mercury poison leads to skin and respiratory

disease, organ failure, reduced fertility, slower growth

rates and neurological damage. The effect these kinds of

illnesses and diseases have on communities has enormous

cultural consequences especially when there is inadequate

provision for health care in the communities and virtually11

Unit 6 Science and Culture in Education for Sustainability Coursework Assignment Plannone in the mining camps. Known health consequences also

impact on employment decisions. Accepting a better paid

job as a marequeros, who can be expected to work 24 hour

shifts with his hands in mercury all that time, separating

amalgam from dirt, can lead to insanity and/or early death

but it receives a higher salary than the macheteros who clear

the trees in the jungle. Does that worker, therefore, live

life as if it´s all going to end, causing knock on effects

in the way he relates to others, spends his money, utilizes

the sex industry, indulges in alcohol and

drugs and treats his fellow community members? There is a

very good chance that that person is not working there

voluntarily and is part of the forced labor industry that

is flourishing in the Madre de Dios area. The way this

somewhat lawless society is built around the culture of the

illegal mining and the way it operates is all important to

the culturally-based thinker because all these aspects are

essential in order to understand the world that allows such

behavior to exist. Most importantly, as Alasuutari

(1995:24) cautions, ´the practices and symbolics of

everyday life must not be treated in isolation from

questions of power and politics´. The issues of

vulnerability, loss of control and disempowerment are all

the direct result of one person possessing power over

another and being in a position of power; it is, therefore,

essential for culturally-based thinkers to look at what

´makes ´ people behave in certain ways – what are the

cultural drivers. By integrating both worldviews and ways

12

Unit 6 Science and Culture in Education for Sustainability Coursework Assignment Planof thinking it is easier to (i) describe the problem

objectively and (ii) contemplate solutions which take into

consideration ecological, social, economic, cultural and

spiritual aspects.

One assessment (Reed & Miranda 2007) indicates that almost

three-quarters of active mining and exploratory sites

overlap with areas of high conservation value and high

watershed stress. The degradation to the Amazonian ecology

and its biodiversity has long been an issue shared by

scientifically-based and culturally-based thinkers around

the world. Due to the inherent excavating of soil and

washing involved in artisanal mining, water siltation,

erosion, and soil degradation can be an issue in rivers

used for mining. As mentioned previously, harmful materials

such a mercury and also lead can be dug up when excavating.

Most artisanal mining and small scale illegal mining

operations take place in and around the Amazon jungle -

home to vast regions of biodiversity. Some mining

operations also operate within protected areas and within

the territories of indigenous communities who have title.

Some culturally-based worldviews emanate from a deep

ecology background and may see the biodiversity of the

jungle as vitally important to the maintenance of the

relationship between human non-human entities. It would

see humans both as wholes and also as part of the larger

eco-system of life on earth, closely related to Lovelock´s

Gaia Hypothesis (1979). It may also see ´reverence towards

nature and one another as the keystone of sustainable

development´ (McIntosh, 1999:482). In this particular

13


instance we can see a very clear overlapping of the two

perspectives and perhaps a vision of an ancient way of

seeing the environment.

As well as the ecological impact illegal mining has on the

biodiverse jungle ecosphere, which has been recognized as

of the utmost concern to both type of thinkers, this

destruction of the jungle has grave consequences for the

forty-one indigenous communities who live in the jungle.

It is important to acknowledge that only half of these

communities are legally recognized and only sixteen of

these communities have

legal title to the land. Combine this with the fact that

there is a dearth of authorities in the area capable of

enforcing any legal rights communities do have against

informal

miners, and you have a vulnerable segment of the region´s

population. A culturally-based perspective acknowledges

that the lack of measures for these unique vernacular

cultures to defend themselves against the environmental

inequity produced by these mining operations has life-

changing consequences on the survival of these communities.

The impact of the ever-encroaching threat of miners and

their lack of respect for nature and human life creates a

climate of constant anxiety often resulting in aggressive

actions against the miners which inevitably ends in

bloodshed and violence.

Scientist can use remedial measures to mitigate highly

polluted sites in the jungle and environmentalists can

replant the jungle when the miners have exhausted the so14

Unit 6 Science and Culture in Education for Sustainability Coursework Assignment Plancalled wealth of the ground, but the wealth of a culture

can never be replaced. By developing a greater

understanding of the át risk´ native communities existing

in the Amazon Jungle through the culturally-based

perspective, a more comprehensive picture can be developed

in order to protect that which is at risk of being lost. By

utilizing a scientifically-based approach in which evidence

and observations are gathered and recorded and ways of

preserving the culture is proposed and debated through

rational argument, the two types of thinking can be

integrated through a socioscientific issues approach. Such

an integration of these two worldviews can only improve the

ways in which better understanding of the issue can be

developed.

Let us now return to the question of why and to what extent

integrating scientifically- culturally-based worldviews and

thinking can improve understanding of the degradation of

the Amazon River and the deforestation of the Amazon Jungle

in the Madre de Dios region in Peru through illegal gold

mining. Scientifically and culturally-based worldviews

provide different lenses through which an issue can be

viewed. These different

perspectives provide unique processes by which issues can

be deconstructed and understanding achieved. In the case

of this particular issue, providing both a scientific and

cultural perspective ensures that the human and non-human

aspects are entwined in this understanding and an attempt

15

Unit 6 Science and Culture in Education for Sustainability Coursework Assignment Planto move away from what Berman (1984:2) calls ´progressive

disenchantment´ is made.

Mercury pollution of the Amazon River and deforestation of

the Amazon jungle are the greatest ecological problems of

this sustainability issue. These two environmental issues,

in isolation, are able to be understood from an ecological

and scientific viewpoint; however, a deeper understanding

is developed when a culturally-based viewpoint is employed

in conjunction with this scientifically-based perspective.

The reason these two viewpoints are necessary is because

the widened vision they create together incorporates not

only the ecological ramifications of the degradation of the

waterways and land of this region but also the social,

economic, cultural and spiritual consequences. The

understanding developed through addressing this as a

socioscientific issue, not only incorporates the loss of

biodiversity, the reduction of the rainforest and the

poisoning of the waterways but it also includes the

consequences to health, the loss of life, the disregard for

the wellbeing of direct and peripheral workers and ofcourse

the loss of land, life and spiritual connection of the

native communities living in the jungle areas.

Environmental degradation in the jungle and the waterways

in MDD is a socioscientific issue ´displaying a unique

degree of societal interest, effect, and consequent.´

(Sadler & Zeidler, 2002: 6). As such, it requires the

close integration of scientifically-based and culturally-

based thinking in order to develop a comprehensive

16

Unit 6 Science and Culture in Education for Sustainability Coursework Assignment Planunderstanding of the complexities of ecology, culture,

society and human development.

Sustainable development – the integrating of ecological

sustainability and human development, cannot exist without

the integration of the scientifically and culturally-based

worldviews. As argued in the analysis of the overlapping

of worldviews in the illegal mining issue in Peru, in order

to develop a comprehensive and broad understanding of the

issues relating to ecological sustainability and human

development, a comprehensive and broad range of worldviews

is required.

AppendicesAppendix 1: Definition of Terms

Human Development

According to the United Nations Human Development Report

(2009) there are six basic pillars of human development:

equity, sustainability, productivity, empowerment,

cooperation and security. A key message contained in all

the UNDR Human Development Reports is that economic growth

alone does not automatically translate into human

development progress. This perspective is in itself a

relatively new angle on human development in which factors

in additional to economic indicators are taken into

consideration when determining growth.

17

Unit 6 Science and Culture in Education for Sustainability Coursework Assignment PlanEcology

The world ecology derives from the Greek oikos meaning

´household´. So does économics´. Ecology is the study of

the relationships that interlink all members of this Éarth

Household´ (Capra, 1996) – plants, animals, humans and

their surroundings – as one integrated system. Accordingly,

economics should have something to so with the effective

management of this ´global household´. (Maiteny: 1999)

Ecological Processes

The science of ecology mainly involves research on the

natural world from many viewpoints, using many techniques.

Modern ecology relies heavily on experiments, both in

laboratory and in field settings.

Ecological Sustainability

Ecological Sustainability refers to the capacity of the

environment to meet the needs of the present generation,

without hindering future generations from being able to

meet their needs. This definition implies, therefore, that

humans use natural resources wisely and do not exhaust

them. (Stayte: 2014)

Sustainable Development

Sustainable Development as defined in Agenda 21 is

‘development that meets the needs of the present without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet18

Unit 6 Science and Culture in Education for Sustainability Coursework Assignment Plantheir own needs’. (Brundtland, 1989). One can note that

the definitions of ecological sustainability and

sustainable development are almost the same and that it can

be assumed that the difference exists in the fact that

sustainable development incorporates not only the

ecological aspect of sustainability but also the social and

economic. It is therefore, an excellent term to use when

combining both ecological sustainability and human

development.

Theories and Perspectives

Theories and perspectives are the frameworks upon which

people build understanding and truth. Theories are

explanatory, intellectual constructs developed through

philosophical and/or scientific evidence gathering,

research and analysis and shared across a broad range of

people. Theories develop over time through academic

discourse, while perspectives are deeply personal and vary

from person to person. A theory can inform a person and

influence their perspective but that perspective is also

informed by experience, personal values,

cultural/religious/social constraints and also family and

community traditions. These values and worldviews create

each person’s own lense through which they view the world

and its concerns. It is through this lense or filter that

understanding is gained (or lost) about the world around

and it is through this perspective that actions and

decisions are justified. Most people make decisions,

justify actions and behavior and determine their stand on

specific issues through a combination of theories and19

Unit 6 Science and Culture in Education for Sustainability Coursework Assignment Planperspectives and it is through this blend that cultural

images are created. (Stayte:2014)

Vernacular Society

An alternative term for traditional, indigenous or tribal

society. These societies possess Traditional Ecological

Knowledge which Berkes (1993) describes a á cumulative

body of knowledge and beliefs, handed down through

generations by cultural transmission, about the

relationships of living beings (including humans) with one

another and with their environment.´

Appendix 2 Socioscientific Issues: Theory and Practice:

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