Introduction to the Bible: Understanding the Christian Scriptures in Their Historical Context-scholarspub.com

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iii

Preface

I have learned that writing an introductory textbook for undergraduate

students and non-scholars is a task that should not be entered into lightly.

It is not easy to be informative and interesting to read, but that has been

my aim. Too often introductory books just offer facts or state information

and do not address their subject from the perspective of the readers.

Particularly when it comes to an introduction to the sacred Scriptures of a

religion, in this case the Christian Bible, it is essential to provide

information but also to wrestle with the material. Whether the reader has

been raised in a Christian tradition, rarely attended church, or never been

to church, he or she cannot escape the influence of Christianity on

contemporary culture. Thus, each reader comes to this subject with a host of

preconceptions and ideas that have been forged from any number of

influences. Some of these notions have little or no connection to what one

actually reads in the Scriptures, and many readers struggle when they

encounter ideas that challenge their beliefs. In my experience, this is

especially true of those who have religious backgrounds.

At the same time, I write with twenty years of experience teaching and

writing in areas related to the subject matter, but also as someone with a

deep appreciation for and experience with North American and British

evangelicalism. The core of evangelical Christianity has been the belief in

Jesus as savior who was raised from the dead. As a matter of history, this

cannot be proved. In the same way, the interpretation that his death was to

atone for the sin of humanity and those who confess that Jesus is Lord and

believe in him will participate in the resurrection cannot be proved. The

former, as a matter of history, either happened or it didn’t. The latter

interpretation is based on the belief that Jesus actually was raised from the

dead, and one is either a believer or not. I think Paul addresses the

implications of the argument somewhere : ).

Evangelicals are the largest religious group in the United States,

comprising almost 30% of the population, and number over a quarter billion

globally. There is also great diversity within the movement. For example,

Southern Baptists, Mennonites, Wesleyans, and the Vineyard all have

unique characteristics and aspects of the faith that they emphasize.

However, as a movement evangelicals share a commitment to conversion

(belief in Jesus’ death as the means of salvation from sin), political and

social activism, and the inspiration of the Scriptures. These core values

mean that evangelicals have a significant influence on the perception of the

Bible and Christianity in popular culture as well as the way that the Bible

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is interpreted. For these reasons, it seems to me that an introduction should

provide information about some of these issues in order to provide a more

wholistic approach for the reader. As my own contribution to this discussion

I think that evangelicalism is better served by a focus on Jesus because the

Christian faith stands or falls, as does the fate of the believer, on the

historicity of Jesus’ resurrection.

The final product is meant to be informative about the historical origins

of the Scriptures as well as about contemporary Christian culture. The

inserts throughout the text as well as the questions for each chapter should

help in the process of thinking about the text. Finally, I have included links

that will take you to additional pictures and information.

This volume also represents an experiment, because it is the first in a

new online publishing venture. By publishing online, readers have access to

this book anywhere that they can go online, which is virtually everywhere.

It means that I can edit and update the content at anytime, which allows

you, the reader, continual access to the most up-to-date edition. The format

also allows Scholar’s Publisher Inc. to deliver students a great product at a

fantastic price. We hope students are able to benefit from this service as we

expand the offerings.

In order to make this text the most useful for students it seemed

beneficial to provide as many examples from primary sources as possible.

Quotations of passages are reasonably short, but long enough so that the

beginning student gets a feel for the texts. I have relied on standard

translations that are widely available so that students can pursue further

research with relative ease. Quotations from the English translations of

Scriptures are normally based on the New Revised Standard Version

(NRSV), though I have made occasional adjustments, and in a few cases I

use the Revised Standard Version (RSV). Quotations from the Greek Jewish

Scriptures (commonly known as the Septuagint) are normally from the New

English Translation of the Septuagint (NETS).

I am not sure whether many readers bother reading the list of thanks,

but this volume would never have been completed without the contributions

of numerous people. The book includes a number of maps that I have been

allowed to use by Zaine Ridling and the Access Foundation. The foundation

has a lot of useful material that is freely available on their website, so I

encourage students to check it out. I must thank former undergraduate

students Kendall Kadatz and Chris Seto for the use of their photos, as well

as Dr. R. Glenn Wooden. The book would not be the same without them. I

also owe a debt of gratitude to friends who read and commented on various

portions of the manuscript. My good friend Dr. Bernard Taylor read a

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number of chapters and I benefited from his editorial expertise. Dr. Peter

Davids also read the chapter on Jesus, and I thank him for his notes. A good

friend and graduate student, Ry Siggelkow, read every page and helped

create the index, so his efforts were invaluable. Another senior student, EJ

Zufelt, commented on several chapters and suggested a number of the

questions that appear. I am also grateful for the conversations I had with

three undergraduate students—Karis Taylor, Katie Mott, and Kristel

Boeve—who read the important section on historical criticism in chapter

eleven. Last, and certainly not least, my immediate family commented on

aspects of the manuscript as well. Martha, read every page and gave

constant encouragement and criticisms. Our children, Amy, Ryan, and

Rachel also offered plenty of criticism and Rachel did some editing. Of

course, by the time they had read any of the manuscript they were pretty

familiar with the content.

Footnotes have been deliberately kept to a minimum because this is an

introductory text, but the debt I owe to friends and other scholars (past and

present) is evident on every page. The content has been shaped by formal

and informal interactions with colleagues and students, but the final

product is my responsibility. Whatever errors, omissions, or perceived

inadequacies there may be are mine alone. I hope this introduction may

prove to be helpful for those who desire to know more about the origins,

composition, and content of the Christian Scriptures.

July 24, 2012

Tim McLay

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Table of Contents

Preface

Table of Contents

Introduction: Introducing the Story of the Bible

The Goal of this Text

Historical Approach

Introductory in Scope

The Subject Matter is the Contents and Composition of the Scriptures

What to Expect

Summary

Chapter 1: Opening Your Bible. . . or is it Bibles?

Our English Bible is a Translation

What Do You Find in Your Bible?

Which Translation Should You Use?

The Bible as Literature

Summary

Additional Resources

Chapter Two: The First Five Books of the Hebrew Scriptures

Brief Summary of the Pentateuch

Genesis 1-11 The Story of humanity’s origins

Genesis 12-50 The promises to the patriarchs

Exodus 1-18 Deliverance from slavery

Exodus 19-40 Establishing a code of conduct

Leviticus Sacrifices and yet more laws

Numbers Wilderness wanderings

Deuteronomy 1-31 The law in the land

Deuteronomy 32-34 Moses’ farewell

Summary

Content Questions

Analytical or Discussion Questions


Chapter Three: The Early Prophets of the Hebrew Scriptures

Introduction to the Early Prophets

Joshua The divine warrior and dividing the spoils

Judges Everyone does what is right in their own eyes

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1 Samuel 1-15 The beginning of the monarchy and Saul, the first king

1 Samuel 16-2 Samuel 23 The reign of David

1 Kings 1-11 Solomon

1 Kings 12-2 Kings 24 The divided kingdom

Summary

Content Questions



Chapter Four: The Later Prophets of the Hebrew Scriptures

Introduction to the Later Prophets

The Nature of the Prophetic Literature

Amos and Hosea The Day of the Lord is coming!

Isaiah Assyria is a threat but God is with us

Micah, Nahum, and Zephaniah The decline of Assyria

Jeremiah Doom and gloom for Judah

Ezekiel Encouragement for the exiles

Habakkuk and Obadiah The end of Jerusalem

Haggai and Zechariah Rebuilding hope

Malachi, Joel, and Jonah

Summary

Content Questions



Chapter Five: The Writings of the Hebrew Scriptures

Historiography Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles

Liturgy Psalms and Lamentations

Wisdom Literature Proverbs, Job, Ecclesiastes

Romance Literature Ruth, Esther, Song of Songs

Apocalypse Daniel

Summary

Content Questions



Chapter Six: The Greek Jewish Scriptures

The Historical Background to the Rise of the Greek Language and

Culture

Introduction to the Jewish Scriptures in the Greek Language

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The Greek Jewish Scriptures and the Catholic Bible

The Differences Between the Hebrew and Greek Jewish Scriptures

Later Revisions of the Greek Scriptures

Books of the Greek Jewish Scriptures included in the Catholic Canon

Summary

Content Questions



Chapter Seven: The Dead Sea Scrolls

Using the Dead Sea Scrolls to Reconstruct a Historical Picture

The Identity of the Dead Sea Sect

The Writings of the Dead Sea Sect

Understanding the Dead Sea Sect

The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Origin of the Scriptures

Summary

Content Questions



Chapter Eight: Other Jewish Writings

The Types (or Genres) of Jewish Non-biblical Writings

Apocalypses

Rewritten Scriptures and Legends

Testaments

Wisdom and Philosophical Literature

Liturgical Works

The Pseudepigrapha and the New Testament

Second Temple Judaism

Summary

Content Questions



Chapter Nine: Jesus and the Gospels

The Historical and Political Environment at the Beginning of the

Common Era

Introduction to the Gospels

Discovering the Historical Jesus within the Gospels

Mark Jesus the son of God

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Matthew Jesus the Messiah

Luke Jesus the savior of all humanity

John Jesus the revelation of God

Summary

Content Questions



Chapter Ten: Paul the Apostle to the Gentiles

Paul’s Historical Context

Dating Paul’s Letters

What is Pauline Theology?

Paul and Judaism

Other Teachings by Paul

Galatians People can be foolish

1 Thessalonians Don’t fear the reaper

1 Corinthians People can drive you crazy!

2 Corinthians Ministry involves sacrifice

Romans Good news is powerful

Philippians People are great!

Philemon A personal plea

Summary

Content Questions



Chapter Eleven: The Pauline Tradition

Historical Criticism and the Scriptures

Pseudonymous Writings

Acts The unhindered gospel

The Deutero-Pauline letters Ephesians and Colossians, 2 Thessalonians

The Pastoral Epistles 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy and Titus

Summary

Content Questions



Chapter Twelve: The Rest of the New Testament and the End of Time

The Apostolic Fathers

Other Scriptures

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The Development of the Canon

Hebrews Christianity is the better way

The Catholic Letters James, 1 Peter, 2 Peter, 1 John, 2 John, 3 John,

Jude

The Revelation of John God has everything under control

Summary

Content Questions



Glossary of Terms

Introducing the Story of the Bible

What you will find in this chapter

*The Goal of this Text

*Historical Approach

*Introductory in Scope

*The Subject Matter is the Contents and Composition of the Scriptures

*What to Expect

Most students who enter the classroom for a first year introductory class

on the Bible are not all that concerned about the content of the course. After

all, it’s the Bible! Many of these students have attended church while

growing up and some of them may have developed the habit of reading it

devotionally on a regular basis. Others are interested in knowing more

about the Bible because they are not sure whether they can trust some of

the things that they have been told, or are unsure about the way that the

Bible is portrayed in movies and books. Still others may just need academic

credit and have heard that the class is fun, or maybe it fits their schedule

better than some of the other options. Finally, there are those for whom this

is a required course at a university that maintains a longstanding affiliation

with their Christian denomination.

Like any introductory class, however, there is much to learn that is new,

challenging, and—hopefully—exciting, and interesting. Biblical scholars

who spend their professional lives studying and teaching about the Bible are

well aware that an academic approach to studying the Bible can be a

fascinating adventure, but it is also true that there are numerous potential

pitfalls and snares.

First, there are problems defining and discussing the terms that we use.

For example, though it seems fairly straightforward to refer to the Bible, an

important question is, “What do we mean by the Bible?” Are we referring

more narrowly to the Christian Bible? But in that case do we mean the one

used by Protestants or by Roman Catholics? What about the sacred writings

read by Jewish people? Does that count as a Bible, even though it does not

include the New Testament? And, is it appropriate to refer to the Old

Testament when for Jews the same writings are their Bible? If the Bible is

2 Introducing the Story

the word of God, why do we even have different Bibles? We already have

lots of questions and we have not even begun to consider whether there is a

difference between the Bible and Scripture.

The second area of concern is discussing issues about the origin and

interpretation of the Bible when there is so much misinformation about it

that is part of both popular culture and Christian culture. There is a wide

range of ideas and views about the Bible and their influence on western

culture, and North America in particular, that cannot be underestimated.

Unfortunately, many of the kookiest notions are not even widely believed by

Christians, and the dumbest claims are usually the ones that receive the

most attention. For example, while waiting in the aisle of the local

supermarket the other day one tabloid warned, “Last Days Prophecies:

World Ends Sooner than You Think!” The idea that the world will end soon

is the focus of a very influential stream of North American Christianity, and

is popularized in books and

movies that spread fear that you

may be “left behind,” but these

views are not held by all

Christians or even the majority.

Hollywood has played no small

role in promoting all kinds of

fantasy and nonsense about the

Bible in movies and television

shows (for example, about

subjects like Armageddon, angels,

and the devil), but their motive is

entertainment and profit. Others

have heard about the mysterious Dead Sea Scrolls and wonder what they

are and what they have to do with the Bible. Do they predict the end of the

world? Is there a rival to Jesus?

Although popular culture can contribute to misguided notions about the

Bible, in many cases those who produce the movies or use the biblical

themes in music and literature—often in a satirical manner—are only

mirroring what they believe or understand based on what they were taught.

Who can fault them for the emphasis and sometimes grotesque portrayals of

end times in popular movies when they are so prominent in many Christian

book stores?

A third general area where we encounter problems is in communicating

information about the contents of the Bible and how it came to be in the

form in which we now possess it. On the one hand, this is a problem because

Further Reflection

Many popular ideas about the

Bible do not necessarily originate

from the Bible. For example:

* Where does the Bible say

there were three wise men, and

did they come to the place where

Jesus was born?

(See Matthew 2:1−11.)

Figure Intro 1

3 Introduction to the Bible

there are different opinions among biblical scholars about both significant

and not so significant issues. And, scholars do not always even agree about

what issues should be thought of as significant! On the other hand, there is

the difficulty of communicating new concepts at a level that can be easily

grasped by the beginning student.

Finally, one of the most challenging aspects of studying the Bible for

some people is the fear that it will undermine their faith. For some, reading

the Bible is a “spiritual” exercise that should not be undermined by

intellectual pursuits. Many people have been taught to read and understand

the Bible in a particular way and find it difficult if someone suggests an

alternative approach.

There is no easy way to resolve the tensions and questions that may

arise as one encounters new ideas and beliefs that are foreign to one’s

worldview. However, it has been my experience that the dialogue that takes

place within and outside the classroom helps immeasurably in the learning

process. Most students discover that the black-and-white answers that they

received during Sunday School about the Bible are insufficient to explain

the phenomena they encounter when they actually read the biblical text.

Like the characters in the movie Pleasantville, their lives are transformed

by knowledge and experience so that life becomes a complexity of colors that

cannot be tamed with simple solutions. Regardless of the answers, the

struggle and tension are worth the risk and students (as well as lay people)

are often surprised to discover that critical thinking about the Scriptures

need not be equated with unbelief. To paraphrase the philosopher Socrates:

“The unexamined faith is not worth believing!”

Notwithstanding the general lack of substantive knowledge about the

contents of the Bible and its history, it is amazing how people can become so

entrenched in their views on these very same matters. I am sure that you

have already been part of many conversations in which people have stated

in absolute terms what the Bible does or does not teach. That people often

staunchly defend what they believe regarding the Bible speaks volumes

about the preeminent role that it has played in western civilization. Religion

and politics are the two topics that are most often banned from conversation

between family and friends due to the firestorm they may generate. So, as

long as we are going to engage in heated discussions about the Bible, it

probably would be useful to gain a more informed insights into the subject

about which we seem to know so much!

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*The Goal of this Text

Although this book is written primarily as an introduction to the Bible

for undergraduate students, it will hopefully find an audience among the

general public, and in churches by people who are interested in learning

more about this amazing piece of literature. The aim of this volume is to

understand the contents and composition of the Scriptures in their

historical context. I will explain briefly each of the elements of this aim in

the paragraphs below.

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*Historical Approach

I use the term historical in order to recognize that the book we know as

the Bible is a historical phenomenon that is open to analysis and

investigation. This can be understood in two ways. First, the Bible came to

be in the form(s) that we know it today over a period of centuries. We all

know that the Christian New Testament is chronologically later than the

Old Testament, but it is important to realize that the writings that

eventually came to be identified with both of these larger divisions within

the Christian Bible also were written by different people over a long period

of time. This is particularly true for the Old Testament, which begins with

the story of creation in Genesis. Given the historical character of the sacred

writings, it is my contention (along with most scholars) that we can better

interpret the content of the individual writings by understanding the

historical context and setting from which they emerged. I focus on the

historical character of the Bible to help the reader grasp the historical

processes that were at work in the formation of the Scriptures. In other

words, my concern is not to offer an introduction that has a confessional or

faith bias. The individual writings that have come to be regarded as

Scripture are open to historical analysis like any other historical documents.

One of the reasons for a historical rather than a confessional approach is

because each Christian tradition has adopted a particular group of sacred

writings as its canon of Scripture (their Bible). Thus, an introduction to

Scripture written from a particular perspective may serve the doctrinal

needs of the people within that tradition, but it is difficult for them to place

their own beliefs within the larger historical process.

My emphasizing the historical character of the Scriptures should not be

taken to mean that I fail to comprehend their religious significance. I write

as a former minister in the Protestant tradition. However, there are two

important points concerning the validity of my approach. First, by


investigating the nature of the Scriptures as historical documents, certain

scholars and preachers may be fearful I am neglecting (or worse,

denigrating) the character of the Scriptures as divine revelation. On the

contrary, it would be erroneous to assume that a historical focus

automatically invalidates the possibility of divine revelation, and vice versa.

In principle, historical investigation begins by examining the phenomena

available, and then formulating an opinion as to how best to explain it.

Second, historical analysis is incapable of rendering a judgment about the

validity of the theological significance of the biblical texts or any other

religious document. For example, the gospel writers are unanimous in their

testimony that: (1) Jesus was buried in the tomb; (2) the tomb was found

empty. Leaving aside for the moment any suggestions that the women and

the disciples went to the wrong tomb or that Jesus’ body was stolen, the

empty tomb in no way entails the significance that the New Testament

writers give to the resurrection of Jesus. According to Paul, the theological

significance of Jesus’ death and resurrection is that Jesus “died for our sins”

(I Corinthians 15:3) and that “we were reconciled to God through the death

of his Son” (Romans 5:10), but these conclusions are interpretations that are

not subject to historical verification.

Without question, a historical examination does—or should—have

implications about the way we read and interpret the Scriptures, but a more

informed view of the Scriptures should only enhance our appreciation of

them.

Having made these caveats about the historical approach, I

acknowledge that it would hardly be possible to write a useful introduction

that did not consider some contemporary ideas and beliefs about the

Scriptures. As I mentioned above, North American culture is saturated with

a whole host of ideas about the Bible and what it teaches. In particular,

those who may be broadly identified as evangelicals wield significant

cultural influence and political power in both the United States and

Canada, so this introduction will help the readers better appreciate the way

that the content of the Bible is interpreted. Sometimes an issue is raised

directly in the text, but more often the questions are intended to provoke

thought and integration.

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*Introductory in Scope

The presentation assumes the breadth of historical material available to

us that is relevant for the period of our investigation. However, there are

two limitations to our presentation. First, we are limited in how much


material to provide the reader because this is intended as an introduction to

the Bible. The purpose of an introduction is to introduce the reader to the

subject matter by selecting and focusing on particular areas of interest that

are foundational to understanding the subject, without becoming too bogged

down in details or tedious information that is best reserved for more

specialized interests. Second, we are aiming to provide an introduction to

the whole of the Scriptures. In biblical studies, most introductions focus on

either the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible or the New Testament, so an

introduction to the Bible will have to pass over discussion of some issues to

maintain a reasonable size.

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*The Subject Matter is the Contents and Composition of the Scriptures

Our discussion of the Scriptures provides an introduction to and a brief

summary of the content of each book or group of books. A brief introduction

to the literary content provides the basis for an examination of historical

issues and questions that arise from the texts. It is impossible to raise all of

these issues, so it is my aim to address the most important ones and to

provide a broad-ranging and critical discussion of how the issues have been

addressed.

One of the most important contributions of this book is to help the

student understand that the Scriptures exist in an intricate network of

dependent relationships. These interrelationships are at the heart of the

composition of the Scriptures. This dependence is evident not only between

the two testaments, but also between books, within individual books, and

also between the versions, translations, and non-biblical books. The reason

for this interdependence is that the Scriptures served not only to define the

past for the Jewish community, but they were the foundation for

reinterpreting their experience. Thus, the Scriptures were a living

embodiment of the traditions of the Jewish community. In that sense the

Scriptures served as a narrative for the continuing story of the community

in relationship with their God, an adapted play, if you will, because the

writing of the Scriptures often involved the rereading and reapplying of

previous lines to a new situation. This process of applying the Scriptures to

the life of the community is discernible from the beginning of their heritage

and continued right through the period of Jesus’ followers, who are credited

with writing the books of the New Testament, and, in many respects,

continues in the Judeo-Christian tradition today. This concept will become

clearer as the reader proceeds through the volume.


It is worth emphasizing and expanding the point in the preceding

paragraph that much of the Scriptures were composed as narrative or story.

There are two reasons for this. First, we often overlook the power of

narrative to communicate truth. Stories and traditions are interwoven into

the fabric of our lives. From stories about our parents and grandparents to

the stories that frame a nation (George Washington would never have told a

lie), stories have a powerful impact on our way of interpreting and living in

the world (our worldview). Such truths that we have learned from the

stories that we have read or heard are far more influential on the way that

we live than the bare stories themselves and have more impact than simple

statements. For example, reading Les Miserables has a far greater impact

for teaching the power of forgiveness than telling someone that we should

forgive those who hurt us.

Second, the fact that much of the Scriptures consist of narrative raises

questions about the way they are to be read. Stories by nature include

description, and, since the Scriptures are understood to be authoritative

within the Christian tradition (even to some degree by some whom would

not identify themselves as religious), readers of the Scriptures may

experience a tension between the history in the narrative and the story that

is being told. Scholars describe this tension as history vs. theology (what is

believed), and there are no easy ways to distinguish the two. However, just

as stories communicate truth more powerfully than dry statements, so

theology can never be encapsulated by history.

The Scriptures

Until now I have employed the terms Bible and Scripture somewhat

interchangeably, and in a sense they are. However, there is also a

significant distinction between the two terms. What we understand by the

terms Scripture and Bible is easily confused in our contemporary context

because what we acknowledge as authoritative Scripture (whatever the

faith tradition) is included within a recognized Bible (another term for the

Bible is the canon). Thus, the concept of a completed canon or Bible

presupposes the existence of Scripture(s), and that is how these terms

should be understood historically. Initially, a faith community deems some

particular writings to be Scripture, which affirms that those writings are

recognized to be authoritative for the faith and practice of the community.

Canon, however, denotes a specific listing and order of books that are the

authoritative books for a particular faith community. Thus, by definition the


creation of a canon requires that it is a later historical development and

that it imposes limits on what books are recognized as Scripture.

The fact that Scripture precedes canon has important ramifications for

our study. In order to understand the story of the Bible, we have to

investigate the history of the Scriptures that only later came to be part of a

Bible. Therefore, the content of the Scriptures (as explained above) is not

necessarily equivalent to the contents of our Bible. It was not until long

after the writing of the New Testament that we can speak of an actual Bible

or canon. Thus, from the outset, we should be open to the possibility that

there were Scriptures that never made the grade when it came to

determining what would become canon for the worshipping community.

This observation may also help us to understand why it is that we have

different Bibles.

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*What to Expect

In keeping with the aim to offer a historical overview of the writing of

the Bible the approach will be broadly chronological. The reason it must be

qualified as “broadly chronological” is the frequent overlap between the

times and places that are relevant to our understanding of the Scriptures.

Although there are other ways that one could present the material, roughly

speaking it can be broken down into three periods: (1) the Ancient

Scriptures in Hebrew and Greek; (2) the Scriptures in the Intertestamental

Period, which includes the Dead Sea Scrolls; and (3) the Scriptures of the

Early Church. In the final chapter we provide a brief introduction to the

early Christian non-biblical writings and the formation of the Canon. Some

scholars would disagree with my combining the Hebrew and the Greek

Scriptures together in the first category; but I believe, and will demonstrate,

that they are linked quite closely when it comes to understanding the

historical development of the Scriptures. The examination will take the

books of the law from the Hebrew Scriptures as its initial point of departure.

Through the course of the presentation, the aim is to give the reader a

nuanced and balanced understanding of the development of the Scriptures.

The first chapter offers an introduction to reading the Bible, as well as

initiating our examination of its historical character.

Chapters contain inserts titled Further Reflections, which have

questions or insights designed to stimulate thought; and other boxes consist

of Additional Information, which offer helpful material in a concise form.

Each chapter concludes with a Summary, and a select listing of Additional

Resources to facilitate further reading. I have taken advantage of the online


publishing format to include numerous links to pictures and information

that otherwise would be unavailable. There are also numerous questions

useful to a teacher or a group for discussion, and additional material that

includes texts, pictures, and maps. Professors and students may find the

glossary of terms at the back useful as well. Other internet sources are

provided as resources; but due to the uncertainty of what will or will not

remain at a web address, I have limited their number. The internet can be a

great aid to research, but one must exercise care and discrimination in the

use of internet sources (particularly for essays!). After all, on the internet

any Dick or Jane can purport to be an expert on any subject they choose.

Let the story begin.

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Summary

1. The study of the Bible may be challenging for four reasons: becoming

familiar with new terms; preconceptions about the Bible that have been

absorbed from culture; understanding academic concerns in the study of the

Scriptures; and, finally, the fear that one’s faith might be undermined.

2. This chapter introduced the aim of this volume, which is to provide a

historical introduction to the contents and composition of the Scriptures.

10

Chapter 1

Opening Your Bible . . . or is it Bibles?

What you will find in this chapter

*Our English Bible is a Translation

*What Do You Find in Your Bible?

*Which Translation Should You Use?

*The Bible as Literature

Most people take a Bible for granted. It gathers dust on a bookshelf or

coffee table at home. A Bible is in the nightstand when you stay at a hotel.

While many of us have been told that it is “God’s word” or something similar

for many years, we have not stopped to ask what that statement means. In

any case, we are not too concerned about where it came from or how we got

the particular Bible that sits on our desk, unless it was a gift for

confirmation, graduation, or some other celebration. We may not even be

certain about the actual contents of the Bible. I recall as if it were yesterday

a conversation that I had with a person years ago who insisted that the book

that they held in their hands was the Bible, so everything within its covers

must be authoritative. It took a while for me to explain that some of the

information had been included as helpful information by the publishers of

the volume and was not, therefore, actual Scripture or part of the Bible. Due

to the kind of confusion that can occur when we begin the study of an

unfamiliar subject, the objective in this chapter is to provide some basic user

information for reading an English Bible for those who are new to the

subject.

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*Our English Bible is a Translation

All Bibles in the English language are translations from ancient

languages. In the Christian tradition the books of the New Testament are

translations from Greek. There are 27 books in the New Testament. The

translation of the Old Testament books for Protestants is based primarily on

the text of the Hebrew Bible that is accepted as authoritative by Jewish


people. Their Scriptures were written primarily in Hebrew, though parts of

Daniel and Ezra are in Aramaic. For Catholics there are also additional

deutero−canonical books and additions to books (Daniel and Esther) in the

Old Testament that are accepted as inspired in the same way as the books

of the Hebrew Bible. Some of these were originally written in Hebrew, but

The Contents of Different Bibles or Canons

There are 24 books in the Hebrew Bible, 39 in the Protestant Old

testament, and 46 in the Roman Catholic Old Testament. The content of the

Hebrew Bible and the Protestant Old Testament is basically the same, even

though the total number of books differs. There are three reasons why the

lists are different between the Hebrew Bible and the Protestant: 1) the

books are arranged in a different order; 2) some books that are counted as

one in the Hebrew Bible are counted as two (Kings, Samuel, Chronicles, and

Ezra−Nehemiah); 3) the twelve Minor Prophets are counted as one book.

The deutero−canonical books of the Catholic Old Testament are

distinguished from the others by underlining.

Hebrew Bible Old Testament (Protestant) Old Testament (Catholic)

Law (5) Law (5) Law (5)

Genesis Genesis Genesis

Exodus Exodus Exodus

Leviticus Leviticus Leviticus

Numbers Numbers Numbers

Deuteronomy Deuteronomy Deuteronomy

Prophets (4) Former History (12) History (16)

Joshua Joshua Joshua

Judges Judges Judges

Ruth Ruth

Samuel (1 and 2) I Samuel I Samuel

2 Samuel 2 Samuel

Kings (1 and 2) 1 Kings 1 Kings

Prophets (4) Latter 2 Kings 2 Kings

Isaiah 1 Chronicles 1 Chronicles

Jeremiah 2 Chronicles 2 Chronicles

Ezekiel Ezra Ezra

The Twelve Prophets Nehemiah Nehemiah

Hosea Tobit

12 Opening Your Bible

Joel Judith

Amos Esther Esther + additions

Obadiah 1 Maccabees

Jonah 2 Maccabees

Micah

Nahum

Habakkuk

Zephaniah

Haggai

Zechariah

Malachi

Writings (11) Poetry/Wisdom (5) Poetry/Wisdom (7)

Psalms Job Job

Proverbs Psalms Psalms

Job Proverbs Proverbs

Song of Songs Ecclesiastes Ecclesiastes

Ruth Song of Songs Song of Songs

Lamentations Wisdom of Solomon

Ecclesiastes Ecclesiasticus

Esther

Daniel Prophets (17) Prophets (18)

Ezra−Nehemiah Isaiah Isaiah

Chronicles Jeremiah Jeremiah

Lamentations Lamentations

Baruch

+ Letter of Jeremiah

Ezekiel Ezekiel

Daniel Daniel

+ additions

The Twelve Prophets The Twelve Prophets

(same as the Hebrew) (same as the Hebrew)

Totals

24 Books 39 Books 46 Books

+2 additions

Figure 1.1

most of them are now known primarily in Greek. The other

deutero−canonical books are: Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon,

Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, the Letter of Jeremiah, and 1−2 Maccabees. In the


Protestant tradition these books are normally referred to as apocryphal

books.

Although the content of the books of the Hebrew Bible and the

Protestant Old Testament are the same, they are arranged and numbered

differently. The Hebrew Bible has three sections: Law, Prophets, and

Writings; while the Protestant and Catholic Bible is arranged under four:

Law, History, Poetry or Wisdom, and Prophecy. One of the significant

differences between them is that Daniel is included within the Writings of

the Hebrew Bible, but in the Old Testament it is counted among the

Prophets. Compare the listing of the books in Figure 1.1. Even though this

volume is written as an introduction to the

Christian Bible, I will normally refer to the

Hebrew or Jewish Scriptures rather than the

Old Testament in order to respect the various

traditions and understandings of the canon.

It also means when we come to discuss the

ancient Greek translations of the Hebrew

Scriptures that we will be able to refer to

them accurately as the Greek Jewish

Scriptures.

If we included other traditions in our

survey we would find even more differences.

For example, the Greek Orthodox Old Testament has the same books as the

Catholic Old Testament plus it includes I Esdras, which is similar to a

condensed version of Ezra and Nehemiah, 3 Maccabees, and the Prayer of

Manasseh. So, even though you may have owned the same Bible since you

were a child, the Bible that you have always known may be very different

from the one sitting on your roommate’s desk. A Protestant might wonder

why the Catholics have “added” books to the Bible, while a Catholic may

well question the motivation Protestants have for “omitting” books. As we

continue through this volume, you will come to understand the historical

reasons why we have different Bibles.

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*What Do You Find in Your Bible?

In addition to the books of the Bible, your basic “no−frills” Bible

normally includes a table of contents with page numbers, which is helpful

for the beginner, and a brief introduction to the history and purpose of that

particular version. The heart of the Bible is the books that are recognized as

authoritative Scripture. Each of the books is divided up into chapters and

Further Reflection

Should there be only one

Bible? In what way is the

notion of the inspiration and

authority of the Scriptures

affected by the number of

books that we recognize as

Scripture?

Figure 1.2


verses, which is an easy way to locate and refer to the specific contents of

the books. So, by referring to the gospel of John, chapter 11, verse 35, you

will find the shortest verse in the Bible, “Jesus began to weep.” In most

cases we would refer to this same verse by writing John 11:35. In North

America we separate the chapter and verses within a book by a colon, while

European writers normally use a period. There are also fairly standard

abbreviations for each of the names of the biblical books.

In case the thought had crossed your mind, there is no particular reason

to explain why some verses and chapters are longer than others. In some

cases the chapter divisions correspond to changes in subject matter, but this

does not occur consistently. In fact, originally there were no verse numbers

or chapters for any books. But get this. There was no punctuation, spaces

between words, or capital letters either!

couldyouimaginetryingtoreadbooksthatwerewrittenthatway

When you combine the ancient way of writing with the primitive writing

utensils and material that would have been used it is amazing how well

they were able to copy and preserve the Scriptures. Each book of the Bible,

then, originally circulated as more or less an independent document without

any titles or any other additional descriptive markings. For many books of

the Bible the first line (now 1:1) served as a kind of title or introduced the

author and sometimes identified the intended recipient (see Isaiah 1:1 and

Luke 1:1−3).

We know that scribes began to make marginal notes and provisional

headings for sections within books as early as the beginnings of

Christianity, but the chapter division of the books that we know today stems

primarily from Stephen Langton and the first Bible with verses appeared in

1528. In most modern Bibles you will also find paragraph headings that are

meant to aid the reader as well.

Beyond what you expect to find in your basic Bible there any number of

additional aids that may be included to help understand it better. These

include maps of the ancient world, various tables and calendars, lists of

subjects, concordances that record where a particular word is found, and a

small introduction to each book that may give historical information about

when it was written and a brief outline of the contents. A “study Bible”

includes all of the aforementioned materials as well as a running

commentary on the bottom of each page on matters of content in the biblical

book. These comments are meant to be helpful, but the reader should be

forewarned that they reflect a particular perspective, that of the editor who

is writing comments, and not all of the comments are particularly useful.

(For an example of how one’s perspective influences Bible translation, and


by extension the comments made by a scholar see the discussion of Isaiah

7:14 in Figure 1.3 below).

Finally, it should be noted that there are times when you are reading

that you will encounter a raised letter in the text that has a corresponding

footnote at the bottom of the page. These are various types of textual notes

(We introduce Textual Criticism in chapter five) to inform the reader why

the translator/editor of the book has translated a passage a certain way.

Unfortunately, the majority of notes in contemporary Bibles are

meaningless to most readers, particularly in the Old Testament, and are of

little value to scholars because they are too cryptic. For example, the note to

I Kings 18:1 in the NRSV states that “Heb[rew] lacks of the drought.” Thus,

although the main Hebrew text does not have these words, we do not know

whether the editor added these words for smoother reading, or whether they

were present in another ancient authority. The most useful of these textual

notes appear in the New Testament in a few places where it is noted that

the verse or verses in question are not present in any early manuscript. The

implication is that these verses should not, therefore, be considered

scripture. For example, the words “There are three that testify in heaven,

the Father, the Word, and the Holy Spirit, and these three are one. And

there are three that testify on earth” in I John 5:7 have been removed and

put in a footnote because these words are unknown in any manuscript prior

to 1500! See also the conclusion of the gospel of Mark, where there have

been different endings added after vs. 8.

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*Which Translation Should You Use?

There has been a virtual explosion of English versions of the Bible in the

past two decades. Although for some Christians it is still important that

their version be a particular translation, in most instances it does not

matter. Sometimes students or parishioners ask me, “Which version of the

Bible would you recommend?”, but there is no specific answer to that

question. Generally speaking, the purpose of a translation is to

communicate the meaning of the message of the source language into the

target language. However, factors like the vocabulary, grammar, and

complexity of sentence structure that a translator chooses has a significant

impact on who will be able to understand the resulting translation. So the

choice of a particular version depends upon your intentions and needs. If it

is for your own personal reading, then the most important consideration is

how readable the version is to you.


There are a couple of differences in the types of versions and Bibles that

one can buy, which can be brought to our attention. First, there is a basic

difference between versions that are translations as opposed to versions

that are paraphrases. For example, many people enjoy the language and

expressions of a fairly new version of the Bible called The Message, by

Eugene Petersen. Some of the creative use of language is due to the fact

that Petersen’s volume is a paraphrase, which means that his concern is to

convey the ideas of the text in a meaningful way to the reader. While

Further Reflection

Compare the following translations of part of the passage in Isaiah

7:14:

“The virgin will be with child and will give birth to a son.” New

International Version (NIV)

“Look, the young woman is with child and shall bear a son.” New

Revised Standard Version (NRSV)

“Well then, the Lord himself will give you a sign: a young woman who

is pregnant will have a son.” Today’s English Version (TEV)

Why is it that the NIV has the word virgin, which means a woman who

has never engaged in sexual intercourse, while the other two use more

neutral language that does not refer to sexual relations? This is a

particularly interesting question since the Hebrew word (‘almah) that

appears in the passage refers merely to a young woman or maiden (that is,

not necessarily a woman who has not engaged in sexual activity).

The answer to this question lies in the New Testament in Matthew

1:23. In that verse the angel tells Joseph about the miraculous nature of

the baby that Mary will bear and she quotes the Greek translation of

Isaiah 7:14 as saying, “Look the virgin shall conceive and bear a son.”

Therefore, it would seem that since it states in Matthew that Isaiah 7:14 is

referring to Jesus and quotes the verse in a way that refers to Mary as a

virgin at the time, that the translators of the NIV have changed Isaiah 7:14

so that it reads the same as Matthew. This change is motivated by their

beliefs. A significant difficulty with the translation that has virgin is the

context of Isaiah 7. Isaiah is telling King Ahaz that the sign that Lord will

act on behalf of his people is the birth of the child. So, according to the

translators of the NIV, there must have been two virgin births if there was

a virgin who gave birth to a child in the time of Isaiah!

Figure 1.3


additional qualifying words and phrases are freely added to a paraphrase to

make the meaning clearer or to enhance its emotional appeal, a translation

is bound more strictly to the words of the source text. Even in a translation

there are adjustments that are necessary because of the differences between

two languages, but they are minor in comparison to a paraphrase.

If you were to sit down and compare the way that several versions read

at the same place you would be amazed at the differences. In addition to the

distinction already noted between translations and versions, alternative

expressions are explained by the flexibility of language to express things

using different words. There is also another force at work, however, which

brings us to the second difference between various Bibles. Whether one

reads a translation or a paraphrase it is useful to know that all translation

from one language into another involves interpretation. We inhabit a totally

different world than the time and culture of the Biblical personages. We

cannot help but be influenced by our understanding of the way things are

(our worldview) or our beliefs about God and the relation of the Deity to

creation (our theology) when we read the Bible, just as those who translate

the Bible are influenced by their worldview and beliefs. I use the example of

Isaiah 7:14 in Figure 1.3 to illustrate that it seems obvious that the

translator’s theology has influenced the translation of that verse in the NIV.

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*The Bible as Literature

The story of the Bible is the story of God and the understanding of the

divine involvement with the Israelites. In all that happens in the lives of the

people and the events that occur, the Scriptures assume that God plays a

starring role. That is not to say that the Bible provides a handbook for

everything there is to know about God, though this idea is projected by some

Christians, because the Judeo−Christian heritage affirms the continuing

reality of God’s involvement in the human narrative. However, the fact that

the biblical narrative originated so long ago means that reading the Bible

can be a frustrating experience. Many people simply find it hard to identify

with the biblical stories because they do not understand the culture and the

setting in which the Scriptures were written or the way to read the story. It

is like their literature class in high school when they were first introduced

to Shakespeare. They can read some of the words, but the words are not

used the same way as we speak and write now and there are obscure

expressions that do not make any sense. People resort to “spiritualizing” the

meaning of the Bible because they do not know how to read it. One of the

most neglected, yet most important, aspects of reading the Bible with


understanding is the recognition that the Bible exists not only as a piece of

literature, but that the books within it reflect different types or genres of

literature. We do not have the same expectation of what we read in Calvin

& Hobbes as we do when we curl up with a Stephen King novel. In the same

way that we read comic strips, horror, science fiction, and mysteries with a

different expectation, we have to learn to appreciate the different genres in

the Bible and the way that they communicate meaning. The Scriptures

include such diverse genres as historiography, gospels, legal texts, poetry,

apocalypses, prophecy, and personal letters. Thus, our ability to understand

the Scriptures will be aided if we gain more competence in understanding

the literary genres in which they were written. Our literary competence will

also be helped by learning more about the historical background at the time

when the various books were written. As we learn to appreciate the culture

and people of the various periods during which the Scriptures were written

and the ways in which they communicated their story in literary genres, it

becomes easier to participate in the world of the biblical text and to

understand the story.

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Summary

1. All Bibles in the English language are translations from ancient

languages.

2. The New Testament books were originally composed in Greek and

number 27 in total.

3. The Old Testament books were mostly composed in Hebrew or

Aramaic (parts of Daniel and Ezra). Some books that are accepted as

deutero−canonical by the Catholic church were originally composed in

Greek. The Hebrew Bible has 24 books, the Protestant Old Testament 39,

and the Catholic Old Testament 46 plus two additions to books.

4. Originally, there were no markings at all in the Scriptures. The

punctuation, chapter and verse divisions, as well as all other information

about the Scriptures were added over time and are intended as aids to help

the reader.

5. The most important consideration for finding a translation of the

Bible is how readable the version is to you.

6. All versions and translations, as well as any accompanying study

notes, are influenced by the theology of the translator.

7. Becoming competent readers of the Bible begins with understanding

the literary genres in which they were written and by learning more about


the historical background and cultural context from which the books of

Scripture emerged.

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Fant, Clyde E., Donald W. Musser, and Mitchell G. Reddish. An Introduc-

tion to the Bible. Rev. ed. Nashville: Abingdon, 2001.

Johnson, Marshall. Making Sense of the Bible: Literary Type As an

Approach to Understanding. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002.

Metzger, Bruce M. The Bible in Translation: Ancient and English Versions.

Grand Rapids: Baker, 2001.

Select translations of the Bible:

New International Version. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1973.

New Jerusalm Bible. New York, NY: Doubleday, 1985.

New Revised Standard Version. New York, NY: Oxford, 1989.

Today’s English Version. New York, NY: United Bible Societies, 1976.

Documents

Introduction to the Bible: Understanding the Christian Scriptures in Their Historical Context-scholarspub.com