Volume 14 Number 2 Summer/Fall 1993

J o u r n a l o f t h eC o n d u c t o r s ' G u i l dTable of Contents

COMMENTARY 65

THE LEDGER AND THE SCORE: ADMINISTRATTVE AND ARTISTIC CONFLICT 66AT THE ROYAL PHILHARMONIC SOCIETY OF LONDON, 7916 - 1918

by Jack Kamerman

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE THEORIES OF HEINRICH SCHENKER (PART D 77by Peter Gibeau

FRITZ REINER AND THE TECHNIQUE OF CONDUCTING

by Kenneth Morgan

SELECTED CONTEMPORARY AMERICAN ORCHESTRAL COMPOSITIONS:A CONDUCTOR'S GUIDE (PART ID

by James S. Ball

GUSTAV MAHLER'S RUCIKERT LIEDER AND THE ART OF ERROR IN 1,07INTERPRETATION

by Stephen A. Gottlieb

TO\TARDS A COMPOSER.FRIENDLY ENVIRONMENT

by Victoria Bond

SCORES AND PARTS: Igor Stravinsky, Firebird Suite (1945 version)by David Daniels

BOOKS IN REVIE\T

722

127

9 1

101

It6

\(iilliam H. Halverson, ed., Edoard Grieg Today: A syrnposiurn

reviewed by John Jay Hilfiger

Frank J. Cipolla and Donald Hunsberger, eds., Tbe \I(/ind Ensemble and its Repertoire

reviewed by Harlan D. Parker

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR 130

CONDUCTORS' GUILD, TNC.

103 South High Street, Room 6'West

Chester, PA 19382-3262Tel & Fax: 610/430-6010e-mail address, conguild@aol.com

Officers

President Adrian Gnam

President-Elect .....Barbara Schubert

Vice President ......\Wes Kenney

Secretary Charles Bontrager

Treasurer Thomas Anderson

Past President ....... Larry Newland

lournal of tbe Conductors' Guild

Editor Jacques Voois

Associate Editor DavidDaniels

Band/\trindEnsembleEditor HarlanD.Parker

Editor-at-large . Jonathan Sternberg

Assistant Editors

Stephen Heyde JohnJaY Hilfiger

Louis Menchaca Jon Mitchell

JohnNoble Moye John Strickler

Contributing AuthorsBoard of

Manuel I'lvarez

Victoria Bond

JoAnn Falletta

Joseph Henry

Isaiah Jackson

John Koshak

Frederick Peter Morden

Brian Priestman

James Setapen

Jonathan Sternberg

Paul Vermel

Tsung Yeh

Directors

Henry Bloch

Mark Ettinger

Lauren Green

Donald R. Hunsberger

Kenneth Kiesler

Tania Le6n

Harlan D. Parker

Madeline Schatz

Kirk E. Smith

Leslie Stewart

Jacques Voois

Burton Zipser

James S. Ball

David Daniels

Stephen A. Gottlieb

Jack Kamerman

Harlan D. Parker

Benjamin Simkin

Production

Executive Secretary

Clerical Assistant

Production

Victoria Bond

Peter Gibeau

John Jay Hilfiger

Kenneth Morgan

Gerard Schwarz

staff

J,rdy A. VooisKerry C. BreslinLinco Printing Co., Inc.

Advisory Council

Charles Ansbacher

Sergiu ComissionaLukas Foss

Daniel Lewis

DonaldPortnoyEvan\(hallon

Maurice Abravanel

Leonard Bernstein

Margaret Hillis

Robert Shaw

Michael Charry

Harold Farberman

Samuel JonesMaurice Peress

Gunther Schuller

Leon Barzin

Frederick Fennell

Max Rudolf

Sir Georg Solti

Theodore Thomas Award 'Vinners

The publication date of the present issue of the

JounNer oF THE CoNoucrons' Gutto is Spring, 1995;

consequently the publication date and tbe issue date do

not coincide.

Effective Volume 13, theJounNer oF THE CoNouc-

ToRS' GuIro bas been published semi'annually, tbe tan

issues being nun-tbered 1 and 2; the seasonal references

remain unchanged, as is the journal's length.

The JCG's editors and stffi in eaaluating materinl

accepted for publication, atill determine appropriate

credit for such contributions.

Library of Congress No. B2'644733

Copyright @ 1995 by the Conductors' Guild, Inc.

All rights reseraed. ISSN# 0734-1032

CommentaryIt is gratifying to note that the reputation of the JCG

is spreading beyond the membership of the Guild. Thiswelcome development is exemplified bythe diverse back-grounds of the contributors in the present issue.

Although a Guild member, Jack Kamerman is a so-ciologist with an overriding interest in the structures anddynamics of music organizations. His first article in theJCG, "The Organizational Containment of Conductors'Authority: Artistic and Financial Goals at the New YorkPhilharmonic, 1922-1936" (Vol. 9, Nos. 3 & 4, Sum-mer/Fall, 1988), explored the inherent limitations on con-ductor authority within the structure of a major Ameri-can orchestra of that era. His current essay examines theimpact on the Royal Philharmonic Society of London ofSir Thomas Beecham's brief but unique tenure as musicdirector. Probably the reader's initial reaction to the sce-nario of a wealthy conductor underwriting a financiallytroubled orchestra would be one of admiration, perhapseven envy or outr ight jealousy. Of minimal consider-ation would be a concern for the problems that such anarrangement might engender. After all, all orchestralproblems can be solved with sufficient operating re-sources, can they not?

Upon reading Peter Gibeau's review of the first En-gl ish translat ion of Heinrich Schenker's Beethoven'slVinth Symphony (Vol. 14, No. I, Winter/Spring, l9g3),the editor invited Dr. Gibeau to produce an article thatwould introduce Schenkerian analysis to all JCG read-ers who have had no previous experience in or exposureto this important subject area. Part I of the resulting es-say appears in the present issue and is one oftwo currentarticles that will require study, notjust reading. [Jnques-tionably, the benefit that accrues from a proficiency inSchenkerian analysis is wellworth the investment of timeand energy needed to achieve said proficiency. A worldof musical insights and revelations await the diligent anddedicated Schenker analyst.

The second article requiring study, if not metaphysi-cal outreach, is the work by Stephen Gott l ieb. Dr.Gofflieb, professor and chair of E,nglish at QuinnipiacCollege in Hamden,, Connecticut, is himself senior edi-tor of lsszes in Integrative Studies; An InterdisciplinctryJournal. A gifted writer, he lends his considerable eru-dition in the humanities to this exploration of the mul-tiple realms of poetic and musical imagery contained in

Mahler's Rilckert Lieder. A word of advice. To derivegenuine value and insights, this essay must be experi-enced - perhaps on a lazy summer afternoon, armedwith appropriate scores, recordings and libation. Fullyreahzed, such an outing promises a feast for the imagi-nation.

Kenneth Morgan, Principal Lecturer in History andHead of European Culture at Brunel [Jniversity College,Twickenham, Middlesex, England, provides a fascinat-ing - and sometimes intimidating - documentary onFritzReiner's teaching methods at Philadelphia's CurtisInstitute, a tenure that occurred during the Great Depres-sion. For those readers who teach the conducting craft,Dr. Morgan furnishes a wealth of detail in the areas ofReiner's teaching procedures and phi losophies. Somepedagogues might recoil at one or another of Reiner'smethods, but few will deny that the results were virtu-ally peerless. The article also serves as a 'teaser' for Dr.Morgan's biography of Reiner, currently in progress.

James Ball's series on contemporary American or-chestral compositions continues with an analysis andevaluation of David Del Tredici's 1 990 work, Steps forOrchestra. The current installment of her conductor/composer interview series f inds Victoria Bond's micro-phone in front of Gerard Schwarz, music director of theSeattle Symphony (WA). David Daniels' errata list forand defense of the 1945 version of Stravinsky's Fire-bird Suite, together with two timely book reviews, com-plete the issue.

It is a pleasure to report that the growth of the JCG'svolunteer staff has had a noticeable impact on the qual-ity and professionalism of recent issues. As with mostvolunteer efforts, these behind-the-scenes operattves re-ceive but a fraction of the recognition and appreciationthey truly deserve.

Nevertheless, despite this progress, the JCG is stil lseeking a greater diversit), of editors and contributors sothat all of the disciplines that fall under the general head-ing of 'conducted ensembles' wi l l be served. Specif icinformation on areas of expertise needing author andeditor volunteers can be found on page 13 l. Please con-sider offering your time and expertise to this project. The.ICG is a splendid forum in which to share one's profes-sional and life experiences with conductorcolleagues around the world. Editor G

65JCG Vol. 14, No. 2

The Ledger and the Score:Administrative and Artistic Conflictat the Royal Philharmonic Society

of London, 1916-191 8

by Jack Kamerman

The following article is based on a paper pre-

sented at the 1990 Conference on Social Theory,Politics, and the Arts, Gradwate Center, C.U.N.Y.,New York, NY, October 12, 1990"

, F * r F r f r f r f r f r f

A theme in the study of both performing artistsand professionals who work in organizations is theextent to which organrzational imperatives (mostprominently economic considerations) influence thecharacter and quality of the artistic or professional'product. ' l

In studying the succession of conductors at thePhiladeiphia Orchestra, Edward Arian concludedthat bureaucratrzation meant the demise of charis-matic authority, the alienation of orchestra mem-bers, the absence of service to the community, and,in general, "the precedence of economic consider-ations . . over its [the orchestra's] responsibilityto advance the art of music (I971:!22)."

While performing artists in the sociological viewdo not share some characteristics with professionals,

e .9., a legitimately granted monopoly over theirwork, both feel they command an esoteric knowl-edge that makes outside evaluation intolerable. Thisis so because both have strong occupational identi-ties and because both feel a sense of mission abouttheir art or profession that transcends their loyalty

to the organrzation.2But conductors are of necessity employees of

66 JCG vot 14, No. 2

otganrzations because a conductor needs an or-chestra to work, and financing an orchestra is be-yond the means of an individual conductor (in muchthe same way that financing a hospital is beyondthe means of an individual physician). At presentconductors must rely on symphony boards to pro-vide work; increasingly, physicians must rely onthe hospitals they are attached to, because in theircase, the equipment and facilities necessary to prac-tice are beyond their means (Zola and Miller,1973: 1 59).

To study conductors caught in the web of theirorganrzations requires a focus on two interrelateddimensions: the balance between charismatic andlegallrational authority over their orchestras (in

more general terms, the extent of the control overtheir work) and the balance between artistic andfinancial goals within the organizations that em-ploy them.

The case examined in this paper is the only ex-ample in the modern history of conducting where aconductor, because of his personal wealth, was ableto control both the financral and artistic functionsin a major symphony orchestra.3 Whatever thelimitations of the case, it provides the only op-porrunity to study what a conductor, freed fromthe yoke of management's directives, did in theservice of music.

In some respects, it is not an ideal case. TheRoyal Philharmonic Society was after all a play-

ers' cooperative, i.e., almost every one of its directors

was himself a musician. It was not as the New YorkPhilharmonic, originally organized as a players'cooperative, had become in 1909: an organizationcontrolled by a board composed of non-musicians.

In addition, the seasons Beecham controlled theSociety coincided with the last three years of WorldWar I. Because it strained financial resources ingeneral, the war placed special burdens on the So-ciety, it supporters, and its audiences. In addition,the war influenced programming in several notice-able ways. Limited resources meant programmingfewer works that required a chorus (although the num-ber of concerts with soloists wasn't affected); no worksby living German composers were programmed.

Finally, of course, one case hardly constitutesa pattern. Nonetheless, with all of its limitations,it remains and is likely to remain the only possi-bility for studying a conductor who controlled bothartistic and administrative functions (because he pos-sessed both artistry and money) and the conse-quences of that control for programming and thequality of orchestral performance.

BnpcHnrut s Rrsn nNn FII,L AT rHn RoylrPnrr,H^q.RMoNrc Socmry, 1914-1918

Beecham' s accession to power at the Society passedthrough three phases:

1. financial support, but with control of pro-gramming, etc., remaining in the hands of the di-rectors;

2. frnancial support with great influence overartistic matters, but with no formal control;

3. financial support with formal control overartistic and administrative matters.

Phase One

The start of World War I in August of I9l4had immediate and dire economic consequences forEnglish society including its artistic organizations.Before the 1914-1915 season, the Directors debatedwhether to suspend concerts for the duration of the

war. They decided to stay in operation, but had toask the members of the orchestra to agree "to ac-cept, if necessary, a minimum of 50 per cent oftheir contract fees" (Minutes of Directors' Meet-ing of October 8, l9Iq.4 By the end of the first'war' season, l9l4-I915, the Society was unableto generate sufficient funds to pay the orchestra.Beecham interceded with a special donation which"removed formidable obstacles and relieved thedirectors of making a call on the guarantors." (Mu-

sical Times , 1915 :429) .sIn this period, the Directors still, to a great

extent, set the programs and made personnel de-cisions, albeit with the advice and final agreementof the conductors engaged for the season. For ex-ample, because Willem Mengelberg, one of theconductors in the 1913-1914 season, had suggestedhiring Brit ish conductors, the Society invitedBeecham to conduct concerts in the 19 L4-1915 sea-son. Programs were often submitted by the Direc-tors to the conductor for his approval. Beecham,in a sign of things to come, requested permissionto conduct the Berlioz Te Deum and agreed topay for the chorus himself. "Directors learned withmuch satisfaction that Mr. Thomas Beecham pro-poses to bring at his own expense, one of the fa-mous northern choirs to sing Berlioz' Te Deum atthe second concert" (Minutes of October 20, I9l4).The choir in question was the Hall6 Choir ofManchester.

Phase Two

Only four months later, at the directors' meet-ing of February 12, 1915, a resolution was passedunanimously to invite Beecham to conduct all ofthe following season's concerts. The meeting ofAprrl 26, 1915 was devoted in great part to dis-cussing "various suggestions made by Mr. Beechamas to ways & means of increasing our list of sub-scribers " (Minutes). Those suggestions includeddelaying the concerts' starting time until 8:30 p.m.,in order to give people time to return home be-

JCG Vol. 14. No. 2 67

tween work and the concert, and reducing both

subscription rates and single-ticket prices. At that

same meeting, Beecham began moves to restruc-

ture the organization and to extend the preroga-

tives of the conductor:

Mr. Beecham particularly requested that

whenever the Hon: Sec: is absent, some

other director (who can be got at on the

telephone) should be specially named to

whom he (or his secretary) can make appli-

cation, with regard to unexpected changes

which so often occur. Mr. Beecham

proposes to submit complete programs for next

season, so that the press and our new sub-

scribers may know what our future plans are.

Beecham promised to attend the next directors'

meeting to discuss his proposals, but did not. Be-

cause of his absence, at the end of the General Meet-

ing of May 22, I9I5. an emergency meeting of the

Directors was held to consider Beecham's programs

for the coming season. They were informed that

he would present them for their approval - when

he had finalized them. The programs were finally

presented by Beecham personally at the meeting of

September 30, 1915, a scant month before the start

of the season. At a subsequent meeting of the Di-

rectors (although not a certainty, it was probably a

special meeting in October of 1915), the Directors

accepted Beecham's suggestion to offer the orches-

tra the same contract for the coming season with

the stipulation of an extra rehearsal before the first

concert for which they would not be paid. The

Directors reminded the orchestra that without

Beecham's help, they might have been paid only

Sir Thomas Beecham, Bart . , the most fa-

mous Br i t i sh cor rductor o f th is or any century ,

was bo rn i n 1879 , he i r t o t he Beecham's P i l l s

for tune. H is pass ion for mus ic co l l ided wi th

h is fa ther 's v is ion o f Thomas ' dest iny in the

pi l l empire and was part of the et io logy of their

r i f t . Beecham f i ls entered Oxford in 1B9Z and

lef t e ighteen months later. On leaving Ox-

ford, the Warden of Wadham College told him,"Your t imely departure has perhaps spared us

the necessi ty of asking you to go." (His at ten-

dance at concerts rather than lectures fueled

h is depar ture . )B e e c h a m c o n d u c t e d h i s f i r s t p u b l i c

concer t in St . He lens, h is b i r thp lace, in 1899;

his London debut occurred in 1905 with mem-

bers of the Queen's Hal l Orchestra, whom he

had hired for the occasion.

Wi th dreams of ra is ing mus ica l l i fe in Br i t -

ain to a higher standard and with the money

to back those dreams, Beecham formed his

own opera company in 1910 and underwrote

several seasons at Covent Carden. Eventual ly

he was to support (occasional ly to the br ink of

h is own inso lvency) the Royal Ph i lharmonic So-

ciety and the Hal le Orchestra, and to create two

of London's (and the world 's) major orchestras,

the London Phi lharmonic and the Royal Ph i lhar -

mon ic .Perhaps h is greatest cont r ibut ion to mus ic in

Creat Br i ta in , c i ted by Kur t B laukopf in h is Creat

Conductors , was the d ismant l ing o f the deputy

system: " . . . i t can safe ly be sa id that on ly w i th

the establ ishment of permanent, fu l l - t ime orches-

tras dur ing the second quarter of our century was

the bas is la id for the f ru i t fu l deve lopment o f En-

gl ish concert l t fe."Beecham gained renown conducting both op-

e ra and the symphon ic repe r to i re . H i s pe r -

formances of Handel, Mozarl, Haydn, Berlioz and

Sibe l ius were espec ia l ly pr ized. He championed

the music o f De l ius , conduct ing the Engl ish pre-

miere of A Vtu,qct Rovro ,+No Juttrr, and almost

singlehanded ly establ ished the reputat ion of that

68 JCG Vol 14, No. 2

fifty per cent of their contracted fee rather than thefull amount which they were paid. The contractwas sent out and approved by seventy-five per centof the members; the rest were not hired and "their

places were either filled by other players or leftvacant, it having been resolved to reduce the sizeof the Orchestra in certain departments. " (Minutes

n .d . )In spite of much protest from the National Or-

chestral Association, the rehearsal took place atwhich "Mr. Thomas Beecham said some verypointed remarks to the Orchestra before com-mencing to rehearse " (Minutes n. d . ) .

Beecham's donations to the Society for the 1915-L9I6 season totalled over f500. (See Royal Phil-harmonic Society Account Book, p. 27.)u Thisrepresented about one-fifth of the Society's expen-ditures for that season. (See Table I.)

Phase Three

By the middle of 1916, the financial state of theSociety was so critical that plans for the followingseason were in j eopardy . In May of 1916 ,Beecham's secretary sent a letter to the Societysaying that Beecham would not be able to conductconcerts for the following season "owing to theimpossibility of fitting so many concerts in withhis other schemes; but he [Beecham] hoped thathis decision would not prevent the members con-tinuing the concerts next year" (quoted in Elkin,1946:107). However, at the directors' meeting ofIune 23, L9I6, "Mr. Mewburn Levien reportedthat he had an interview with Mr. Donald Baylis,Sir Thomas Beecham's Secretary, and that Sir Tho-mas would be prepared to present a scheme fbr themodification [the word 'reconstruction' was crossed

composer on the world scene.Beecham's programming as a conductor and

efforts as an impresar io in the f i rst decades of th iscentury were f i l led wi th imaginat ion and dash.He championed Russ ian opera, backed the v is i tto London of D iagh i lev 's ba l le t company, andconducted the London premieres of many of Ri-chard Strauss's operas.

His recordings of The Magic Flute, The Ab-duct ion f rom the Serag l io , Carmen and LaBohdme are classics. The bouyancy and musicalintensi ty of his controversial recording (at leastby today's narrowed standards) of Messiah arei n f e c t i o u s . H i s r e c o r d i n g s o f P e e r C y n t ,Beethoven's Second and Seventh Symphonies (of

the lat ter 's th ird movement Beecham said, " i t 's

l i ke a lo t o f yaks jumping about" ) , and Brahms'sSecond Symphony are outs tand ing. In add i t ionto invent ing the usage, he was the supreme mas-ter o f orchest ra l " lo l l ipops. "

Al though he is infamous for having restrainedthe tempo in Vladimir Horowitz 's 1928 New York

debut ( in the las t movement the p ian is t f ina l lyburst f ree l ike a jet f rom the deck of a carr ier) ,he was an ideal accompanist . (Listen, for ex-ample , to h is work wi th Sz iget i in the i r con-cer to record ings made in the 1930s. ) Descr ib-i n g h i s a t t e m p t t o c o v e r A l f r e d C o r t o t ' smemory lapse dur ing a Beethoven concertoperformance, Beecham said, "We started withthe Beethoven, and I kept up wi th Cor to tth rough the C r i eg , Sch u man n , Bach , andTcha ikowsky , and then he h i t one I d idn ' tknow, so I stopped dead."

He was one of the greatest wi ts the con-duct ing pro fess ion (perhaps the music f ie ld ingeneral) has ever produced. l t would disserveh is g i f t to se lec t a s ing le example. (See Haro ldAtk ins and Arch ie Newman's , Beecham Sto-r ies or Beecham's autobiography , A MingledChime, for highl ights of a l i fet ime of verbalingen u i ty . )

On h is death in 1961, the mus ica l wor ldlost one of i ts major personal i t ies and wits.

JCG Vol. 14, No. 2 69

outl of the Society under which he would be will-

ing to consider the possibility of continuing the

concerts" (Minutes).7

With their backs to the wall, the Directors

agreed at their meeting of September 28, 1916 to

Beecham's demands. They were, as reported in

the Minutes for that meeting:

(1) That Sir Thomas would be elected a

Director and Chairman at each Board

meeting which he attended: (2) That Mr.

Donald Baylis would be elected Hon. Sec.(3) That Sir Thomas Beecham would be

given control of the programmes, orches-

tra and concert arrangements generally -

and that Sir Thomas Beecham and Mr.

Baylis be invited to attend a Board meet-

ing as soon as possible, Mr" Pitt to ascer-

tain a date which would be convenient for

them.

At the meeting of September 28, 1916, with

Baylis now the Society's Hon. Secretary, Beecham

outlined his plans. They included the stipulation

that "the orchestra should not in any sense be a

partner but that a definite understanding should be

come to with them at rates appropriate to the times.

." (Minutes). At the meeting of October 10,

1916, Baylis said that Beecham would be willing

to raise a guarantee fund of the substantial amount

of f 10,000 and would be willing to conduct con-

certs fclr five or ten years. "In the interests of

music in general and of this Society in particular"

(Minutes). the Directors accepted Beecham's pro-

posal of a guarantee fund and his offer to conduct

for a five-year period.

Beecham's control was complete. Evidence of

the totality of his control was that no directors'

meetings were held between October 27 , I9I7 and

July 8, 1918. Functionally, if not formally, the

Society had ceased to be a players' cooperative.

T h e R o y a l P h i l h a r m o n i c S o c i e t y w a s

founded in 1813 as "The Ph i l ha rmon ic Soc i -

ety" for the purpose of promoting the perfor-

m a n c e o f o r c h e s t r a l a n d c h a m b e r m u s i c

through an annual ser ies o f subscr ip t ion con-

certs. The founders included the major f ig-

ures o f London 's mus ica l wor ld , among them

Henry B ishop, J . B. Cramer , Muz io Clement i ,

V incent Nove l lo , Ceorge Smar t , and JohannPeter Salomon. After the LeipzigCewandhaus

Concer ts , founded in 1781 , i t i s the o ldest

cont inuing concert-sponsoring organizat ion

in the world. l t was a nonprof i t p layers ' co-

operat ive us ing any f inanc ia l surp lus for com-

miss ions and o ther mus ica l purposes.

The l is t o f works commiss ioned by the

Soc ie ty or g iven wor ld or Engl ish premieres is

impressive. The Society 's more notable com-

miss ions i nc lude : Bee thoven ' s N in th Sym-

phony, given i ts f i rst performance in E n-

g l a n d u n d e r S i r C e o r g e S m a r t i n 1 8 2 5 ;

Mendelssohn's Fourth Symphony, given i ts world

premiere under the composer in 1833; Dvorak 's

Seventh Symphony, g iven i ts wor ld premiere

under the composer in 1BB5; and Sain t -Saelns '

Th i rd Symphony, g iven i ts wor ld premiere under

the composer in 1886. In add i t ion the Soc ie ty

commiss ioned works by Cherub in i , Hummel and

Spohr. l t has also been a major supporter of En-

g l ish mus ic , commiss ion ing works f rom Freder ic

C o w e n , W i l l i a m S t e r n d a l e B e n n e t t a n d

Frederick Del ius, as wel l as present ing world pre-

mieres of works by Custav Holst , Hubert Parry,

Wi l l i am Wa l ton and Ra lph Vaughan Wi l l -

i ams .The roster of soloists who have appeared at

i ts concerts includes most of music 's major f ig-

ures of the nineteenth and twent ieth centur ies.

A sampl ing of the soloists and work(s) performed

inc ludes Franz L isz t per forming Hummel 's P i -

7A JCG Vol 14. No. 2

Bppcu.lvrts Fnlr

Late in I9L6, Beecham's father died. Whatfollowed was a period of such financial complex-ities that by 1918 Beecham's ability to sustain hisfinancial support of musical enterprises on the samelevel as before was severely strained. He contin-ued his support of the Society as well as othermusical organrzations. Nevertheless, his resourcesdwindled and, by the end of the war, he had toabandon several projects.8

Beecham was late with his payment to make upthe deficit for the Philharmonic's 19 17 -1918 sea-son. It was eventually sent (Minutes, July 22,1918), but not before the National Orchestral As-sociation had complained to the Society on behalfof "a number of their Members. "

At that meeting a letter was written to Baylisrequesting him "not to take any active steps or makeany announcement with regard to the future activi-

ties of the Society until we have had a furtheropportunity of meeting after the vacation" (quoted

in Elkin, 1946: 108). Effectively constrained,Beecham and Baylis resigned.

At the meeting of October 1 , I9I8 MewburnLevien was elected Hon. Secretary and "After dis-cussion it was agreed that Mr" Norman 0'Neillshould approach Messrs Toye and Boult as to theirconducting some concerts and assisting the comingseason financially, also to write Mr. H. BalfourGardiner as to the amount of financial support heis prepared to give" (Minutes). Balfour Gardinergave the Society f675 for the 1918-1919 seasonand f750 for the following season.

At the meeting of October 12, 1918, the Di-rectors resolved to write to Beecham asking himwhether he wished to be appointed "as one of thetrustees of the Society's Foundation Fund" (Min-utes) and indicated that at the autumn general meet-ing they intended to propose him as an honorary

ano Concerto (May 21 , lB27); Eugen D'Albertperforming Liszt 's Piano Concerto in E-f lat (May

6,1896) ; Fer rucc io Busoni per forming L isz t 's P i -ano Concerto in A and Franck's Prelude, Cho-rale and Fugue on a program that included thepremiere of Del ius's /n a Summer Carden con-ducted by the composer (December 1 1 , 1 909);Mor i t z Rosen tha l pe r fo rm ing Chop in ' s P ianoConcerto in E-Minor on a program that also in-cluded Strauss's Tod und Verkli irung conductedby the composer (June 1 , 1899) ; Eugen D 'A lber tand Teresa Carreno performing Beethoven's "Em-

peror" Concerto f lune 9, 1899 and March B, 1900,respect ively); and Joseph Joachim performingBeethoven's Viol in Concerto (March 25, 1874)and Brahms's Viol in Concerto (March 6, 1879).

The Society 's abi l i ty to carry on with i ts con-certs dur ing World War lwas due in great part tothe f inanc ia l suppor t o f S i r Thomas Beecham. In1932 Beecham formed the London Phi lharmonic

which became the o f f ic ia l o rchest ra o f theRoya l Ph i l ha rmon ic Soc ie t y ' s conce r t s . TheLPO rep laced the "p i ck -up " o rches t ra as -sembled to p lay each season o f the Soc ie ty 'sconcer ts . The ar rangement las ted unt i lthe end o f Wor ld War l l , a l though severa lorchestras shared the 1944-45 season withthe LPO. ln 1 946, a f ter the LPO had reorga-n ized as a p layers 'cooperat ive and had putc o n s t r a i n t s o n t h e a b s o l u t e p o w e rBeecham had w ie lded p rev ious l y (as hesa id , " l emphat ica l ly re fuse to be waggedby any orchest ra" ) , Beecham formed theRoya l Ph i l ha rmon ic Orches t ra wh ich be -came, as i t i s to th is day, the orchest ra o fthe Soc ie ty 's concer ts .

The Society has, over its 182-year history,a record of service to the cause of music inCreat Br i ta in that is both unbroken and un-matched.

7lJCG VoL 14, No. 2

member of the society. Not unexpectedly, Beecham

did not reply; another trustee was appointed' For

some time afterward, the Directors continued to

write to Baylis asking for the money Beecham had

promised the Society for the 1918-1919 season. As

late as the meeting of February 1, 1919, the soci-

ety was still attempting to recover this 'cebt' and

went so far aS to ask the Socrety's scllicitor t0 "take

such steps as may be necessary to safeguard the

interests of the Society and to recover the debt'"

(Minutes). At the meeting of May 31, 1919' the

matter was laid to rest through a letter from the

Society's solicitor which advised them to drop the

matter since Beecham's promise was merely "a

matter of amicable arrangement" (Minutes)'

In 1923, Beecham once again attempted to as-

sociate himself with the Society, this time in a less

autocratic manner (i.e., without total control of the

Society's affairs), but they turned him down. They

did, however, invite him to conduct a few concerts

in the following season, but he did not accept. In

several subsequent seasons., he was invited to con-

duct, but did not return until the concert of March

22, Lg28, at which time he was presented with the

Society's gold medal. He conducted a few concerts

in subsequent seasons. On October 7, 1932 he

returned as a 'full-time' conductor with the Lon-

don Philharmonic, the orchestra he had founded

earlier that year. This new orchestra contained

musicians from several orchestras including the

Philharmonic's and became the permanent orches-

tra of the Royal Philharmonic society. A perma-

nent orchestra for the Society had always been one

of Beecham's major goals.

TsB CoNsnQuENCES or BpncH.q,M's Rntcx

The consequences of Beecham's control of the

Society may be conveniently placed in three cat-

egories: 1) service to music; 2) service to the mu-

sical public; and 3) service to the Society as an

organization. (These categories overlap to an

extent).

72 JCG vol 14, No. 2

As with many conductors' Beecham's programs

reflected his tastes. He played less German music,

less English music (with the exception of Delius, a

composer he championed), and more French and

Russian music. (See Table III.) As a consequence

of reducing the number of works by English com-

posers, fewer works by living composers were per-

formed than in previous or subsequent seasons (see

Tables IV and v.). The English composers repre-

sented on Philharmonic programs were almost al-

ways SocietY members.

Beecham's programs were innovative in other

ways" His first program of the 1915-19L6 season

was a radical departure from the previous history

of the Society. In the words of a writer in the

Musical Times ( 191 5 :733):

The Royal Philharmonic Society began its

104th season on November 1 ' The program

was calculated to make such hair as old

habitu6s of these concerts possess stand on

end. No symphony, no overture, no con-

certo - only Russian ballet music and the'Letter song' from 'Eugene Onegin' beau-

tifully sung bY Miss Mignon Nevada!

(Additionally, in the following season he conducted

a concert version of excerpts from Glinka's A Lift

for the Tsar.)

Aithough it is difficult to assess with any cer-

rainty, the qualify of the orchestra's playing probably

improved under Beecham. Reviews in the Musical

Times consistently complement the orchestra on their

playing of music new to the Philharmonic concerts.

Beecham tried to professionalize the orchestra,

i.e., he tried to establish a permanent orchestra (a

feat he didn't actually achieve until he founded the

Table I Accounts of the

Experuorrunes (rn pourrrosl 1 91 4-1 5

Royal Phi lharmonic

1 9 1 5 - 1 6 1 9 1 6 - 1 7

Society, 1 9 14-192O: Expendi tures *

O r c h e s t r a ( i n c l u d i n g"management , ex t rasand por te rage" )

Adver t i sements

Other Expendi tures

Tota l Expendi tures

S o l o i s t s a n d C o n d u c t o r s 1 5 6

1 ,260

2 3 7

8 1 2

2 ,465

1 , 1 0 2

3 7 8

3 1 3

8 3 5

2 ,628

795

5 0 1

447

7 9 2

2 ,535

1 9 1 7 - 1 8

7 6 1

340

5 7

7 7 8

1 , 9 3 6

1 9 1 8 - 1 9

1 , 3 0 7

3 3 8

1 5 7

9 8 1

2 , 7 8 3

1 9 1 9 - 2 0

1 ,648

3 3 3

505

1 ,304

3 , 7 9 0

x Data from Royal Philharmonic Society Account Book, | 9OB-l932

Table l l

lrucorue (rru poulros)

Subscr ip t ions

Concerts

Other Sources

Spec ia l Donat ions

Spec ia l Guarantors

Tota l Income

Accounts of

1 9 1 4 - 1 5

989

671

305

500

2 ,465

the Royal

1 9 1 5 - 1 6

707

1 , O 1 3

396

5 1 2

2 ,628

1914-1920

1 9 1 8 - 1 9

6 5 3

644

8 1 1

Income *

1 9 1 9 - 2 0

1 , 1 4 7

1 , 3 4 5

548

750

3 , 7 9 0

Phi lharmonic Society ,

1 9 1 6 - 1 7 1 9 1 7 - 1 8

597 449

1 , 1 1 0 4 4 8

5 0 5 9 7 2

323

2 ,535

667

1 , 9 3 6

675

2 , 7 8 3

* Data from Royal Philharmonic Society Account Book, I go8-l932

Table l l l : Percentage of

1 9 1 4 - 1 5

Works by Liv ing and

1 9 1 5 - 1 6 * * 1 9 1 6 - 1 7

Dead Composers, RPS, 1914-1920*

1 9 1 7 - 1 8 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9 1 9 - 2 0

ToralL iv ingDead

BercHnnL iv ingDead

+ Data from Elkin,

633 7

6040

| 946: | 40-l 48

455 5

455 5

465 4

475 3

5 05 0

4A60

5 842

4654

* + Beecham conducted all concerts, so numbers are the same

JCG Vol. 14. No. 2 73

Table lV Percentage

1 9 1 4 - 1 5

TornlEng l ish 45

N o n - E n g l i s h 5 5

BrecHnnEng l ish 40

N o n - E n g l i s h 6 0

x Data from Elkin, 1946:

of works by English and Non-English composers, RPs, 1914-1920*

1 9 1 5 - 1 6 * * 1 9 1 6 - 1 7 1 9 1 7 - 1 8 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9 1 9 - 2 0

1 5B 5

1 5B 5

140- t48

47 2053 80

3 3 . 3 1 86 6 . 7 8 2

3 9 3 26 1 6 8

Beecham conducted alt concerts, so numbers are the same

Tabfe V Number of World and English Premieres at RPS Premieres' 1 912-1920*

Beecham Concer ts Others Tota l By Eng l ish Composers

Sensoru

1912-13

1 9 1 3 - 1 4

1 9 1 4 - 1 5

1 9 1 5 - 1 6

1 9 1 6 - 1 7

1 9 1 7 - 1 8

1 9 1 8 - 1 9

1 9 1 9 - 2 0

* Data from Elkin,

1

1

2

o

1 946: I 37- l 48

6

3

o

6

3

1

I

2

o

3

4

5

3

,l

1

2

o

3

2

o

o

3

4

London Philharmonic Orchestra). In Beecham's

era (and before), British orchestras worked on the

deputy system, i.e., a member could send a substi-

tute to either rehearsals or the final concert. As

might be expected, it was difficult for any conduc-

tor to leave his imprint on a piece or a concert (or

a permanent conductor his imprint on an orches-

tra) when the roster of players shifted from day to

day (Pearton, I97 4:7 6) .e

Perhaps most important, the orchestra's musicians

were paid throughout this period, a major accom-

74 JcG vol 14, No. 2

plishment when compared with the fate of musi-

cians in other British musical organizations.

Service to the Musical Public

Beecham tried to broaden the audience for Phil-

harmonic concerts. He did this by lowering single

ticket prices. Overall revenues from concert ticket

and program sales rose in 1915-1916 and 1916-

IgI7. (See Table II.) They dropped precipitously

in l9I7-1918, but during this season, the last year

of the war, revenues were low in every orchestrain England. In 1917. the London Symphony, forexample, was forced to cancel its concerts for theduration of the war (Pearton, I974:57).

Beecham also attempted to introduce the publicto French and Russian music and to wean audiencesfrom German music, a goal aided by the anti-Ger-man sentiment which swept England during the war.(No works by Beethoven or Brahms, for example,were prograrnmed at the Philharmonic during thewar seasons.)

Service to the Society as an Organization

Beecham established a beneficent autocracy(Elkin, 1946:108). He dismantled the players' co-operative structure that had existed at the Phil-harmonic for a little over a hundred years. Hetried unsuccessfully to place the Philharmonic on apennanently sound financial footing. But the WorldWar and setbacks in his personal finances conspiredagainst him. Nevertheless, the crucial service hedid perform for the Sociery, whatever price he ex-acted, was to maintain its operation during very per-ilous times.

Col{crusroN

Service organizations have two categories ofgoals: 1) economic goals related to the organrza-tion's survival; and 2) goals related to the organi-zation's mission (e.g., patient treatment and re-search at hospitals; service to music and the mu-sical public in symphony orchestras).

To the extent that survival is threatened, goalsrelated to an organrzation's mission tend to go bythe wayside. Because performing arts organrza-tions are generally non-profit, they almost alwayshave to grapple with survival. When businesspeople control these organizations (i.e., in all but afew remarkable cases), economic goals are almostalways primary.lo

The structure of players' cooperatives tends to

be particularly unstable. In two current examplesof the form, the Vienna Philharmonic and the Ber-lin Philharmonic, artistic matters including person-nel are controlled by the musicians in the orches-fta. But in both cases, the orchestras are heavilysubsidized by the state, i.e., they do not have tocontend with financial problems in the way an or-ganrzatron like the Royal Philharmonic Society didin the period under study. In general, the neces-sity for financial viability tends to override the ar-tistic advantages of any organrzational form.Ironically, players' cooperatives tend to becomemore unstable as they become more successful. Themore successful an artistic organuationis, the largerit grows, and the larger its administrative compo-nent becomes. The organrzation's demands growconcomitantly. What the Andalusian Gypsies saidof love might be said as well of the organizationalimperatives of players' cooperatives: "Love is likea baby. The more you feed it, the more it grows- and the more it wants."

In relation to the case under study, one thing isclear: whatever his musical idiosvncrasies. whenBeecham ruled the Royal PhilharmonicSociety. it was music first.

, F r l € * * * r F { € { <

Jack Kamerman is Associate Professor in So-ciolo gy at Kean Colle ge (NJ) . With Prof .Desmond Mark of the Institut fdr Musiksoziologiein Vienna, he is currently working on a com-parative study of the New York and Vienna Phil-harmonic Orchestras.

{ € * * l | < : f : l € r f { <

RBpBnnNcBs

Arian, Edward. 1971. Bach, Beethoven, and Bu-reaucracy: The Case of the Philadelphia Orchestra. Univer-sity: University of Alabama.

Beecham, Sir Thomas. 1944. A Mingled Chime. Lon-don: Hutchinson.

JCG VoL 14, No. 2 75

Couch,stephenR.lgs3.. .Patronageandorganizat ionalStructureinSymphonyorchestrasinl-ondonandNewYork.' 'pp. 109-121-tn Performers and Performances: The Social

6rgorizotion of Artistic Work, ed' Jack Kamerman and

Rosanne Martorella. South Hadiey, Mass.: PraegerlJ'F'

Bergin.

Elkin, Robert. 1946. Royal Philharmonic: The Annals

of the Royat Philharmonic Society' London: Rider'

Foster, Myles Birket. lgl2' The History of ttte Phil-

harmonic Society of London, 1813-1912' London: John

Lane.

Kamerman, Jack B' 1988. ..The organizational Cort'

tainment of conductors' Authority: Artistic and Financial

Goals at the New York Philharmonrc, 1922'-1936. Journal of

the Conductors' Guild, 9:122-132'

Kennedy,Michae i .1960 'TheHal I6Trad i t ion :ACen-turyofMusic.Manchester: I \ t lanchesterUniversi ty.

Musical Times- 1914-1920' Vois' LV-LXI'

Pearton, Maurice. Ig74" The LSo at 70: A History of

the Orchestra. London: Victor Gollancz'

R o y a l P h i l h a r m o n i c S o c i e t y . . . A c c o u n t B o o k , l 9 0 S -1932." UnPublished.

Royal Philharmonic society. "Minutes of Directors'

Meetings, 1911-1920. " Unpublished'

Zola,Irving K. and Stephen J' Miller, l9l3 ' "The Ero-

sion of Medicini from Within," pp. 153-172 tnThe Profes-

sions and Their Prospects, ed. Eliot Freidson. Beverly Hills,

Cal . : Sage.

ENnr.lorBs

I Th. research presenled in this paper was supported by a

travel grant from the Nationai Endowment for the Arts (1987)

and a career Development grant from Kean college of New

Jersey(1989) 'Special thanksaredueShir leyBarr,Adminis-trutoi , Royal philharmonic Society, and Arthur searle, As-

sistant Keeper, Department of Manuscripts, British Library for

makingtherecordsofthesocietyavai lableandcomprehen-sible. Thanks are also due to Drs. Mark Lender and Michael

Lampert of Kean College of New Jersey, and, for their encour-

agement, to Professors K. Peter Etzkorn and Kurt Blaukopf.

Thissect ionisadaptedfromanearl ierpaperonart is-tic and administrative conflict at the New York Philltarmonic,

1922-1936 (Kamerman, 1988)' It is quoted with permission

of the Conductors' Guild.

r s.. Kamerman (1ggg) for a more thorough exposition of

theanalogybetweenperformingartistsandprofessionals.

3 Beecham also gave financial support to the Hall6 Orchestra

during the same period. But his control was not nearly as

completeandhismaininterestwasinrunninganoperaSea-,on in conjunction with the Hall6 orchestra. still, it would

beinterest ingtocompareprogramminginparal le lSeasons.(The Hall6, for example, never curtailed the playing of music

by German composers in its wartime programs as did' to a

gi.ut extent, the Roval Philharmonic Society')

4 Hereafter referred to as Minutes'

5 Although it was not specified in either the Directors' Min-

utes or the Account Book, it is probable that the "special

donation" of f500 was made by Beecham. (See Table II')

This is consisrent with the account just quoted from the Musi-

cal Times.

6 Hereafter referred fo as Account Book'

7 Beecham was knighted in 1916, most probably for under-

taking a goodwill visit to Rome to promote pro-British senti-

mentdur ingWorldWarl .Beechamhimself ,perhapsoutofmodesty, claimed to be less certain of the reason: ..I returned

to Engiand with my status advanced from plain 'Esquire' to,Knight,' for what precise reason I never knew" (Beecham'

1944:148).

8 Fo, example, he gave up his plan to build an opera house in

Manchester.

9 According to Elkin (1946: 119-120), the situation at the

Society was atypical. Players deemed it an honor to be cho-

sen for the Society's concerts and tried to keep their other

obligations from interfering with their commitment to the

socLty. Also, they didn,t choose their own substitutes, but

notified the Society's Secretary who chose substitutes from

his list. Even under these favorable circumstances, it is un-

likely that things always worked as smoothly as Elkin sug-

g.r,r. In addition, as Btpin admits, an orchestra that played

eight or so concerts a year couldn't achieve the ensemble of

an-orchestra that played together all year round'

l0 For example, the situation at the New York symphony and

NewYorkPhilharmonicinthesameperiod.(amerman,1988).

76 JCG vol 14, No. 2

An Introduction to the Theoriesof Fleinrich Schenker (Part I)

by Peter Gibeau

Schenkerian analysis is usually perceived as theexclusive domain of theorists, since it is frequentlystudied in graduate or advanced undergraduatetheory courses. This reputation is unfortunate be-cause many of Schenker's ideas and analytical tech-niques can be of great value to performers and com-posers as well"

Heinrich Schenker was not just an armchairtheorist: he was a practicing musician, a prof"es-sional pianist and accompanist who wrote articlesfor music journals, edited works by Beethoven,C.P.E. Bach and others, and composed. Becauseof his often polemical opinions, Schenker tendedto alienate other theorists: he was thus never as-sociated with an educational institution but earnedhis living as a pianist, editor, and private teacherof theory and piano. As a pianist and theorisr,Schenker followed the example of C.P.E. Bach inbelieving that a piece of music could be performedcorrectly only if the performer understood thecomposer's intentions as tnterpreted from the score,and if he or she had developed a visual and auralunderstanding of the composition's hierarchy oftonal values. This view may be considered toorestrictive. Some performers would prefer to in-terpret by instinct than by a perspective gainedthrough rigorous probing - but, for the performerwho learns Schenkerian analytical techniques, therewards are great.

This article consists of three main sections. PartI introduces some of the most important conceptsof Schenker analysis. In Part II, these concepts(together with additional elements) are applied tomusical examples ranging from nursery tunes tosymphonic repertoire. Part III consists of an an-notated bibliography of selected books and articles

by Schenker and by others about his theories. An-notations will tend to focus on materials for thenon-theorist interested in further exploration.

Panr I

General prerequisites to the study of Schenke-rian theory include a working knowledge of coun-terpoint (including figured bass) and harmony.These are combined wi th la ter concepts o ftonicization, scale-step, prolongation', diminution,structural levels, the Ursatz (fundamental structure),composing-out, linear progressions, and motivic re-lationships. Schenker developed a technique ofgraphics that elegantly synthesizes all of the aboveconcepts intc'r a unified and very powerful analyti-cal tool for understanding tonal music. The endproduct of Schenkerian analysis is not only to un-earth the structural entirety of a piece of music butalso to reveal its inner connectedness. Thus amusical composition is perceived to be an organicwhole, not just a series of formal sections with in-dividual harmonic or thematic characteristics.

Schenkerian analytical procedures focus pri-marily on the horizontal aspects of musical com-position. One should be mindful that most musicemanating from Western and even non-Western tra-dit ions is melodic. In the Western tradit ion,Gregorian chant, early Medieval polyphony, folksongs, etc., are essentially linear in nature. Har-mony was a later development. I would go so faras to describe the Bach Chorales, that mother lodeof material for undergraduate harmonic analysis,as being linear in conception and construction.Schenker's analysis of a chorale from the Sr. Mat-thew Passion (in his Five Graphic Analyses) will

JCG Vol. 14. No. 2 77

m. I 34 3 8 M 101 rt4 153 166s.ecap)

Tonality:G minor I -

vI

- (sec.V) -5-

ilI - (sec.V)- V-

Example I a: From Schenker's "Mozart; Sinfonie G-Moll" (1926) Example I b "' Further reduction

bear this out. A book on the Bach Chorales that

was written from a Schenkerian perspective rs Layer

Dictations: A New Approach to the Bach Chorales

(New York: Longman, 1978) by Richard Brooks

and Gerald Warfield.Counterpoint and voice leading, central to any

horizontal focus, concern the principles governing

the progression of a work's individual and com-

bined voices. A study of species counterpoint is

the first step in learning these principles; for the

Schenkerian student, the traditional printed source

is the pedagogical system of species counterpoint

devised by Johann Joseph Fux Q66A-U4D. A1-

though Fux's treatise fell short of its original goal

of describing sixteenth-century counterpoint, it did

produce unintended but far-reaching consequences :

since Flaydn, Mozart, Beethoven and others stud-

ied Fux, the treatise actually influenced eighteenth-

and n ineteenth-century compos i t ion ! For

Schenker, a study of species counterpoint in ef-

fect retraces the path of study of the great mas-

ters, enabling the student to achieve a greater

understanding of the underlying contrapuntal prin-

ciples governing virtually all of the Western music

composed from the seventeenth through the nine-

teenth centuries.Unlike traditional undergraduate theory courses

that tend to stress chord-by-chord harmonic anal-

ysis, the harmonic component of Schenkerian analy-

sis goes beyond the consideration of individual

chords and their functions by encompassing a larger

78 JCG vol 14, No. 2

perspective of harmony: a single chord may con-

trol a long span of music. Forte and Gilbert, in

their Introduction to Schenkerian Analysis, clarify

this concept with an illustration from Schenker's

writings. Example 1a (found in Forte and Gilbert,

p. 104) comes from Schenker's L926 essay on

Mozart's Symphony No. 40 in G-minor (K. 550),

which he published in a series of essays called Das

Meisterwerk in der Musik (vol . 2, App. 7) . This

analytical graph is only one of a series produced

for this piece: it shows the harmonic organization

of the symphony's first movement from the begin-

ning to bar 166, i.e., the recapitulation. The outer

voices delineate the largest-scale harmonies (no-

tated in whole notes), and one can see the harmonic

succession I-III-V-I (a broken triad, or bass

arpeggiation). Both III and V are introduced by

their own dominants, indicated by the abbreviation" sec. V " (secondary dominant) . Other secondary

structures appear as well - for example, the ex-

tended 5-6 motion that ends in bar 101.

As Forte and Gilbert explain,

An abstract analytic graph such as this is

far removed from the surface of the music.

It was never intended to be shown apart from

the other graphs in the series, which present

the analysis of the work in all its details,

and it is used here only to demonstrate the

Schenkerian concept of large-scale har-

mony. (p. 104)

Example lb is a further distillation by Forte andGilbert of the harmonic structure revealed in Ex-ample la:

It represents the basic succession of conso-nant diatonic triads that forms the cohesiveprogression which binds the long span ofmusic together. While the upper voice main-tains the common tone D, the bass arpeg-giates the tonic (G-minor) triad, movingfrom I to V through III. When V is reachedin m. 153 of the music, there is a return toI. The outer voices thus represent a pro-jec t ion o f the ton ic t r iad a bas icSchenkerian concept and the essence oflarge-scale harmonic structure. (p. 10a)

Projection of the Tonic Triad

The "projection of the tonic triad" mentionedabove is a central idea in Schenkerian analysis: spe-cifically, a piece of tonal music is a contrapuntalprolongation of the tonic triad in time. The modelderived from this triadic projection is called theUrsatz, or fundamental structure. The concept isintroduced here, although the models and its vari-ants will be discussed later.

Because of the larger harmonic vistas now pos-sible, Schenkerian theorists do not often use theterms key and modulation. Forte and Gilbert ex-plain that the Bb triad in bar 44 of Example la, forinstance, may be considered as the tonic triad inthe key of Bb and the progression that immediatelyprecedes it may be regarded as a modulation fromG minor to Bb major. In the local sense, this iscertainly correct:

But, with respect to the overall organiza-tion of the movement, which is governedby the tonic (G minor) triad, the Bb triad isstill il (mediant) and the D-major triad isstill dominant. It is a question of focus andscale. (p. 10a)

Tonicization

Although Schenker used the term modulationin his earlier writings, he later rejected it in favorof tonicization, "which refers to the establishmentof a diatonic triad as a temporary tonic. Thus, in

[Example la] , the mediant (III) is tonicized by theprogression that begins in m. 34." (p. 104) Toni-cization is closely related to the concept of Stufe,or scale step. In Example Ia, Bb is simply thediatonic scale step III, the third of the tonic G-minor harmony. The concept of scale step allowsfor chromatic tonicization as well. and is not re-stricted to diatonic harmonies. For example, if thesecond theme of another G-minor symphony werein Bb minor (IIIb [ - ilIb3] ) or even B major 1# III# ;,either of these tonicizations would be described asbelonging to scale-step I I I . Consistent wi thSchenker's views of large-scale harmony, Stuferefers not only to a single chord but to a control-ling harmony. Thus, passing and neighboringchords and other vertical sonorities that result pri-marily from counterpoint do not rank as individualharmonies, but are covered by the umbrella of asingle scale-step. Schenker used the term Stufeprimarily in his earlier writings (including Har-mon)), published in 1906), and the concept led di-rectly to his later theories of prolongation.

Drmtnutiort: "Ah. vous dirais-je. Maman"

Diminution is a crucial element of Schenker'stheories. Forte and Gilbert define diminution as"the process by which a tone or an interval formedby notes of longer value is expressed in notes ofsmaller value." (p. 7) There are several types ofdiminutions: arpeggiations (Arp), passing notes(Ps), neighboring notes (N), and consonant skips(CS). As seen in Examples 2a-e, the interval C-Gcan be filled in by the arpeggiation c-e-g, or bypassing tones c-d-e-f-g. One of the passing tonescan have a neighbor note (c-d-e-fef-g) or an addedconsonant skip (c-dg-e-fef-g). What was called

JCG VoL 14, No. 2 79

a) b) Arp c) Ps d) Ps with N e) Ps with CS and N

0 Mozart's Variations on

Theme

Ah, vous dirais-ie, Mam-an

Var. Xl: ArPeggiation Var. VIII: Passing Tones

a aa

Example 2a-e "' Diminutions

diminution (or division in England) during the Re-

naissance became variation technique in the eigh-

teenth century. Exarnple 2f shows Mozart's dimi-

nutions of C-G from Ah, votts dirais-ie, Maman,

K. 265. (This tune and others sharing the same

structure will return in Part II.)

Continuing in the tradition of C.P.E. Bach,

Schenker maintained that there is a hierarchy of

pitches in any musical composition, some carrying

more structural significance than others. The hier-

archy in any given piece is determined by context

and must be consistent with rules of harmony and

counterpoint. In Schenkerian analysis, this hierar-

chy translates into the concept of structural levels,

which recognizes three general levels: the fore-

ground (near the surface of the piece); the

middleground, where many of the foreground details

are omiffed, thus clarifying deeper strucnrres; and the

background, which reveals the bare-bones strucilre.

David Neumeyer and Susan Tepping, in the intro-

duction to their excellent A Guide to Schenkerian

Analysis, describe each level as Schenker viewed

them, i.e., from background to foreground:

80 JCG vol 14, No. 2

To Schenker, the genius "improvises" on

the basis of the nature-given elements and

the natural systems of harmony and coun-

terpoint: this is "composing-out" (Auskom-

ponierung) from the background. Through

a series of increasingly free, more detailed

levels (Schichten), we reach the actual score'

with all its details. Schenker believed the

genius could grasp and control all the lev-

els simultaneously, but the non-genius was

condemned to flounder about in the fore-

ground, creating pastiches rather than or-

ganically coherent musical artworks. (p. 1)

Thus composition, for Schenker, tends to begin with

the background (even at a subconscious level), pro-

ceeds through the middleground and the foreground

and finally arrives at the surface of the piece, the

score. The process of composing-out is directly

related to the concept of diminution, and involves

a "grasp and control [ofl all the levels simulta-

neously." Analysis, on the other hand, starts with

the score, and the theorist attempts to identify the

various diminutions and eliminate them from suc-

cessively deeper levels of structure, until the back-

ground is reached. However, Schenker believed

that an idea could evolve from the background to

Background

the foreground and fromthe foreground to the back-ground. Unfortunately, a common misconceptionof Schenker's theories is that they are exclusivelyreductive in nature, and I have heard the quip onmore than one occasion that doing Schenkeriananalysis is like peeling an onion - you peel offone layer at a time until there's nothing left. Ai-though analysis does focus on discovering the struc-ture of a composition already written, for Schenker.analysis also meant retracing the steps of the cre-ative process: one must always keep in mind a likelyprocess of growth from the background to the fore-ground. Simple mechanical reduction from theforeground to its background structure will rarelyyield true insight into a piece of music" The in-trepid theorist (or performer) must continually fol-low the levels of analysis in both directions to ar-rive at an optimal interpretation.

Theoretical Interpretations

Note the term 'interpretation.' Unlike the viewsof many outside the field who consider theory tobe cut and dried, black and white, right or wrong,often there is in fact great room for differing theo-retical interpretations of a piece. Here the inher-ent value is that much can be learned about a pieceby comparing different interpretations, several ofwhich may be valid. Obviously error is certainlypossible, and flaws in analysis are mainly due toinaccurate middleground descriptions of specificforeground events, inconsistent voice-leading be-tween levels, or (most importantly) the lack of faith-

Example 3: }vertone series

fulness of the analysis to the score. Thus the abil-ity to "grasp and control all the levels simulta-neously" is extremely important not only to thecornposer but to the analyst as well. Specific ex-amples of differing interpretations will be exploredin Fart IL

Ursatz. the Fundamental Structure

One of the beauties of Schenkerian analysis isthe elegant way in which counterpoint and harmonyare synthesized into one holistic view of tonal mu-sic. As mentioned earlier, Schenker believed thatany piece of tonal music represents the unfbldingof the tonic triad in time. This tonic triad, a har-mony, is derived from the first six notes of theovertone series (Example 3). The method of pro-longation of this harmony in time is by contrapun-tal means, what Schenker called the fundamentalstructure, the Ursatz (Example 4). Graphically,the fundamental structure appears in either wholenotes or half notes, the latter usually beamed. Thefundamental structure consists of two voices , the

fundamental l ine (the top l ine) and the bass

A ) a iA A A

3 2 1 2 1

Example 4; (Jrsatz structurer; ?-liru, ?Jinr, i-lfru

JCG Vol. 14, No. 2 8r

l5a) IrL m . 5

t--Horn ffi

E major: hut (n.n.hrm.)

c) mm' 8 ff

Example 5; Brahms, Symphony No. 4, from FnsB CouposlrloN, Fig. I19, I5a-c

arpeggiation (the bass line). In the fundamental

line, the headtone (either the third [i], fiftn [3], or

rarely the upper root tfl of the tonic triad) descends

through one or more passing tones to the tonic note.

The bass arpeggiation shows the movement I to V

to I. As the sum of these two lines, the fundamen-

tal structure is a contrapuntal model that delineates

the entire structure of a piece. The counterpoint of

the two lines of the fundamental structure prolong

a harmony, namely the tonic triad. At the later

levels (middleground and foreground), harmony can

prolong counterpoint as when a normally disso-

nant neighbor note receives consonant harmonic

support. This interdependence of harmony and

counterpoint functions at every level.

Motives

Motives, for Schenker, involve what he termed

rn Free Composition "transference of the forms of

the fundamental structure" to other levels of struc-

ture including the surface. (p. 87) As Forte and

Gilbert explain, "various aspects of large-scale

structure are often mirrored in the small, and . . .

seemingly small gestures can turn out to be more

significant than they first appear to be." (p. 235)

Thus a melody with a simple descent from 3 to ?

may reflect the larger structure of the phrase or

even an entire movement. As an example, Forte

and Gilbert cite the opening of Beethoven's "Les

Adieux" Sonata, op . 8 la, where the opening

Lebewohl motive G-F-Eb t?-2-?l

prolongs G at the outset; if G (scale degree

3 in the key of Eb) turns out to be the pri-

mary tone, then this descent from G to Eb

can be read as a replica of the fundamental

line. That G (3) is the primary tone seems

indeed to be the case, owing to the way in

which G, its upper neighbor Ab, and the

stepwise descent of a third from G, are em-

phasized variously throughout the first

movement. (P. 235)

A much simpler example is the opening of Stephen

Foster's "swanee River," where the first six notes

descend twice from i to ?. This reflects the struc-

ture of the entire melody, which prolongs ? before

82 JCG vol 14, No. 2

descending to ? in the final two measures.Schenker's treatment of motives (despite his

denial of the term "motive" in his later works) con-cerns repetition, especially concealed repetition.Concealed repetitions, or motivic parallelisms, areappearances of an idea on several levels. On thesurface, the notes may appear consecutively, but atdeeper levels they may be separated by interveningnotes. An example from Free Composition wrllsuffice to demonstrate the concept (Example 5:Schenker's Fig. 119, 15a-c). In a), Schenker pre-sents the opening theme from the second move-ment of Brahms's Fourth Symphony, eliminatingboth rhythm and repeated notes to reveal the struc-ture of the melody. 15b shows the main theme inthe tonic E major (at concert pitch). 15c illustratesthe main point of the example, namely that the firstthree notes of the theme, which are heard manytimes before, are expanded in a hidden repetitionby the clarinet line in bars 8/. The asterisks dem-onstrate how the structural pitches on the top staffmap onto the actual melody on the lower staff.Schenker rarely uses asterisks, but in any analysisprojecting several levels, the pitches always line upvertically from one level to another to clariff the struc-tural relationships.

Schenker's treatment of harmony in this ex-ample deserves comment, in that he doesn't dis-cuss the example in the text of Free Composition.The key of the movement is E major, although theopening horn solo may sound like the Phrygian

mode on E. That the E sounds like the tonic is dueprimarily to the strong E-minor ending of thefirst movement. However. Schenker labels theharmony *nVI" because the melody outlines a C-major triad. He further identifies the hVI as aneighbor-note harmony (n.n.hrm.) because scale-step VI functions mainly as an upper neighbornote to the dominant. This occurs in deceptivecadences, for instance, where the bass motion isV-VI(-N) . V. (The ell ipse is necessaryhere because there is almost always an interven-ing harmony between the VI and the followingV.) In this work, the opening melody ends on aunison E on the downbeat of bar 4, followed byu VX chord on the fourth beat, followed by thetonic E major in bar 5. The implied voice lead-ing appears in Example 6a, my own inter-pretation of Schenker's intent. Most dominant

! chords resolve to I Uefore resolving to thetonic. (Schenker consistently interprets cadential

f chords as belonging to the dominant and notthe tonic. Thus he always writer Vt and not If .)But in this case the harmony is ambiguous enoughthat the E[ chord in bar 4 sounds like it is al-ready part of the tonic, not the dominant. Ex-ample 6b shows a later instance of the C-majorneighbor-note harmony, heard just before thearrival of the second theme after the reca-pitulation. The bottom line shows a double neigh-bor-note motion around the dominant B: C-B-Bb ( -A# ) -8 .

b) m. 87 (2nd theme)

Example 6a-b: l{eighbor-note harmonies (AVl in Brahms, Symphony No. 4, II

JCG VoL 14. No. 2 83

Shenkerian Graphics

Schenker developed his technique of graphics

over a period of years, and he was not absolutely

consistent in his use of symbols. Many of his analy-

ses are fragmentary, often intended to illustrate a

point or to reveal the structure of a brief passage.

Such examples can be found in the Appendix to

Free Composition and in other books and articles.

In other analyses, Schenker graphs an entire com-

position and includes detailed background, mid-

dleground, and foreground levels. His Five Graphic

Analltses (available from Dover) is the best source

for analyses of complete works (see section en-

titled "Works by Schenker" on p. 88). Despite

Schenker's inconsistent use of graphics, some gen-

eral observations can be made. The following are

drawn from Allen Forte's Introduction to the En-

glish Edition of Free Composition:

In general, the larger note values, half

and whole notes, belong to the deeper struc-

tural levels, that is, to middleground and

background. [Black notes with stems belong

to deeper levels than those without stems.l

Beams and stems are used to connect com-ponents of the fundamental line and com-ponents of linear progressions at the mid-

dleground level. They are also used to con-

nect the main bass notes of a span of music.

Slurs delineate structurally cohesive motions

involving two or more components (and they

are similar to performance slurs in ordinary

notation). . . .The diagonal line serves a number of

purposes, the most important of which are

to show that a particular bass note and a

particular soprano note belong together even

though they do not coincide temporally, and

to indicate an octave displacement of a note.

To designate components of the funda-

mental line, carets above scale-degree num-

bers are used [e.g. t i ?1. If a succession

84 JCG vol 14, No. 2

of such numbers is enclosed in parenthe-

ses, it means that the succession replicates

the fundamental line but is not equivalent

to it [this relates back to Schenker's idea of"hidden repetitions" of the fundamental

structurel. The short double thin barline

above the upper staff is the symbol for in-

terruption of the progression of the funda-

mental line.In addition to these symbols, which be-

long to Schenker's special graphic system,

he employs conventional symbols, such as

figured bass, Roman numerals to specify

scale degrees upon which harmonies are

based (often at more than one level), nu-

merals to show contrapuntal patterns, such

as 10-10 [i.e., parallel tenths], and letters

designating form [A,,A, B, etc.]. Labels

are frequently given to show the type ofprolongation in operation at a particular

point, such as initial ascent, or to indicate

contrapuntal function, such as neighbor note

or passing note. (pp. xix-xx)

In addition, Schenker has a propensity for using a

flagged note (a single eighth note) to denote a neigh-

bor note. Sometimes this note is labelled with an"N," but not always. Depending upon the amount

of detail intended, either one or two staves may be

used.

Pnnr II

Schenker's motto was "always the same, but

not in the same way" (Semper idem sed non eodem

modo). Part II will demonstrate the truth of this

motto. As Forte and Gilbert maintain,

the closer we get to the background, the

more similar any two pieces are likely to

appear; obviously, the more detail we in-

troduce, the more differences we are likely

to f ind. (p. 131)

b)I

J

V

2

I

,lI

c)F major:

Surface

oI

Example

V

7: Development of a tune through structural levels

eI

In the masterworks of the seventeenth to the nine-teenth centuries, the transformation from back-ground to surface can require many analytical lev-els, depending on the complexity of the piece.Tunes and melodies, however, often resemble thebackground already: diminution is usually limitedand one can see the fundamental structure lyingjust below the surface. As stated earlier, the struc-ture of a melody may serve as a motivic micro-cosm of the background, and Schenker seized thisas a powerful corroboration of the Ursatz. Thefollowing examples present several backgroundstructures that are composed out by the diminu-tions mentioned earlier. It will be helpful to playthese examples at a keyboard. Even graphs with-out rhythmic notation can be played, and the morecomplex examples can often be comprehended au-rally before they are understood visually. Another

hint: all of the prtches of the various levels arealigned vertically, and it is valuable to scan backand forth between levels.

Example 7a displays a simple background struc-ture. Example 7b corresponds to a kind of prim-itive middleground where several diminutions areadded, the first of which is called a first orderarpeggiation, which prepares the headtone by anascending arpeggiation. The myriad examples offirst order arpeggiation include the opening mea-sures of Mendelssohn's Octet, op. 20, his String

Quartets in D major and E minor, op. 44 nos. 1and 2, and the last movement of Mozart's Sym-phony in G-minor, K. 550. An especially inter-esting example of a first order arpeggiation is foundin the opening of the Allegretto grazioso move-ment from Dvorak's 8th Symphony (Example 8).Here a rapid ascending arpeggiation is followed by

JCG Vol. 14. No. 2 85

{ P r l lI9 l : >A.

t a - \=-- .a

f --- . - - -

Example B; First order arpeggiation and subsequent expansion in Dvorak's Symphony lVo. B, III

Example 9; Linear progressions in"Amer ica" / "God Save the Queef l , " phrase I

c)

t t tr-T-r-T -

/tFlE------

an expanded descent of the same arpeggiation(indicated by arrows), another instance of hid-

den repetition. (Another similar example is the

fanfare at the start of a horse race.) In Example

7b, there is a further diminution of the first order

arpeggiation, a passing tone from the tonic to the

third. Following the arpeggiation are other dimi-

nutions, specifically a neighbor-note motion pro-

longing the headtone A (3) and a double neigh-

bor-note motion prolonging 2 in the descent.

From there it is a short, steady step to the sur-

face. Other melodies that share the "How dry I

am" motive are the opening of Handel's Music

for the Royal Fireworks, the finale to his Water

Music Suite, "Do you know the Muffin man?,"

t h e c l i m a x o f T c h a i k -

o w s k y ' s 1 B 1 2 O v e r t u r e ,"Down in the Valley," the

opening of Brahms's Piano

Quintet , op . 34, the last

movement of his Horn Trio,

the slow movements from

Bee thoven ' s Second and

T h i r d S y m p h o n i e s , t h e

minuet of Mozart' s " Eine

k le ine Nach tmus ik , " " O

Waly Waly," ("The Water

is Wide"), and "To al l the

g i r l s I ' ve l oved be fo re . "

The over tone ser ies is a

likely source for this popu-

lar melodic opening. Inci-

dentally, the famous horn

solo in the introduction of

the last movement of Brahms's First Symphony

is the retrograde form of the tune.

Linear Progressions

Linear motion is the most common form of me-

lodic movement at every level. Schenkerian theory

describe s linear progressions (Zug, plural Zilge),

which are stepwise motions that usually outline an

interval of an underlying harmony. There can be

3-lines, 4-lines, 5-lines, etc. in any work at any

level. The most common linear progression is the

3-line, or 3-progression, the equivalent of a simple

passing motion (Example 9a). The first or last

note of a linear progression prolongs a deeper-level

86 JCG vol 11, No. 2

Fgd- 4 3

V8

3

-7VI

Example I0: Another 3-progression -- Rrahms, "Da unten im Thale"

9sTffi

. . r lJ-prog. L

t--

N-l- a-

-

ffif+-: ffi a a t al at

d. , r l

, Y lI

J J

lX' l t . r

event , e .g . , a pass ing tone. The remain ingpitches have less structural significance. For ex-ample, given the fundamental line i-?-? (itself

the original form of a linear progression), ? ir upassing tone that may itself support the linearprogress ion)_i_i at the next level towards the sur-face. The ? of this nested linear progression is alsoa passing tone, and it is structurally less signifi-cant than the original passing 2. It is certainlynot to be mistaken for the arrival of the struc-tural ?. Example 9a shows a 3-progression as-cending to a headtone i, labeled initial ascent.After being prolonged by a simple neighbor note,the line descends back to ?. (The descent is shownin parentheses because it is only the opening phraseof the melody and is thus not the true structuraldescent.) Example 9b shows that the second stepof the initial ascent and both ttre 3 and, ) of thedescent are prolonged by 3-progressions, givingrise to a royal tune (9c).

Another beautiful 3-progression is found in

Brahms's "Da unten im Thale " (Example 10). In

the descent,) supports a 3-progression (bar 5),, andagain in this context, the tonic E functions as apassing tone. Other details of this gorgeous pieceare worth noting: the bass line, with its openingarpeggiation to V followed by a descent to I (inter-

rupted by V) reflects the structure of the top line,which ascends in steps to the headtone 3 1an initialascent) then descends to i. The upper voice's ini-t ia l ascent cou ld a lso be in terpre ted as anarpeggiation with passing tones., which would re-flect the opening arpeggiation in the bass . C#operates in both voices as an upper neighbor(flagged in the example) to either the headtone 13)in the fundamental line, or the dominant (V) inthe bass. The bass upper neighbor is especiallybeautiful in its deceptive cadence function in bar4. A good summary of linear progressions ap-pears in Neumeyer and Tepping (pp. 85-6), andForte and Gilbert (pp . 235-45, with exercises onpp. 246-49).

JCG Vol. 14. No. 2 87

This concludes the first half of the article. The

second installment will complete Part II and in-

clude a discussion of middleground structures, in-

terrupted structure, contrapuntal melodies, the"Twinkle2 M9" model, motivic expansion, and

analyses of the slow movement from an early string

quartet by Mozart (K. L57) and the opening theme

of Brahms's Fourth Symphony.

Plnr III

The select bibliography that comprises Part III

covers three main areas. The first will help the

curious get started with Schenkerian analysis, the

second covers works by Schenker, and the third

describes some other sources, including general bib-

liographies.

Getting started

The best source I know of for learning the fun-

damentals of Schenkerian analysis is ,4 Guide to

Schenkerian Analysis, by David Neumeyer and Su-

san Tepping (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall,

L992). It is a comprehensive textbook, complete

with exercises and supplementary assignments.

Many of the 'solutions' to the assignments are found

in the back of the book. In the introduction, the

authors demonstrate how an idea can develop from

a simple Ursatz structure, progress through sev-

eral levels of the middleground, and arrive at the

surface as a real piece of music (in this case, a

sixteen-bar excerpt from Weber's Der Freischiltz).

The authors then devote the first half of the book

to the study of bass lines, presenting within that

context the various concepts of prolongation and

diminution (along with aspects of graphic notation).

This method is very effective because the interpre-

tation of a bass line involves much of the harmonic

motion familiar to trained musicians, and because

bass lines are generally much less complex than

upper voices. In addition, starting with the bass is

togical because an understanding of the bass line is

a prerequisite to a study of upper voices. In the

second half of the book, the authors take the con-

cepts learned from bass lines and apply them to

upper voices, thus enabling the reader to study sev-

eral complete (though brief pieces" The book also

includes an excellent annotated bibliography.

My only caveat about the book relates to the

interpretation of some of the musical examples. Be-

sides an overuse of the symbol for unfolding, there

are numerous small details that are problematic.

Such disagreements can make for interesting dis-

cussion in a classroom situation, and they help re-

inforce the idea that analysis is often largely a mat-

ter of interpretation. However, they also point out

that no matter how good a book is, a student still

needs the outside perspective of a teacher, or at

least other sources. The Guide is a very good start-

ing point notwithstanding, and I would recommend

it to anyone wishing to learn about Schenker.

Another text for the novice is by Allen Forte

and Steven Gilbert. Introduction to Schenkerian

Analysis (New York: Norton, 1983). Forte and

Gilbert present Schenkerian analysis from a mainly

reductive approach and tend to neglect the com-

posing-out process from the background. How-

ever, the first six chapters offer a valuable sum-

mary of diminutions, counterpoint, figured bass,

harmony, and other musical processes functioning

in the foreground. It is a complex book and it

lacks the direct clarity of the more recent Guide

discussed above.

Works by Schenker

The source that first piqued my interest in

Schenker is his Five Graphic Music Analyses (New

York: Dover, 1969). This very affordable book

contains complete analyses from surface to back-

ground levels of a chorale by Bach ("Ich bin's, ich

sollte bil!3en"), his C-major Prelude from WTC I

(perhaps the best piece to study first), the develop-

88 JCG vol 14, l,{o. 2

ment section from the first movement of Haydn'sSonata in Eb major (Hob. XVI, No. 49), and twoEtudes from opus 10 by Chopin: no. 8 in F major,and no . 12 tn C minor ("Revolutionary"). Thereis also a fine introduction (by Felix Salzer, one ofSchenker's students) that contains a useful glos-sary with German Schenkerian terms with theirEnglish equivalents and explanatory notes. Mostof the book consists of the graphs themselves, andI strongly recommend playing the levels of eachgraph on a keyboard. To supplement Schenker'sanalysis of Bach's C-major Prelude, read WilliamDrabkin, "A Lesson in Analysis from HeinrichSchenker: The C Major Prelude from Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I, " in Music Analysis 4(1985): 241-258. Drabkin adds detail and addi-tional levels that fall 'between' Schenker's levels,which represent the background, the first level(middleground) and the Urlinietafel (close to, butnot quite the surface).

The most important source for a serious studyof Schenker analysis is his own treatise Free Com-position, edited and translated by Ernst Oster intwo volumes (New York: Macmillan, 1979). Theoriginal German edition was published in 1935,shortly after Schenker's death. Free Compositionrepresents the culmination of Schenker's theoreti-cal thought but was not intended as a pedagogicaltext. Thus some previous knowledge of Schenker'swork is necessary to understand the treatise's con-tents. In the first volume, Schenker outlines histheories on structural levels, working from the back-ground to the foreground. Throughout this firstvolume, he illustrates his discussions with examplesfrom the second volume, the Anhang (appendix).In the Anhang, he presents 550 illustrations drawnfrom the literature of tonal music. These rangefrom brief musical excerpts (with or without ana-lytical symbols) to analytical sketches of completemovements from extended works. The Anhang alsoincludes many examples that Schenker fails to men-tion in Volume I (such as the opening of the second

movement of Brahms's Fourth, Example 5 in thisarticle), and it is rewarding to browse the Anhangfor interesting analytical tidbits. The graphic no-tation developed by Schenker reaches a high de-gree of refinement rn Free Composition, and lengthyexplanation of the graphs is unnecessary (although

some may be required). However, it should againbe pointed out that Schenker's use of graphic nota-tion is not absolutely consistent in this treatise. Per-haps the primary reason is that the examples werecollected over more than a twenty-year period, andhis technique evolved somewhat during that time.Free Composition is a necessary text for any seri-ous student of Schenker.

Schenker considered Free Composition as thepinnacle of a trilogy of works he called hrs Neuemusikalische Theorien und Phantasien. The firstof the three rs Harmonielehre, first published inGerman in 1905, and available in English as Har-mon)), translated by Elizabeth Mann Borgese (Chi-cago: University of Chicago Press , L954). In thisearly work, Schenker lays the foundation for hislater theories of tonal music. His ideas did de-velop over time, however, and although he remainedremarkably (even stubbornly) consistent in someways, many of the ideas outlined rn Harmony wercsuperseded in Free Composition. Thus it is betterto read HarmonTt after gaining familiarity withSchenker's other works.

The second work in the trilogy rs Kontrapunkt(Counterpoint). translated by John Rothgeb,in twovolumes (New York: Longman, 1986). This is adetailed and rigorous review of species counter-point, the system devised by Fux. The first vol-ume may serve as a textbook, and for the seriousSchenker student, both volumes of Counterpoint ranksecond in significance only to Free Composition.

Other sources. including general bibliographies

One excellent source that gathers articles onmany different topics is edited by David Beach:

JCG V'ol. 14. No. 2 89

Aspects of Schenkerian Theory (New Haven: Yale

University Press, 1983). Articles in this collection

include Beach's "schenker's Theories: A Pedagogi-

cal View," Carl Schachter's "Motive and Text in

Four Schubert Songs, " and Felix Salzer's "Heinrich

Schenker and Historical Research: Monteverdi's

Madrigal OimD, se tanto amate."

The Music Forum was a journal published in

the 60s and 70s. It was founded by Felix Salzer

(one of Schenker's students) and dedicated to top-

ics in Schenker analysis. Other theory journals

that continue to publish Schenkerian articles include

Journal of Music Theory, Music Theory Spectrum,

and Music AnalYsis.

A usefu l re ference source is by Lar ry

Laskowskr. Heinrich Schenker: An Annotated In-

dex to his Analyses of Musical Works (New York,

197S). Laskowski cites references in Schenker's

published works to specific musical compositions.

Although many of the examples from the pieces

cited are extremely fragmentary (as short as one or

two bars), this index is still a valuable tool.

Finally, there are several bibliographies avail-

able to aid in Schenkerian research. The follow-

ing four were compiled by David Beach, and are

listed in reverse chronological order:

1. "schenkerian Theor], " Music Theory Spectrum

11. l r (1989): 3-r4.

2. "The Current State of Schenkerian Research,"

Acta Musicologica 5712 (1985): 276-307 .

3. "A Schenker Bibliography ," Journal of Music

Theory 23 (1979): 275-286.

4. "A Schenker Bibliography," Journal of Music

Theory 13 (1969): 2-37. Reprinted in Maury

Yeston, ed., Readings in Schenker Analysis and

Other Approacftes (New Haven: Yale

Universitv Press , 1977).

rt :t< tf tf {c :lt tl. :1.

Dr. Peter Gibeau is .Assistant Professor of

Music at the University of Wisconsin Center -

Washington and Music Director of the Moraine

Chorus WI).

90 JCG vol 14, No. 2

Fritz Reiner andthe Technique of Conductitg

by Kenneth Morgan

Frttz Reiner was one of a small number of cel-ebrated twentieth-century conductors who directedtraining programs for young conductors. His dis-tinctive approach warrants detailed examination,given his reputation for a precise, virtuosic, and yet

expressive baton technique. George Antheil wrotethat Reiner was a "conductor's conductor," the "one

conductor whom conductors themselves considersuperlative."l Leonard Bernstein called Reiner a "su-

preme master" of the baton,z and both Koussevttzkyand Mitropoulos occasionally attended Reiner's re-hearsals to acquire some insights through personal

observation.3 Reiner obviously had much to offeras a teacher of conducting; it is the aim of this ar-ticle to examine published and unpublished writingsby and about Reiner to determine how he communi-cated to students his ideas on conducting and perfor-

mance while teaching at the Curtis Institute.Reiner did not believe that conducting was in-

tuitive; rather, it required learning, skill and experi-ence.4 He formulated specific views about the craftof conducting, one of which was that some prereq-

uisite qualities, personality traits and talents werevital to an aspiring conductor. Among these 'des-

iderata' were the person's emotions, actions, reac-tions and imagination. These, he felt, could not beacquired through training but needed to be charac-teristics inherent in the conductor's personality.

Reiner thought conductors should possess a stimu-

lating and sympathetic personality, expressive eyes

and executive ability. Educationally, they needed awide knowledge of the sister arts, including paint-

ing, sculpture, poetry and world literature. They

should be familiar, in particular, with the literary

classics on which much music was based - Shakes-peare's plays, Goethe's Faust and Dante's Inferno- for no conductor could interpret music based onliterary masterpieces without reading and absorbing

their texts.5 Reiner theorized that a well-read, culti-vated individual would have been exposed to uni-versal artistic ideas that could, if applied, signifi-cantly enrich the performance of music.6

To communicate effectively with his students,Reiner required that each student have the follow-ing musical training and skills: an infallible ear andan in-depth knowledge of harmotry, theory, coun-terpoint and musical form; studies in or knowledge

of compo sitional technique (including contemporaryperspectives), even though one may never have com-posed; significant familiarity with the use and na-ture of musical instruments (including the voice),

together with a technical understanding of musicalacoustics; adequate piano skills that allowed a stu-

dent to work out and transpose scores at the key-

board in order to analyze them melodically, harmoni-

cally and structurally in a critical fashion; and a thor-

ough familiarity with musical literature, especially

the orchestral repertoire.T He was also convincedthat a conductor's authority is achieved by demon-strating a complete musical knowledge of, and ar-tistic bond with, the score being performed; anythingless would compromise a conductor's credibility and

command.s For Reiner, a keen sense of rhythm was

the most importanl conducting skill. He consideredmeter, pace and accents to be the propelling force ofmusic, and believed that the structural unity of com-

JCG Vol. 14, No. 2 91

positions depended upon the interrelationship of the

different elements of rhythm.e Though he never used

a metronome himself, he could accurately gauge the

exact mathematical relationship between any two

tempi.loReiner also regarded certain non-musical abili-

ties as necessary to a successful conductor/leader,

believing that it was vital for conductors to project a

sufficient amount of personality while on the po-

dium. He viewed conductors as the "living con-

science of the orchestro,"ll who needed to disptay"a sort of musical generalship, the human power to

lead other people in a harmonious wa)," so that a

composer's music could be presented coherently.

Therefore, not all talented musicians could become

successful leaders because of an inability to project

their personality sufficiently. Reiner admitted that

thrs projection could not be learned since it derived

essentially from personal character traits.l2 He also

concluded, as did Richard Strauss, that the ability to

interpret could not be taught or acquired. While all

of these general attributes must exist in an embry-onic state within a young conductor, many years ofpractical experience were necessary to develop them

to the highest level. It is not surprising, then, to learn

that Reiner considered it virtually impossible to be-come a mature, accomplished conductor before theage of fifty.t'

These personal, musical and non-musical at-

tributes formed the foundation upon which Reiner's"teachable science of conducting" could produce a

thoroughly trained, skilled and practical conductorwho had the recreative imagination needed to per-

form all types of serious music.la Like scores of

other conducting professionals, Reiner was con-

vinced that the best place to learn conducting skills

was in the opera house. "A conductor does not

qualify unless he is prepared for everything, and for

every instrument - including the human voice," he

once remarked.l5 Simply stated, opera conducting

required the control of so many different musical

and non-musical elements that orchestral conduct-

ing, by comparison, was considered 'easy.' In cen-

tral Europe, where Reiner served his conducting

apprenticeship, every town of reasonable size had

an opera house. Reiner felt that this phenomenon

created "a wonderful training ground" in which to

acquire a knowledge of the orchestra, singers and

staging, as well as learning how to deal with emer-

gencies. He had conducted hundreds of operatic

performances before emigrating to the United States

and decried the lack of such opportunities fbr young

American conductors. I 6

Reiner's opportunity to put into practice his theo-

ries about training conductors came in 1931, when

he was appointed head of the Opera and Orchestra

Departments at the Curtis Institute of Music in Phila-

delphia. By this time the Institute had achievedprominence as a center of musical excellence that

rivalled the Juilliard School of Music in New York.

Reiner agreed to teach at the Curtis Institute for sev-

eral reasons: he was friendly with Mary Curtis Bok,

who had provided the original endowment for the

school; he had established a reputation as an orches-

tra builder and a trainer of musicians; and, perhaps

most importantly, Curtis was seriously interested in

expanding its orchestral program. Reiner's respon-

sibilities included conducting the Curtis Orchestra,teaching basic conducting and score reading, and

directing the conducting class.lTIn auditions for his conducting class, Reiner es-

tablished quickly whether a potential student had

sufficient score knowledge, one of his principal pre-

requisites. Sometimes he set a comparatively easy

task, such as placing a score of Beethoven's Fourth

Symphony before the aspirant and accepting him into

the class if he identified the music correctly. On

other occasions he essayed more demanding tasks,

such as getting a prospective pupil to sight-read ex-

tracts from Salome and Elektra on the piano, fully

expecting him to cope with the difficult transposi-

tions.l8 Usually, however, he used a simpler for-

mat. Selecting from about twenty standard scores,

Reiner would open one at random and ask the stu-

92 JCG vol 14. No.2

dent to identify the musical material. If the studentcould not do so accurately, he was deemed to have

insuffi cient knowledge of the orche stra reperto ire amd

was therefore unsuitable for Reiner's conducting

class. le Reiner of ten used Beethoven's three

Leonore Overtures for auditions; he expected po-

tential students to know each of the works and their

distinctive trumpet calls. He also required students

to read scores at the piano and to answer a variety of

musical questions. Few allowances were made forpoor knowledge or execution. In most years a hand-ful of would-be students passed these auditions, but

in some years he accepted no one. Those who were

accepted followed a rigorous two-year course inwhich they studied symphonic music in the first year

and operatic repertoire in the second.The conducting class, which met once a week

for two hours, was taught as workshop. which wasquite novel at the time" Reiner began the first meet-ing of each new class with two statements: the firstwas, "I am here to teach you to become conductors,not musicians;" in the second, he announced that he

would soon identify the students who had a talentfor conducting. Those who did not. would be ban-ished from class. Although he was a demandingteacher who maintained high standards of knowl-edge and preparation, Reiner adjusted his teachingstrategies to accommodate the different personalities

of his students - the timid, the over-confident, the

tense.2oUnlike Toscanini and Ormandy, Reiner believed

that the physical gestures for conducting could betaught. Therefore,, his primary goal in the conduct-ing class was to develop a student's ability to beat

time accurately and with musical sensitivity. He was

very strict about the baton's clarity of motion.

Through personal experience, he became convinced

that an excellent stick technique could overcome

many difficulties. Nevertheless, he did not believe

that a baton was absolutely essential to successful

conducting; for example, he allowed Bernstein to

conduct without one when the young man found its

use burclensome.2l Reiner rcahzed the baton only

served as a means of communication; what mattered

most were the musical results. Personally, he pre-

ferred a baton because of the distance that usually

existed between a conductor and those musicians

located on the periphery of the ensemble; he con-

sidered its use integral to a conductor's total musi-

cal equipment. The best musical results came not

from a stick technique, per se, but from unbroken

concentration by the players, their confidence in the

suggestive powers of the conductor's gestures, and

a certain amount of freedom given to the individual

plavers in phrasi ng.22Although Reiner expected all beats to be deci-

sive, he insisted that the downbeat be crystal clear.23He saw no possibility that an orchestra could pro-

duce a precise attack and excellent ensemble faced

with an unclear downbeat. His students were told

that such clarity came from careful thought andpreparation. For Reiner the most important beat was

the upbeat and, accordingly, in the conducting classes

he spent no less than three months developing it."The conductor must give his downbeat preceded

by its preparation in the form of an upbeat of ex-

actly the same quality," was one of hrs key max-

ims.2a He discussed every conceivable opening

to a piece of music, and expected his students to

convey in the upbeat all the information the or-

chestra needed to enter and play metrically and

stylistically correct.Reiner's own beat was magnetic and forceful;

he rarely needed to give more than a slight upbeat to

begin a performance. His conducting technique was

so minimai, fastidious, well-coordinated and lucid'

that it took a conscious effort for a musician to de-part from his beat. He conducted the difficult open-

ing of Richard Strauss's Don Juan with only a tiny

upbeat that brought the entire orchestra in precisely

on the downbeat. The precision with which he ne-

gotiated such tricky aspects of conducting was little

short of miraculous.25 Avoiding all histrionic temp-

tations, "the tip of his baton," wrote Paul Henry L^9,

JCG Vol. 14, No. 2 93

seldom moved more than a few inches and

whenever it did move, the message to the

players was unequivocal. What made his

conducting so excit ing to the musically

knowedgeable was the bravado of his ex-

traordinary if almost invisible virtuosity with

the baton. Like a bullfighter, he was pirou-

etting within an inch of dangerous horns, but

it was the inch that made for the unexampled

precision and thrust of the orchestra under

his direction.26

In Reiner's opinion, baton technique was only

useful when it became "unconscious second nature"

and achieved excellent musical results without ex-

cessive overt movement.zT He considered unneces-

sary movements by a conductor as little more than

showmanship that did nothing except disturb the

musicians' concentration on the music. He firmly

believed that it was possible to gain a level of tech-

nical command over the orchestra to the extent that

when the baton was raised one inch, the orchestra

played fortissimo, and when it was lifted a quarter

of an inch, it played pianissimo. Since everyone is

built differently, he saw no purpose in having stu-

dents imitate the mechanical gestures of himself or

others. Early in his career, he had attempted to copy

Nikisch's conducting of afortissimo chord just be-

fore the Allegro in Webef s Oberon Overture by

drawing two full circles of the baton and then giv-

ing a downbeat. When Reiner used exactly the same

gestures as Nikisch, he failed to produce the same

effect. Consequently, Reiner did not expect students

to copy him; he counseled them to find the gestures

that worked for them, gestures that elicited an ap-

propriate response from the musicians without mak-

ing them uneasy.28

Reiner,s views on these matters were strikingly

similar to those of his models: Istv6n Kerner and

Artur Nikisch. Reiner had heard Kerner conduct the

Budapest Philharmonic orchestra and the Royal

Hungarian Opera Orchestra before the First World

War, and Nikisch conduct the Berlin Philharmonic

and Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestras' He was

strongly influenced by both men. Like them, Reiner

believed that a conductor demanded more from the

musicians with the use of minimal, yet expressive

gestures than by wild emotional lurches of the arrns.

He was deeply impressed by Kerner's conducting

style which used fine, small movements that avoided

a broad choreographic sweep. From Kerner Reiner

learned that "art begins where technique leaves off,"

and that a conductor's ultimate challenge was to

achieve maximum results with the minimum effort.2e

Nikisch, who conducted with a long baton, avoided

excessive use of the left hand for expressive pur-

poses. He achieved marvelous results from the or-

chestra by using an intentionally restrained tech-

nique; it was Nikisch who told Reiner never to wave

his arms in conducting and to give cues with his

eyes.3oReiner's students had ample opportunity to study

the gestures that characterrzed his conducting: they

were required to play in the Curtis Orchestra (either

on an orchestral instrument or, if they were pianists,

on percussion).31 They saw a range of gestures that

was able to communicate very subtle mustcal mes-

sages and produce the desired effect on the mu-

sicians. Reiner knew that unless the sound was clean

and precise, nothing of interpretive significance

could be achieved. He once wrote: "The only gen-

eral rule is to infuse all gestures with precision, clar-

ity, and vitality;" he believed that the third attribute

followed necessarily from the presence of the first

two.32 Reiner used a long baton and conducted in

tiny, precise, authoritative movements. There was

no extraneous use of the left arm; he maintained,

logically, that there was no need for the left hand to

duplicate the motions of the right hand. He also saw

no point in moving the left hand in a beseeching

w&y, since it did little or nothing to help the musi-

cians produce the quality of performance required.33

Reiner wanted the musicians' attention concentrated

on the point of his baton and on the coordination

94 JCG vol 14, I'{o. 2

between his eyes and his bodily gestures. He con-sidered a large beat to be undignified, producing asit did a sense of superficial show. Irving Sabloskyonce wrote that

Reiner's movements are spare, dry, andsharp. Not a motion is made that does notresult in a sound; if the proper sound willcome without a motion, no motion will bemade. Sometimes when the music is at itsmost furious, Reiner's movements will be ata minimum; the music can go on its ownmomentum, and it may go more freely andvitally if the orchestra can pour it out with-out interference from the conductor. Whenthe next important movement of the batonoccurs, its effect will be doubly strong and itwill be exactly as much or as little as isneeded to take the orchestra around the nextturn.34

Reiner knew that he could get every response hewanted from an orchestra by a nod of the head or awink of the eye; he used his hands sparingly."

During the initial sessions of the conductingclass, Reiner assigned the students scores that wereconcuffently being prepared for performance by theCurtis Orchestra. He allowed students to preparethe scores as they saw fit, but expected them to de-velop quickly a thorough understanding of the har-mony, form, and orchestration of the work.36 Theywere required to learn and assimilate the scores; noone was permitted to mount the podium withouthaving committed the work to memory. A studentwho only learnt part of a work when assigned anentire piece for study would be greeted in class withthe news that maybe he would not become a con-ductor after all. Personally, Reiner preferred 'o learna score by imagining the sounds in his mind, but hedid not insist that his students memorize in that man-ner. He did, however, recommend against learninga score from recordings, since that approach was too

passive to master the complexities of melody, har-mony and instrumentation.3T

Learning scores was just the beginning of aconductor's work. Reiner explained to his studentsthat they also must possess the three C's - con-cept, communication and command. By 'concept,'

he envisaged that a conductor would work out howhe wanted music to sound before mounting the po-dium. It was important not only to think about tempiand dynamics but also about balancing instrumentalchoirs. 'Communication' conveyed the bidding ofthe conductor to musicians. Here the conductor usedall the sign language at his disposal - eyes, face,arms, hands. baton - to embellish his technique.By 'command,' Reiner meant that a conductorshould communicate his understanding of the mu-sic both to the players and the audience; his exper-tise in doing so determined the conviction of a per-formance. An authoritative conductor should alwaysavoid bluny subdivisions,, sloppy cut-offs, and in-decisive moments, all of which would underminehis vision of the music.38

In Reiner's class, a student usually would con-duct the other students. who played the scores at thepiano. Occasionally, he varied the routine by re-quiring the students to conduct in silence.3e He in-sisted that conducting technique must be learned andpracticed before a student mounted the podium, withthe teacher taking the place of an attentive, respon-sive orchestra.40 He did not spend much time speak-ing about interpretation; for him that was a personalmatter that evolved from the musical trarning, per-sonal experience, knowledge, sensibility, and intelli-gence of the individual student. He also spent littletime pedantically beating through sections of mu-sic, seeing that as a waste of his and the students'time. However, he was convinced that mastery ofcertain difficult excerpts from orchestral and oper-atic literature helped students to deal with a varietyof complexities that might arise during the courseof a career.4l His aim was to prepare students sothat those who completed his course could travel any-

JCG Vol. 14, No. 2 95

where in the world and conduct an entire rehearsal

without speaking a word. In his words, they could,,stand up before an orchestra they never have seen

before and conduct correctly a new piece without

verbal explanation, and by means of only manual

techniqu e."42 During his own rehearsals Reiner

wasted little time talking; he maintained that a con-

ductor achieved everything from an absolute com-

mand of the baton, from inner knowledge, and from

communicating with the orchestra via the eyes and

physical gestures.

During the second year of the course, Reiner

devoted much class time to operatic recitatives, the

coordination of which provided excellent technical

training, requiring, as it did. the students to develop

very efficient gestures. Recitatives strengthened a

student's ability to gauge the pace of music. to co-

ordinate the music with stage action, and to count

silent beats. Reiner had his students memorize their

recitatives, mouth the words. and give all the cues.o3

Typical assignments were the recitatives of Carmen

and Le Nozze de Figaro, as well as the stop-and-go

sect ions o f Beckmesser 's "serenade" tn D ie

Meistersinger.aa Reiner taught students to be physi-

cally spartan in recitatives so that only necessary

beats, rather than the whole measure, were con-

ducted. The most common of these procedures was

to have the right hand remain motionless in 414 trme

except for the fourth beat.as Students were allowed

one chance to accompany a singer correctly in a

recitative before it was performed for Reiner; those

who failed were permanently dismissed from the

class. such an approach undoubtedly taxed the re-

sources of young conductors but provided them with

valuable skills that remained in place for future use.

During the classes Reiner was formal in his man-

ner and generally maintained a personal reserve when

interacting with students. He was delighted when

talent blossomed but did not tolerate mediocrity, lack

of musical knowledge, or poor musicianship'a6 As

previously stated, he insisted that students know the

score. He would often stop a student at a remote

point in a score and demand a description of what

was happening in the music; the account was ex-

pected to include the notes of each instrument at that

point from piccolo to double basses.aT Naturally,

this was yet another element of Reiner's teaching

that caused a great deal of consternation among his

pupils, but it also motivated them to prepare meticu-

lously for his class. Bernstein described the tech-

nique vividly:

Reiner's way of teaching was tyrannical in

the extreme. He demanded total knowledge'

You had no right to step up on the podium

unless you knew everything about what ev-

ery member of the orchestra had to do' And

if you didn't, God pity you. . ' ' Reiner would

sav "what is the second clarinet playing at

this moment?" He'd stop and you'd think:

Is there a second clarinet? I really don't

know. "Do you mean transposed or the way

it is in the score?" And you'd freeze up' It

was a scary way of teaching'48

Reiner showed little compassion for his students;

some felt that he actually enjoyed their suffering.

Reiner deliberately worked students hard, giving

difficult assignments that necessitated a dedication

to intense, concentrated work. He liked to ask trick

questions to keep students on their toes and merci-

lessly exposed guesswork and ignorance' Once, af-

ter observing the work of a less able student during

a conducting class, he cast his eyes down, looked

grim, lifted his eyes and said, "Give it up'"ae One of

his favorite phrases to describe those found wanting

was total unbegapl (totally untalented).so He did

not mince words with students whom he considered

unsuitable for a career in conducting. Writing to a

young woman whom he had removed from the class

- a decision the woman was attempting to over-

turn - Reiner stated that he had no intention of re-

versing his view regarding her level of scholarship

in class. "I feel that you have absolutely no natural

96 JCG vol 14, No. 2

aptitude or sufficient musical background to take up

conductiflg," he wrote, adding that "a burning de-

sire to do something in Art must not be mistaken for

talent." He concluded, "I am sorry to have to disap-point you, but I hope that this frankness will saveyou later unhappiness."'51 Most recipients of suchforthright criticism usually rcahzed when the timehad come to pack their bags and leave. However,

after one such dissection, a disturbed student actu-ally bought a gun and bullets with the intention ofshooting Reiner (as well as Bernstein and RandallThompson, the director ofthe Institute). Fortunately,he was arrested by the police and returned to hishome town before matters got out of hand.52

Re ine r ' s pup i l s a t Cu r t i s i nc iuded Bor i sGoldovsky, Sylvan Levin, Joseph Levine, LeonardBernstein, Lukas Foss, Max Goberman, WalterHendl, Nino Rota, Hugo Weisgall, Ezra Rachlin,Howard Mitchell, Henry Mazer, Felix Slatkin andVincent Persichetti.53 Reiner's most renowned fail-ure at Curtis was the composer Samuel Barber. In1932 Reiner gave Barber the highest possible marksfor "native musical gift, ear, rhythm, and musicalintelligence," but detected no special talent for con-ducting. Reiner concluded that Barber's progress

in conducting did not warrant retaining him in theclass. Barber "never would make a conductor"" saidReiner, as he had neither the perfection of personal-

ity nor the personal authority to inspire an orchestrato give its best.sa Barber graduated from the CurtisInstitute in piano and composition, but gave up hisconducting studies. The only A grade in conduct-ing ever awarded by Reiner was to Bernstein, hisbest-known student, who , after two years of studyat Curtis, left to work with Koussevrtzky at the Berk-shire Summer Music Festival at Tanglewood.ss

Reiner's skills were summarrzed succinctly byOscar Levant, who performed as Reiner's piano so-loist on a number of occasions.

There are few conductors who impress an

orchestra at first contact as strongly as does

FrrtzReiner, whose knowledge of everythingpertaining to the mechanical performance ofmusic is, br ief ly, unparal le led. He has

evolved a personal sign language which leads

an orchestra through the most complex scores

of Strauss or Stravinsky with the ease and

sureness of a tightrope walker who performs

a backward somersault blindfolded. When-

ever the complexity of the scoring is a suffi-cient challenge to his skill Reiner will sub-

divide beats, flash successive cues to remote

sections of the orchestra with either hand,

and meanwhile indicate the pianissimo. tn

which he takes such great delight. by a bodilymovement that totals by a kind of physrcal

mathematics to the exact effect on the printed

page.s6

Reiner's teaching career ended in 1941. whenhe resigned his position at Curtis. His resignationwas due in equal parts to the elimination of the Curtisconducting class through reorganization and to in-creased responsibilities as music director ofthe Pitts-burgh Symphony. In the mid-1940s rt seemed asthough Reiner might return to conduct and instructstudents on a part-time basis at the Juilliard Schoolof Music. Unfortunately, the plans never materi-ahzed, partly because of Reiner's busy schedule andpartly because William Schuman. then president ofJuilliard, decided that a conductor more attuned thanReiner to contemporary American music should beappointed.sT Although Reiner received many appli-cations from hopeful conducting students, he alwaysturned them down because of his heavy work sched-

ule.sS Only toward the end of his life did he think ofteachir.g again, but that possibility was dashed by aseries of heart attacks.se

Reiner's legacy to his talented pupils was anunderstanding of, and some facility with, his com-

manding conducting technique, the highest standards

of musical knowledge and score preparation, and the

knowledse that successful communication as a

JCG Vol. 14, No. 2 97

leader of both singers and orchestral musicians de-

pends on a set of precise, minimalist gestures.

After Reiner's death in 1 963, Leonard Bernstein

recalled his teacher:

I treasure the memory of Reiner, to say noth-

ing of the invaluable teaching and standards

he imparted to me. He was a great teacher,

stern, demanding, perfectionist, insisting on

thorough knowledge and no fakery. He

transmitted his own standards of knowledge,preparation, and technical competence in a

way that made his students sometimes

tremble, but ultimately bless him for it.

When one observed the ease, mastery, and

economy of Reiner's conducting, one had a

model towards which one could strive eter-

nally. I still have that model in mind, and

will probably never equal it.6o

In a eulo gy atReiner's funeral, William Schuman

noted that Reiner

was ever the teacher. He taught not in the

classroom alone. He taught all who per-

formed in his orchestras, all who heard him,

and all who saw him . Fritz was the teacher

of all of us through every facet of his aston-

ishing mastery of the art he practiced.6l

Reiner set for his students a hish standard of the

conducting Art. His ideas are as valid today

as they were when he practiced them.62

, 1 . * . * * c * r f , l

Dr. Kenneth Morgan is Principal Lecturer in

History and Head of European Culture at Brunel

University College, Twickenham, Middlesex, En-

gland. He has contributed biographical sketches of

Reiner, Rodzinski and Mitropoulos to the new Ameri-

can National Biography and is currently at work on

a book-length study of Reiner's career.

98 JCG vol 14, No. 2

ENnnorns

I George Antheil, Bad Boy of Music (Garden City, New York:

Doubleday, 1945), p. 351.

2 Leonard Bernstein, Findings (New York: Simon and

Schuster, 1982), p. 200.

3 Roger Dettmer, "FritzReiner," Fanfare,November-Decem-

b e r , 1 9 8 1 , p . 6 3 .

a John Briggs, Leonard Bernstein: The Mon, His Work and

His l4/orld (Cleveland: World Publishing Co., 1961), p. 47 .

5 FritzReiner, "Your Chances with the Symphony," Upbeat,

l 938 .

6 Fritz Reiner, "The Secrets of the Conductor," Etude, June

1936,pp.417-418, and Fritz Reiner, "The Technique of Con-ducting," Etude, October 1951, pp. l6-17. These articles arereprinted in The Podium: Magazine of the Frilz Reiner Soci-ety,Fal l lWinter 1986,pp.23-25, and Autumn 1980, pp. 9- l l .

Subsequent references to these articles are to the reprintedversions.

7 Reiner, "The Technique of Conducting," p. l0; Reiner, "The

Secrets of the Conductor," p. 24; and Fritz Reiner, "The Mak-ing of a Conductor," Musical America,25 Oct.1941, reprintedrn The Podium, Fall/Winter 1987, p.23, to which subsequentreferences are given.

8 Hope Stoddard, "FrrtzReiner. . . 'the qualityof leadership',"

International Musician, November 1955, p. 10.

e Sebastian Caratelli , A Musician's Odyssey (New York: Van-

tage Press, 1983), p. 90.

l0 Tibor Kozma, "Ave Atque Vale-Fritz Reiner," Opera

News,6 Apr i l 1953, repr inted in The Podium,l :1, 1976,p.11.

1l Fritz Reiner, "Outline for a Course in Conducting," type-

script, file marked "Curtis Institute," Reiner Collection, DeeringMusic Library, Northwestern University.

12 Reiner, "The Secrets. . . , " p.23.

13 Reiner, "The Technique. . . ," p. 10.

14 Reiner, "The Secrets. . . ," pp. 23-24.

15 Reiner, "The Secrets. ," p. 25, and Seymour Raven,"Reiner tells views on Art of Conducting," Chicago Tribune,

l9 March 1950, part7, sect ion 2, p.2.

16 Reiner, "The Making. . . , " p.23.

r7 Boris Goldovsky, My Road to Opera; The Recollections ofBoris Goldovsky (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company,lgl-g),pp. 153-154; Stoddard,"Fr i tzReiner," p. 13.

l8 Herbert Kupferberg, "Lukas Foss: New found focus for thecomposer/conductor," Ovation, 5'.3, 1984, p. 13; "An Inter-view with Morton Gould," The Podium,Springlsummer lg97,p . 9 .

le Reiner, "The Secrets. . . ," pp. 24-25.

20 Stoddard,, "FritzReiner," p. I 3.

21 Fern Marja Eckman, "The Leonard Bernstein Story." NewYork Post, 3 June 1960, p" 35.

22 Louis Stanley, "The Baton," Musical America, l5 Febru-ary 1955, p . 133.

23 Reiner, "The Technique . . . ," p. I 1.

2a Reiner, "The Technique. . . ," p. I L

2s Leonard Bernstein cited in Robert Chesterman, ed., Con-versations with Conductors (London: Robson Books, lg76),p . 57 .

26 Paul Henry Lang, "FritzReiner," typescript of speech givento the American Hungarian Studies Foundation,2g Aprrl1964,loose files, Reiner Collection, Deering Music Library, North-western University.

27 Reiner, "The Technique. . . ," p. 1L

28 Reiner, "The Technique . . . ," p. I l .

2e Cesar Saerchinger, "Fritz Reiner - perpetual prodigy,',Saturday Review,3l May 1952, reprinted in The podium,2:1,1978, p. 9; Reiner, "The Making of a Conductor," p.23;FerencBonis, "Fritz Reiner - An Early Bartok Conductor,,, NewHungarian Quarterly, 17, 1976, p.219.

30 Earl G. Talbott,"FritzReiner - One of the World's GreatConductors," New York Herald Tribune, l6 Nov. 1963.

3l Rollin R. Potter, "FritzReiner, Conductor, Teacher, Musi-cal Innovator" (Northwestern university ph.D. dissertation,1980), p.4l; Reiner, "Outline for a Course in Conducting."

32 Reiner, "The Technique . . . ," pp. l0- ll; Chicago Tribune,5 Oct . 1953.

" Reiner, "The Technique of Conducting," p. 9.

3a Irving Sablosky, "The Trial and Triumph of FritzReiner,',Chicago, March 1956, reprinted in The Podium, Spring/Sum-mer 1987, pp .27-28.

35 Ray Shaw, "Music and the Hand," Musical Amerrca, spe-cial issue, l0 February 1943,p. 194.

36 Poffer, "Fritz Reiner," p. 41.

37 Lukas Foss cited in "Conductors' Guild holds ,Reiner ret-rospective'," The Podium, Spring/Summer 1988, p. 9.

38 Joseph Levine, "Behind the Downbeat," Emerson FluteForum, 4:3, 1987, pp. 1-2.

3e Lukas Foss cited in "Conductors' Guild. . . l , p.9.

ao Reiner, "Outline for. . . ."

41 "An Interview with Walter Hendl," The podium, SpringlSummer 1984,p. 12.

a2 Reiner, "The Secrets. . . , " p.25.

a3 Lukas Foss quoted in "Conductors' Guild. . . ," p. 9.

aa Go ldovsky , My Road. . . , p . 163.

a5 Reiner, "The Technique. . . , " p. 10.

a6 Pittsburgh Bulletin Index, g October lg4l.

47 Potter, "Fr i tzReiner," p.41.

48 "Leonard Bernstein: Reflections," unpublished film tran-script, International Communications Agency, December lgl7,quoted in Potter, "Fritz Reiner," p. 40.

ae Lukas Foss quoted in "Conductors' Guild . . . i ' p.9.

50 Goldovsky, My Road to Opera,p. l6l.

5l Fritz Reiner to Deborah Niklad, I December 1935, file for1935, Reiner Collection, Deering Music Library, Northwest-ern University.

52 Leonard Bernstein, "Memories of the Curtis lnstitute,', ThePodium, Spring/Summer 1983, pp. 9, l l .

53 Details of Reiner's conducting students are taken fromovertones: The Publication of the Curtis Institute of Music,

JCG Vol. 14, No. 2 99

1 l :1 , 1974, pp .79-80. Mor ton Gou ld won a scho larsh ip to

study conducting with Reiner at Curtis, but w'ithdrew fbr fam-

ily reasons ("An Interview with Morton Gould," The Podium"

Spring/Summer 1987, p. I 0).

54 Barbara B. Heyman, Samuel Barber; The Compctser and

his Music (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 3l I

55 Humphrey Burton, Leonard Bernstein (New York: Faber

and Faber,1994), p. 90.

s6 Oscar Levant, A Smattering of lgnorance (New York:

Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1940), pp.36-37 "

51 FritzReinerto Will iam Schuman, l7 September 1945, f i le

for 1948, Reiner Collection, Deering Music Library, North-

w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y , a n d " A n I n t e r v i e w w i t h W i l l i a r n

Schuman," The Podium, Fall iWinter 198J , p. 10.

58 Carlotta Reiner to Joseph Kreines, 3 October 1958, f i le for

1958, Reiner Col lect ion, Deer ing Music Library, Northwest-

ern Universi ty"

5e Ne* York'!'imes, -5 Aug. 1962.

60 Leonard Bernstein to Bruce Wellek, 1917, The Podium,

1 ' . 2 , 1 9 7 7 , p . 3 4 "

6r Will iarn Schuman. "Reiner in Memoriam," The Podium,

Spring/Summer 1988, p" 35.

62 The author would l ike to thank Dr. John Moye for his

edi tor ia l assistance in the preparat ion of th is art ic le. Also,

personal interviews with three Reiner students, Lukas Foss,

Walter Hendl and the iate Ezra Rachl in, provided valuable

ins igh ts in to Re iner 's tenure a t l -he Cur t i s Ins t i tu te .

Fritz Reiner, ca.

JCG Vol 14, l',1o. 2

1933, photo courtesy of The Curtis Institute

100

SelectedContemporary

American Orchestral Compositions:

A Conductor's Guide (Part ID

by James S. Ball

The following article is derived from Chap-ter 4 of a dissertation submitted to the Univer-sity of Missouri - Kansas City in 1992 to fulfillone requirement of the D.M.A. degree. It is pub-lished here with the permission of the author inan edited and reformatted version that now con-tains musical examples.

r F : | < : f * r f r F

Steps for Orchestraby David del Tredici

Date of Composition: February 11 , 1990, orches-tration revised May, 1990

First Performance: March 8, 1990, New YorkPhilharmonic Orchestra, Zubrn Mehta, con-ductor

Publisher: Boosey & Hawkes, 1990Availability: score and parts on rentalRecording: New World Records, compact disc

released fall, 1990Duration: 31 minutesMovements: four, without pausesInstrumentation: 4d2, 3d1, 3d1(Eb) +BCl, 3d1-

4,4, ,4,1, t imp., perc. (5 players), cel . , hp., str .Significant Solos: Trombone, xylophone, glock-

enspiel (plus numerous less significant solos,many indications of " soli" in woodwinds andbrass)

Contemporary effects: tremendous number of per-cussion instruments are required; minimal

mixed meter; harmonic glissandi tn strings.Score: in COrchestra Residency: New York Philharmonic

Orchestra. 1988-1990Commissioned by: New York Philharmonic

Orchestra and Meet The Composer OrchestraResidencies Program

Dedication: for Paul Arcomano (a friend)

Mr. Del Tredici employs a large orchesrra inSteps, exploiting the full palette of orchestral tim-bres. Some thirty percussion instruments are re-quired, ranging from virtually all traditional instru-ments to the more unusual ones, including anvil,large wind machine, glass wind chimes (severalsets massed together), high siren, and most Latinpercussion instruments. Orchestral color is fur-ther explored through various mutes in the brasses,including harmon mute for trombones and trum-pets, as well as stopped horn. The overall orches-tral timbre is strident and metallic.

Steps is highly sectional and based largely onthe opening motives of the first movement. Nearlyalways thickly scored and often rhythmically lay-ered, it has a sense of unsettled urgency that is main-tained during the transformations of the melodicmotives. Harmonically, Mr. Del Tredici states,

The whole piece is in C-sharp minor, end-ing in C-sharp major . . . but, the chordsare much more dissonant than I had used inthe Alice pieces . . . a lot of dissonant notes

JCG Vol. 14, No. 2 101

H n . 1

t

I2

T p t . la

I

Tbn. .l3I

T b r .

T l m p .

5+ . D . '

>-2I , ,7f>-p

,= ';, T > >

Tredici, Part I , score pagesl-2, beginning to Rehearsal l . Shown: Low winds, brass and

woodwinds and str ings. (Copyright C) 1990 hv Boosey & Hawkes, Llsed by Permission.)

Example /. Steps hy Dctt, id Del

percussion: nol shown; upper

* Ana^^r" t hqes loso ( ) - - /o+\

frozen on the chords that don't resolve inthe normal wav . . there's no rule. 1

The form of the work is a large A-B-A with coda;each of the first three movements is represented byone of the letters, while the fourth movement func-tions as a coda.

II. Gmxr SrBps - Andante, maestoso ( ol - 104)

The movement begins with a bold, rising per-fect fourth (G#-Cu) in bass instruments that is an-swered by a three-note (A-A#-G#) chromatic figureplayed by the first trombone (Example 1). An ex-change of these motives among the instrumentsoccurs with increasing frequency and leads to ahalting, languid melody in the strings (Example2). The motives evolve with considerable urgencythrough several augmenting tempo changes that

*c r r / -'n s"f '

ft 1<u7 o

V l n . I

V l n . l l

V l r ,

",g?

Example 2. Steps by David Del Tredici, Parl

not shown: woordwinds, hrass and percussion.I, score pages 2-3, Rehearsal I - 2 to I +

(Copyright O 1990 by Boosey & Hawkes,

7. Shown: slrings,'

Used hy Permission.)

r - > . - : < l >

102 JCG vot t4. No.2

contain layered rhythms, motives and textures. Thedynamic hallmark of this movement is the rapidalternation between the piano dynamic and all in-tensity levels of forte. Towards the end of the move-ment there appears a subito piano transition with flute,harp and strings; an acceleration and crescendoleads without pause to the second movement.

II. THB Two Srnp - Molto Vivace ( J _ 120)

Del Tredici states that Movement II has "a kind

of trio " relationship with the two movements that

flank rt.2 It is thickly orchestrated throughout, with

traditional two-step rhythms and syncopations ap-pearing immediately in the brass (trombone 3sempre molto glissando) with accompanying fig-ures in the winds and strings. The movement con-tains some mixed meter (not at all intricate), sev-eral tempo changes and motivic interchanges (Ex-

ample 3). A tempo primo accelerando that containsseveral layered rhythmic pafferns which increase inintensity and complexity, leads to Movement III.

@Plcc.

LJ-r:\

f{

L+'77

;tl

ilF t .

e lc l .

c t . ,

B r . C l .

B r n .

V l n . I

V l n . I l

V l r .

Vc l .

cb.

I23

---_\ I 1 1 il' r. b-

f

Example 3. Steps by David Del Tredici, Part ll, score page 79, Reheursal 5Band str ings; not shown; brass and percussion. (Copyright.{) 1990 by Boosey &

AJ = r ta,t o 5 8 + 6

Hawkes,

Shown. woodwinds

Used by Permission.)

nJ^(:^ -

JCG Vol. 14, No. 2 103

2')J

Ac-rq- | . @A-*ulo6--ro)

r 1 - l - 1 41--> -a i-

Example 4: Steps by Dayid Del Tredici, Part III, score pages ll4-ll5,Rehearsal 86 to 87 + I. Shown: brqss and

strings; not shown: woodwinds, tuba and percussion (Cctpyright @ t990 by Boosey & Hawkes' Used by Permission )

III. GnNr GLq.Nr Srrps - Animato ( .l - .J}2)

Del Tredici describes Movement III as a greatly

expanded recapitulation of Giant Steps and a logi-

cal inspiration for the movement's title . The cre-

scendo at the end of Movement II leads to a high

siren on the downbeat of this movement. An eight-

bar introduction ritards to the Andante maestoso

(Tempo primo) of the first movement with rising

chromatic quarter-notes in the horns and trumpets

over a rhythmic bed of triplets in the strings. Dy-

namic surges intensify (Example 4) through an

Animarc ( C - 80) to a Con Fuoco, transforming

to a 6/8 Furioso ( .l . : 104) Sempre Incalzando'

Heavily layered rhythmic textures alternating be-

tween winds and strings continue to create a dynamic

surge, and arrive at a more thinly orchestrated

Schercando. The movement ends with an Allegretto

piangevole anda halting Poco Adagio. A sustained

solo oboe note leads to the next movement.

104 JCG vol 14, No. 2

IV. SrnpptNc DowN - ImProvisando

Serving as the coda of the work' Movement IV

begins with a chorale-like exchange between wood-

winds and brass that is punctu atedby fermnti (lunga)

of silence; the following section,accelerates through

a Vivace to Molto Vivace ( d : 138). Meters

remain primarily duple (214 and 212) with rising

half- and quarter-note triplet figures in the brass

(recalling the opening movement) accompanied by

ascending sixteenth-note scales in the woodwinds

and strings. An ending Largamente, Ritardando

Molto, with harmonic glissandi (con sordino) rn

the strings, leads to Poco Adagio languido before

a coda, Vivace, Con Brio, during which the texture

thins with a series of diminuendos, first in the

brasses, then strings, and finally woodwinds be-

fore the final fortissimo chord.

Steps for Orchestra is thickly scored through-

out, and its many complex rhythmic layers couldpresent some difficulties. The technical demandsare probably within the reach of betrer trainedmusicians, but amateurs will have considerabledifficulty. The harsh nature of the orchestra-tion, and the nearly constant.forte dynarnic maytire some ears "

Unfortunately, Mr. Del Tredici 's score, pub-lished in manuscript by Boosey & Hawkes " isdifficult to read. During the study and rehearsalof the work the score's i l legibil i ty wil l l ikelycause complications for conductor and playersalike . fEditor's note: Boosey & Hawkes has re-cently published a beautifully t.vpeset full scoreof Del Tredici's Tsn Lnsr Gospnr (New Ver-sion, 1984) Hopefully a similar treatment forSrnps will be forthcoming in the near future.l

BrocRnpHy

Heidi Waleson, a freelance writer and frequentcontributor to the The New York Times and musicjournals, calls David Del Tredici, "America's fore-most exponent of the return to tonality in composi-tion. "3 Born in Cloverdale, California on March16, 1937 , Mr. Del Tredici prepared for a careeras a concert pianist and appeared as a soloist withthe San Francisco Symphony, winning the $5,000Kimber Award in 1955. In 1958 he atended theAspen Music Festival and composed his f irstpiece, Soliloquy for piano, after being attractedto a composition seminar directed by DariusMilhaud. Formal composition studies began atthe Universi ty of Cal i fornia (with SeymourShifrin and Arnold Elston) where he was a re-cipient of a Woodrow Wilson Fellowship. Fur-ther studies at Princeton University with Earl Kimand Roger Sessions followed in the early sixties;he received his first commission (1 Hear an Army\at Tanglewood tn 1964.

In 1966 Del Tredici received a Guggenheimfellowship and served as Composer-in-Residence

at the Marlboro Festival. In 1968 he joined themusic faculty at Harvard University, where in 1969he composed An Alice Symphony, the first in hisseries of compositions based on Lewis Carroll'scharacter tn Alice in Wonderlctnd and Through theLooking Glass. Additional awards include theNaumburg Recording Award (1972), the 1980Ifulitzer Prrze (for In Memory of a Summer Day -

Child Alice, Part 1), and Happy Voices (from ChildAlice, Pan fl, which was a winner at the FriedheimAwards concert in Washington, D.C. in 1982. Inthat year Mr. Del Tredici started work on Marchto TonaliQ, his first orchestral piece since 1969not related to the "Alice" books. In 1985 he wasComposer-in-Residence at the American Academyin Rome and was the subject of a ninety-minutetetrevision specral, Video Alice, filmed for GreatBritain's BBC Channel 4. From 1988 to 1990 hewas Composer-in-Residence with the New york

Philharmonic Orchestra.

Wonxs Fon ORcsnsrru

^Slzyg) (1966), for soprano, horn and orchestra,24minutes

The Last Gospel (L967, new version, 1984), forsolo female voice, rock group, chorus, andorchestra,, 13 minutes

Pop-Pourri (1968, revised 1973), for soprano (am-plified), rock group, chorus and orchestra, 28minutes

An Alice Symphony (1969, revised 1976)), forsoprano (amplified), folk group and orchestra,41 minutes

Illustrated Alice (1969, revised L976), two scenesfrom "Wonderland" from An Alice Symphony,for soprano (amplified) and orchestra, 17minutes

The Lobster Quadrille (1969), for soprano (ampli-fied), folk group, and orchestra (soprano partmay be omitted), from An Alice Symphony, 13minutes

JCG Vol. 14, No. 2 105

In Wonderland (1969 , revised I97 4), for soprano(amplified), folk group, and orchestra. "A

Scene with Lobsters" from An Alice Symphony,24 minutes

Adventures Underground (1971 revised 1977), for

soprano (amplified), folk group, and orches-tta, 23 minutes

Vintage Alice (1972), "Fantascene on A Mad TeaParty" for soprano (amplified), folk group, and

chamber orchestra, 28 minutesFinal Alice (I974-1975), for soprano (amplified),

folk group, and large orchestra,, 64 minutesChild Alice (L977 -1981), for soprano(s) (ampli-

fied) and orchestra, 135 minutes"In Memory of a Summer Day" (1980), for so-

prano (amplified) and orchestra, Child AlicePart I, 63 minutes

"Triumphant Alice" (1980), from "In Memory ofa Summer Day" (Child Alice Part D, 14 min-utes

"Interlude" and "Ecstatic Alice" (1980), for so-prano (amplified) and orchestra, from "In

Memory of a Summer Day" (Child Alice PartII), 25 minutes

"Happy Voices" (1980-1984), from Child Alice,Part II, 21 minutes

"All in the Golden Afternoon" (1981), for soprano(amplified) and orchestra, from Child Alice,Part II, 32 minutes

"Quaint Events" (1981), for soprano (amplified)

and orchestra, from Child Alice, Part 11,25

minutesMarch To Tonality (1985), 20 minutesTattoo (1986), 20 minutes

Steps for Orchestra (1990), 31 minutes

Symphony (no date), for soprano(amplified) and orchestra

* :F rl. rlc rl. r|. r{. :l€

James S. BaIl is Music Director/Conductor

of the Danville (IL) Symphony Orchestra. He isFounder/Conductor of NewEar in Kansas City(MO), a professional ensemble dedicated to theperformance and promotion of contemporary

chamber music.

ENnNorBs

1 David Del Tredici, tape-recorded telephone interview with

author, March I7, 1992.

2 Co-poser interview, March 17, lgg2.

3 H.idi Waleson, David Del Tredici (London: Boosey &

Hawkes, Inc., 1987).

106 JCG vol 14, No. 2

Gustav Mahler's Riickert Lieder and theArt of Error in Interpretation

by Stephen A. Gottlieb

Mahler's Rilckert Lieder, with which the com-poser opened a new century in 1901-1902, is not acycle. These little songs bear the burden of a unity,but hardly by design. Perhaps rhey embody theunconscious design of Mahler's inner thought, hismusical experiments, his emotional groping, hisexplorations, as we shall see. Mahler never sug-gested that these songs were a unified vision, sowe must expand the normal parameters of "cor-

rect" interpretation to achieve one. Imagery analy-sis and some musical likenesses from song to songsuggest a contrast of light with utter darkness, hopewith despair, but not unlike similar "ghost" cyclesconstructed by the listener's imagination rather thanthe composer's conscious intention. Schubert'sSchwanengesang, Schumann's Liederkreis, andcountless others fall into this group. So it is thathere, with these beautiful but indeterminate songs,compositional intention becomes suspect. But anyattempt to interpret, to understand, intellectuallyto grasp the work of art always is suspect, althoughthe glory of interpretation springs also from itssuspicious nature. Indeed, depending upon per-formance, recording technique, and the listener'sinterpretation, one can construct of this non-cyclemany cycles.

Blicke mir nicht in die Lieder

The history of the songs' composition is docu-mented by Henry-Louis de La Grange and DonaldMitchell in their respective and exhaustive criticalbiographies of Mahler's musical development. LaGrange and Mitchell agree on many of the follow-

ing points. The songs were composed in severalwaves of work: four in the summer of 1901, andLiebst du um Schdnheit tn 1902. We know thattwo of the songs were finished on particular days,and I do imagine Mahler playing Blicke mir nichtin der Lieder on June 10th, the day he completedit, but early in the morning before the time he mighthave completed it (he'd be out walking). Would itsound unfinished then? Would the piano versionsound somehow incomplete without the orchestra-tion? The first edition of the Riickert Lieder (1905)was as the final five of a sequence of seven songs"aus letzter Zett," a publisher's term meaning sim-ply "recent songs." The other two songs in thefirst publication are Wunderhorn songs that are quitedifferent in music and theme. They all were pub-lished for high and middle voice ranges, and withpiano or orchestra. However, neither the order ofcomposition nor the published sequence (an orderchosen by the publisher) dictates the order in whichone should perform the songs; the order must be amatter of critical judgment or personal taste. Onthe other hand, any order will work because theperformers will tend to sculpt and grade the struc-ture accordingly, as though there were a sequence.In performance, there is always a sequence, ofcourse, and that sequence, once heard, is hard todisplace in the mind. Even the circumspect LaGrange seems equivocal on the issue of the songs'unity, although less so on sequence.

La Grange notes that although the piano ver-sion was published in a particular order (how couldit not be?), Mahler changed the order many timesin performance. La Grange seems to see these

JCG Vol. 14, No. 2 107

lieder as not "an actual cycle," but as bearing a" symphonic unity" in miniature, albeit without a defi-nite sequence of movements. He feels in them a mono-lithic "strange sad optimism" (Vol .2: 1105-1119).

But let us now look tnto Blicke mir nicht in dieLieder. Despite the theme of this song, Mahler didin fact complete the piano and the orchestral scores,unlike the case with Liebst du um Schonheit,orchestrated posthumously. We listen to Blickemir. in its completed form, and we can listenonly thus. Yet its theme is incompleteness, intru-sion, and even fear of completion. The finishedsong is styled a " rich honeycoffib, " which thehearer, a music lover or, perhaps, sexual lover,shall taste. Tasting, being a tentative act, explainsand celebrates the theme of fear in that one fearsthe taster's judgment. One concludes that it is thiswise fear that precludes completeness in composi-tion or in critical judgment. But then, one canalways revise, which Mahler did habitually. andso great was the flux of perfection in his mind thathe even encouraged select conductors (Walter,

Mengelberg, Fried) to revise in performances ofhis scores so as to adjust to various halls' acousti-cal ambiances. Is it not justifiable, then, for thelistener to interpret - certainly a less destructiveact than recomposition - in far-ranging ways byimagining textual and musical interconnections thatare evanescent. but somehow fostered bv a richscore?

One might think, at this point, of all the vari-ables of a performance, of any performance, asdue to the vagaries of monophonic and stereophonicrecordings, both analog and digital, of replaymechanisms in homes and automobiles, and of theultimate replay in one's mind. Is the mind itself amechanical copy of other minds? Is it a dybbuk?What is copied by the composer as he moves fromsong to song? Of what is copied, what do we hear?

Um Mitternscht

Listening at midnight to Um Mitternacht was

108 JCG vol 14. l,'to. 2

for me a predictable activity. On my birthday, Ialways listen to Bruckner's Eighth Symphony, orat least to a small part. That work is special forme. "How can you listen to such overblown Ro-mantic rot? " a schoolmate asked me many years

ago at the University of Rochester. But that workis special to me because I have ordered it so in mymind. It has become part of my private ritual, myordering of the calendar.

But the ordering of the Rilckert Songs is opento question. Fischer-Dieskau arranges the orderone way in his recording with piano (Daniel

Barenboim, French EMI), and another in one herecorded with orchestra (Karl Bohm, DG), wherehe also omits Liebst du. . . . In her recording with

Claudio Abbado and the Chicago Symphony Or-chestra (DG), Hanna Schwarz sings an entirely dif-ferent order, and Yvonne Minton, under the direc-tion of Pierre Boulez and with the London Sym-phony Orchestra (Columbia) quite another yet. Inthis Minton recording, one song order is listed onthe album cover, but another is recorded and listedon the libretto. What does all this reordering mean?Is it a covert search for order? Also, what does itmean to have multiple recordings by the samesinger. Fischer-Dieskau has recorded Mahler'sWayfarer grouping, itself not a true cycle, at leastfive times. Is one interpretation best? The firsttime one hears a given order, one interprets ac-cordingly, as though the five formed a planned

cycle, which they do not. But the plan changeswith the sequence. In Yvonne Minton's "interpre-

tation, " Um Mitternacht is sung very slowly andwith the greatest emotional emphasis. It is alsoplaced last in the group.

The meaning changes with the interpreters, con-ductor or pianist and singer, for they may seek toprovide a unity of the disparate songs. How can

they do so? They might emphasize a developingmood. The author of the explanatory notes for

Minton's recording assumes that the songs, sung

in the order presented by Minton, embody a strictprogression in theme and mood. This is either

wishful thinking or a response ro the unifying art-istry of Yvonne Minton and pierre Boulez in thiswonderful studio performance. Here, the perform-ers superimpose a performing unity upon a happilyselected sequence.

To emphasize such unity, the singer or con-ductor might emphasize a set of images, such asthe delicate imagery of sudden or unexpected mo-tion or change in the five Riickert Songs: the"plucked" ("Brechst du gelindst ") flowers in *Ich

atmet. . ." i the "growing" ("Wachsen") of thesongs-in-composition tn "Blicke mir. ."; the in-sistence of the verb " Lieben" rn " Liebst du. . ." :but most of all, for me, the coincidence of the heart-beat rn " Um Mitternacht" with the exact center ofthe poem:

Um Mitternacht At MidnightNahm ich in acht I took note ofDie Schlcige meines the beating of my

Herzens; heart;Ein einz'ger Puls a single pulse

des Schmerzens of sorrowWar angefacht was set in motionUm Mitternacht. at midnight.

(tr. Deryck Cooke, in Mitchell, 35)

In this poem of five stanzas, each stanza has sixlines, symmetrically constructed in form and con-tent. Here, Rtickert's five-line unit serves to es-tablish an exact center for the midnight transition."Die Schldge" becomes "Ein einz'ger puls,, in thesucceeding line. The diffuse heaviness of the noun" Schlcige" transforms into the logically diminishedand painfully precise "single pulse of sorrow.', Thisimagery presents a transfiguration of diffuse,unlocated grief to an identified and precisely sin-gular sorrow, albeit one not confided to the lis-tener. However, knowledge counts in Mahler'sworld, and the singer's knowledge accounts for theimmense shift from the "Watch" kept by the singerin stanza one to that in stanza five, where thestrength of the singer seems transmitted to God, a

reversal of the motion in stanza one. It may alsobe noted that God ("Herr iiber Tod und Leben,)assumes the Watch in statua five. We flow intothe universe.

Such a flow calls to mind Mahler's mysticalphilosophy and oriental leanings, and it is interest-ing to note that Friedrich Rrickert (1788-1866), anorientalist and professor of Eastern studies, wasalso personally drawn to Eastern philosophy. Inthese songs', we find hints of Eastern musical tech-nique (momentary appearances of the pentatonicscale, for instance) as well as of philosophy. Thesetechniques and concerns reach full fruition forMahler in Das Lied von der Erde, to which workthese tendrils of Chinese style point. (Im Mitter-nacht frequently has been understood as a micro-cosmic pointer towards the fuller world of DerAbschied, in the later song cycle. yet each song ofthe Rilckert Lieder establishes a conrext of inde-pendent value. However this "cycle" is sung, itmust be understood as a progression of indepen-dent sonic and philosophic strucfures, or visions,or cells, Mahler's suggestive way for conceivingsucceeding temporal sectors of our lives. This mul-titemporal strucrure might well be, in Mahler's teas-ing way, a unique invention in the history of lieder.

Liebst du um Schtinheit?

Clearly, in the case of these songs, we invent aunity that Mahler never intended. What did it mean,however, when Mahler did create a unified cycleof disparate poems, as in the Wunderhorn grovp,or when he selected but a fraction of Rtickert's ownKindertotenlieder, a collection of many poems? InMahler's Kindertotenlieder, his only true cycle inthe literal sense of the term, the musical accentua-tion of Mahler's unified cycle is deliberate. Cer-tainly the overarching structure is more definite,the music's tonality closer to the words of the cycleunderstood as a totality. On the other hand, is thepoetry's native music confused, contaminated, anddistorted by the composer's piano or orchestra?

JCG Vol. 14, No. 2 109

ob.

Cor.ingl.

8"}Fg.

Cor.(F)

Arp.

Voeeo nlchtmlch llc - bcl

luuc ll.c!Lle-be den derJungist Je - des

O n e - u e r Oo,Iow the for e-uerqoungund.

w. Ph .v .263

Example I "L iebst du in Schonhei t , " bars l0-13, Jrom Fi infLieder nach Riickert Leipzig. C.F Kahnt Nachf., 1905. Repr. I(ien;

Ll/einer Philharmonische Verlag, I926 [" Philharmonia" score]

Does Mahler's muslc narrow the scope of verbalmeaning? In the case of the Rilckert Lieder, how-ever, with the absence of an overall design, per-haps the hearing mind is freer to roam because itexperiences something akin to absolute music. Inone sense there is the absence of a universe, a va-cancy which allows us to experience " somethingabsolutely abstract" (Evan E,isenberg, 240). The"cycle" as a cycle ceases to embody particular ideasand structures, but rather these are invented by us.Our minds and emotions are freer to vibrate withthe turnings of the melodies, the harmonies, andwith all the seeming collocations of sound and ver-bal imagery. However, phrasing this freedom interms of classical Greek music theory, we cannotquite locate the Ideas in back of the music, or whatthe music points to. In the context of Plato'sthoughts about the unwelcome freedom of music's"content," this absence of meaning is the more tell-ing since, for Plato, music is the most dangerousart because it lacks any definite message, prefer-

110 JCG vot 14, No. 2

ring by its nature to work sublimi-nally on the body and the mind.But since all our artistic experiencedepends in part on denotation, we

blunderingly and imaginativelygrope to invent meaning wherenone was intended. Why shouldwe not? The artists, composer aswell as singer as well as conduc-tor, probably do so as well, andsome interpretations cancel others,just as some pianists are not "un-

ashamed accompanists, " but hogthe interpretative space in overlymannered ways.

"Liebst du um Schonheit"was first published with its voiceand piano version, the only songof the seven without orchestration.The evidence of an orchestral scoresigned by Max Puttmann in 1905(three years after that song's com-

position date) exists in several places, including inThe Hague's Municipal Museum. According toMitchell, the first publication of the miniature scoreincludes this orchestration. On June 25th, 1975,Deryck Cooke wrote a letter to Donald Mitchell,citing Cooke's reasons for doubting the authentic-ity of the "anonymous" orchestration, particularlyoverly "thick" doubling of certain instrumentswhich cloud the orchestral delicacy (Mitchell 123-24, n.4). For instance, horn and viola in one spot,cello and double-bass in another, instruments thatoverlap in range and timbre (Example 1). Note howthe concurrent soundings of the second horn and violawill clutter and fog over the crucial word " liebe" rnbar 11. Mahler avoided such thick sounds in the fourauthentic Riickert Lieder orchestrations, as wouldparticularly be appropriate in pianissirno settings.

Among Mahlerites, Cooke is best known for

completing Mahler's "unfinished" tenth symphony,but he believes (and I agree) that his version of thetenth is more authentic than Puttmann's version of

the song, although that version had fooled Cookefor some years. Cooke's analyses of the two post-humous orchestrations of the respective works arebased on the study of Mahler's prevailing compo-sitional practices at the time of each compositionin question. Many conductors refuse to conduct theCooke "fabrication" of the tenth symphony, butthere are at least five recordings of the huge score.When I listen to one of these, I find myself asking,"How would Tennstedt or Bernstein lwho chosenot to record Cooke's version of this symphonyl

play this or that phrase?" I alsoask, "To what percentage ofMahler's handiwork do I listen?"On the other hand, in his orches-tral performance of the RiickertLieder, Karl Bohm omits Liebstdu. presumably because theorchestration is not Mahler's.Would Bohm, or his sound engi-neer, have clarified Puttmann'sthickly orchestrated strands? Iwonder.

Ich bin der Welt abhandengekommen

At first. Ich bin der Welt ab-handen gekommen sounds muchIlke lch atmet einen linden Dufiin its use of long, high-floatingmelody. Moreover, both seemembedded in the sonic world ofthe quieter moments in Mahler'sfifth symphony, flnished in thesame year (1902) as Liebst du umSchdnheit.

M i t che l l no tes tha t t heRilckert Songs present microcos-mic versions of Mahler's "musi-

cal thinking " that are explored onan epic scale in his later works,especially Das Lied von der Erde

(67). But also, the musical results of Mahler'scounterpoint, as discussed in the following sectionof this essay, sound somewhat like Debussy's coun-terpoint tn Jeux, Debussy's most advanced workin orchestral clarity. Mahler's style in a poemwhose theme is losing track of the world suggestsworlds of sound he and others were to develop inthe opening decade of the twentieth century. Theseworks, though inimitable, nonetheless suggest otherworks and others' styles.

Indeed " Ich bin der Welt. . . " is unique in ways

JCG Vol. 14. No. 2 111

stor - ben, ge -chcr - fuhcd hauc

r e l tished,an dead.

S o l o

Example 2: "lch bin der lVelt abhanden gekommen," bars 37-39, from FiinfLieder nach Riickert. Leipzig; C.F. Kahnt lvachf., 1905. Repr wien.

Weiner Philharmonische Verlag, I926 [" Philharmonia" scoref

that subtly counterbalance Mahler's usual melodicways. Here we find strophic repetition with a dif-ference. The word " gestorben" ('dead') appearsprominently, for instance, in each of the three stan-zas. However, whereas the first two stanzas con-clude with a ghostly final appearance of the En-glish horn, balancing its earlier appearances withthe clarinet in the opening of stanza one, in thethird stanza the English horn, though there, is morerecessed (Example2). In the second strophe (bars

37 -38), at the place where the singer is dead to theworld, the woodwinds, albeit present, are hushed,and Mahler has built pauses and silence into hisinstrumental lines. These silences and pauses" com-bined with a powerfully spare harmony in the wood-winds, create a delicate tonal balance, chamber-like, which sets the voice, the harp, and the violinsat the lyrical center.

The orchestration becomes even more slenderand quiet in bars 43 et seq., where the speaker'sremoval from the world's turmoil (" Weltgetilmmel")bespeaks a diminishment of the sounds of the wordsas he (or she) hears them (Example 3). In a man-ner that prepares for the dying or diminished soundsof bars 57-67, the instrumental lines in bars 43-48are once again spare, chamber-like, allowing indi-vidual voices to peek through the melody and tohighlight and cushion the crisis described in thewords " Ich bin gestorben dem Welt getilmmel undruh' in einem stillen Gebiet" ('I am dead to theworld's turmoil and peaceful in a still [or silent]land'). This scoring suggests evanescence, self con-trol, self containment, even self entombment, eS-pecially with regard to the final statement of thespeaker, who will live alone in his (or her) threerealms - "In my heaven, in my love, / In my song. "

The prominence of the harp, particularly in the bass,may be said to augment the tonal death imagery inthis most delicately scored song.

Ich atmet einen linden Duft

Ich atmet einen linden Duft exemplifies Mahler's

Llz JCG vot I 4. No. 2

new approaches to counterpoint between 1900 and1902, the years in which he completed his fourthand fifth symphonies. The song therefore is em-bedded within Mahler's quickly evolving musicalthinking following the Wunderhorn perrod. In thissong, polyphony emerges against the lean andunmuffled harmonies of single instruments andchamber groupings in the orchestra. Several con-trapuntal techniques merge which Mitchell discussesat length and with great skill (see pp. 59-73 andnotes). Mitchell notes that Mahler treats the hu-man voice line "as just one more instrumental partin the contrapuntal texture. " In addition, Mahleruses heterophony, a contrapuntal technique whereby" identical parts . . . [are] rhythmically a little outof step with one another" (Theodore Adorno, Mah-ler: Eine musicalische Physiognomik [19601, inMitchell , 62). Combined, the chamber polyphonyand the heterophony result in an unearthly, softlypunctuated clarity of orchestral voices and instru-mental t imbre. Mitchell cites the precision inMahlers use of the celesta notes at the beginning ofthe song. The harp enters half way through themeasure so as to "strengthen and articulate the topof the acciaccatura" with ablaze of one color lightlysuperimposed upon another. The overlay of harpupon the celesta may be seen in Example 4.

To my mind, the heterophonic sound shapes,in addition to what they reveal about the song, sug-gest songs out of phase, the non-linear characteris-tics of an unsequenced group.

But the sonic delicacy of lch atmet.. . is devel-oped to an even higher rarification. In the openingbars, we may note scalic melodies together withtheir mirrored and inverted versions, though hardlyperfect copies. Likewise, the clarity is heightenedby the care in Mahler's orchestration. For example,

the appearances of the oboe and clarinet are sepa-rated from each other so as to avoid murky timbre,and both are separated from the celesta so as toavoid droning out its delicate shades. Minute ef-fects are thereby heightened, telescoped, broadenedin the hearing mind. Blending and individuality

ftt ieder zurijckhalten dl)i nuooo ritard.

Cor-tngl.

Cor.(Es)

ArP.

Vocc

WiederAl le

zur i ickhal tend lchUgn 0 0

blnvou l

I

ge- stor-benbat I I -n ten t

Example 3; "lch

bin der Welt ah-handen gekommen," burs 40-lg,

/ ion F i in f L ieder nach Ri icker tLeip:ig: C It Kahnt Nachf , t905.Repr Wien; lleiner philharmo-

nische l,'erlag, 1926 ["philhar-moniu "

score/ .

ttI

vl.I

yr.tr

Vla.

Yle.

cb .

Cor.(Er)

80

c t .(B)

Cor.(Es)

Arp.

aArp.

dem Welt- gc - t i im- mel1vr Na-huda slev - cn,

undwhose

l nlrg

cl- ncm si l l -ci - lent aouf _

\n.I

vr. tr

Yla.

Vlc.

cb.

bte t !tirong.

vl.I

vl . l I

Vla .

'\l"lc.

cb.

w.Ph.Y.263

are lssues one can understand in relat ion toMahler 's myst ical leanings. But in this song,these issues are combined to high effect, and maybe seen to express the themes of withdrawal. lone-l iness, and loss.

These themes - withdrawal, loneliness, loss- are reinforced by Rtickert's typical verbal fea-tures. In his study of strophic elements inMahler 's l ieder (and symphonies) , Michaeloltmanns cites Rtckert's preference for word-play underscored by assonance. Note the sec-

ond stanza of lch atmet. . ., quoted with olt-manns' emphasis (Oltmanns, 149_50):

Wie lieblich istder Lindenduft

Das LindenreisBrachst du gelinde!Ich atmet LeisIm Dufi der LindeDer Herzensfreud-

schaft linden Dufr.

How lovely isthe fragrance of time,

The spray of limeYou delicately plucked!I gently breatheThe fragrance of lime-The delicate

fragrance of love.

JCG Vol. 14, No. 2 ll3

,, lch atmet einen linden Dufti '( F u c k e n t . )

Gustav Mah le rS t h r z : t t ' t u n d i n n i l l ; l a t t g s ; t t t t .

F l o t e .

0 b o e .

C l a r i n e t t ei n A .

F a g o t t I u . l l .

H o r n I t n E

Horn II . IVt n E

C e l e . s t a .

Harfe.

V io l i nenmit D lmpfern

S i n g s t i m m e .

Y io leno h n e D r m g t e r .

S c h t z a r t u u d

V e r l r g v o n C . P . K r h n t

i n n i g i l a n g s a m .

Example 1: TheJirst page o/'the /)rst edition

of "lch atmet einen linden Du.ft," in D,

Riickert (Music Il lustration 2(a)

Copyr igh t t906 by C I

(1905) o./ the orchestral score

. / ion F i in f L ieder nach

in Mirchell, p. 70)

P P--.a F - \ )f?t

T---- --pp-

r l. r ' * t I a,

L-- Il a 3

E= l--t__

' ? P

. m i t D i m p f e rA - . - - -

PP

t i T - : - . - - , - = . . -.)

/ . ? --------1*-f f i 4 t l-*,ffirc# __r_o r - _ & ,4

#F- :A l'PP

' A t - _

jr-

A I

pp 'rJii'{

ffi=

P l a g f ;' ,-:

Ich l t - mel '

r r r spF

ei Den lh - den D u f t !

Here, sonic equivalence serves to equate normally

separable concepts of love, lovely, gentleness, and

therefore even the act of plucking the twig, which

was plucked gently. Furthermore, Oltmann's claim,

following Adorno (see Oltmanns, fn. 2I), that these

ll4 JCG vol 14, No. 2

verbal plays bear musical rather

than ra t i ona l s ign i f i cance ,

rightly hints that Mahler is cre-

ating a subjective range of mean-

ing for the audience to Probeand, more important, to dwell

within.Indeed, this verbal play es-

tablishes a subtle questioning of

the fragility of one's belief or

trust in reality, a questioning

raised to the level of a theme in

Kindertotenlieder. Tracing this

interpretation further, is not the

speaker tn lch Atmet. . . caught

between a realm of meaning and

substance, on the one hand, and

a realm of radically subjective

meaning, on the other hand? The

subjectivrty of lch atmet. . . , thus

understood, replicates the disso-

lution of reality at the end of lch

bin der Welt abhanden gekom-

men There, the already fragile

life of the protagonist, moving

through the rea lms o f h isheaven, love, and song, exists

in none of those places, but

rather in subjectivity itself. As

I see it, Mahler's concept of apervasive subject iv i ty is ex-pressed in the structure of some

of these l ieder , a s t ruc ture

which, for ffie, culminates in

the sequence of images in the

sentence, " I live alone in my

heaven, / In my love, in my

song.

Mahler's emphasis on counterpoint and a soft

context for lch atmet einen linden Duft is combined

with a chamber-orchestra scoring such as to enable

symbolically telling effects. The human voice, as

already noted, is generally independent of the other

voices, embedded in counterpoint and free fromheavy harmonic domination. In addition, EdwardF. Kravitt thinks the harp evokes an atmosphere ofdeath, often appearing in other Mahler scores wheredeath, or at least otherworldly qualities , are eitherevoked by Mahler's instrumentation or mentionedin texts Mahler chooses (Ikavitt. "Mahler's Dirgesfor his Death: February 24, 1901," Me [July,I9781, cited in Mitchell, 129). The voice line, thusdistinguished from the harmonic texture, feels muchlonelier than the words of the purported love poemsuggest. Therefore, there is a tension in the blendof words and music. The result, a disembodiedsung text at odds with an instrumental context ofdeath (the harp, and perhaps the celesta too), sug_gests Mahler's grappling with a painful epistemo_logical problem. The poem's verbal musical tex_ture points to a world where love and loss are intri-cately combined with exquisite human pain and joy.If the entire Rilckert "cycle" bears a cyclic unity, Isuggest that its theme is precisely the immense ap_prehension, both of feeling and of knowing, thatemerges as the experience of life's disjunctions.Mahler exposes us to the structure of such dis-junctions: life/death, love/loss, the present/thepast, even delicate gain (the broken lime spray)/fragile loss. one leaves the Riickert Lieder wrtha sense of the disjunctions within life'sinvented or perceived unity.

, f r f { < t r F r f * : t (

Stephen A. Gottlieb is professor and Chairof English at Quinnipiac College, Hamden, Con_necticut. He is President of the Association forIntegrative studies and a senior editor o/ IssunsIN INTBCRATIVE STUOInS: AN INTERDISCIPLINARY

JoURNAL. He has authored numerous publishedmusicolo gical articles.

RnpBnnNcBs

A. Books and Scores

Eisenberg, Evan. The Recording Angel: The Experience ofMusic from Aristotle to kppa. New york: penguin, 19gg.La Grange, Henry-Louis de. Gustav Mahler,3 vols. paris:Fayard, 1973, 1983, 1984. (See particularly Vol. 2: L'Aged'or de Vienne - 1900-1907, 1983: 1105-1119.)

Mahler, Gusrav" Filnf Lieder nach Rilckert. Leipzig: C.F.Kahnt Nachf., 1905.

. Sieben Lieder aus Letzter Zeit [containin g FilnfLieder nach Riickertl. Leipzig c.F. Kahnr Nachf., 1905.Repr . Wien: Wiener Ph i lharmon ische Ver lag . 1926["Philharmonia" score].

Mitchell, Donald. Gustav Mahler, yol. Iil; Songs and Sym_phonies of Life and Death Interpretations and Annotations"Berkeley: Univ. of California press. 1985.

oltmanns, Michael. strophische structuren in werk GustavMahlers . Pfaffenwcfl er : centaurus-verlagsgesellschaf , lggT .

B- Select LP Recordings

Mahler, Gustav. Rilckert Lieder. Janet Baker, John Barbirolli.New Philharmonia Orch. Angel 5-36796 or in 58_3760.

. Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, Daniel Barenboim(piano). French EMI ZCt67 -03446t8.

Karl Bohm, Berlin Phil. Orch. DG slpm l3g879. [4 songs]

Phil, Orch.. Christa Ludwig, Herbert Von Karajan, BerlinDG 2531 147 or in DG 2707 082.

. Yvonne Minton, Pierre Boulez, London Col.3728r.

. Hanna Schwarz, Claudio Abbado, ChicagoSymphony Orch. in DG 2707 128.

JCG VoL 14, No. 2 115

Towards A Composer-FriendlyEnvironment

bv Victo rra Bond

The following is the third in a series of inter-

views the author held with noted composers and

conductors on the broad subiect of the impor-

tance of the creative arts to American culture.

The texts are edited transcripts of the interviews.

rk :f ,r!. tl€ tF {< ,l€ ,F

Gerard Schwarz is an internationally renowned

conductor who is currently Music Director of the

Seattle (WA) Symphony Orchestra.

: $ r f { € { < { . * * r l .

VB: Thank you for agreeing to share your thoughts.

I'd like to discuss any ideas you have on creating a

more composer-friendly environment in today's

concert halls.

GS: I think one can achieve the goal in a number

of ways. Two that are popular at the moment are:

1) 'sneaking' new music onto programs in a be-

nign way, so that audiences aren't aware you're

doing it - hopetully they will end up liking it; or

2) trying to educate your audience, which is cer-

tainly the better way.

VB: How do you 'sneak' new music onto pro-

grams without audiences noticing?

GS: When I first came to Seattle I programmed

a lot of pieces by composers I liked, but no works

that would be, in Copland's words, "very diffi-

cult. " Copland, as I'm certain you know, used to

categorize the listenability of contemporary pieces

116 JCG vol 14, No. 2

as "fairly easy," "avetage," and "very difficult."

Well, no selections in his "very difficult" group

were programmed. In other words, I didn't pro-

gram Schonberg's Five Pieces or even Berg's

Three Pieces, which are not all that difficult for

the listener" What I did program was a lot of

American music that audiences could readily

enjoy and identify with, be it Copland, Hanson,

Diamond, even Walter Piston. For example,

there is a wonderful, short piece by David Dia-

mond called Psalm. It is very powerful. I also

programmed pieces with strong programmatic

elements, and the audiences responded with genu-

ine enthusiasm.Of course I didn't announce to the subscribers,

"For the next few seasons I will program a lot of

American music. " Nevertheless, between 1985

and 1987, even with a shortened season, the Se-

attle Symphony programmed more American mu-

sic than any orchestra in the country.

Of course, we programmed the newer works

on programs with Brahms, Beethoven, Schumann

and Schubert, so there wasn't a large dose of con-

temporary or twentieth-century music on any one

program. If I programmed a piece by Stephen

Albert, for example, I wouldn't program any

Stravinsky with it.

Another reason we were so successful here was

that I didn't select from the works of twenty-five

dffirent contemporary composers. I focused on

composers that I thought the audience would really

like. In a single season I would do at least two, and

sometimes three of the works of each of a carefully

selected group of comPosers.

vB: In that way, the audience had the opportunityto become familiar with their music.

GS: Exactly. After hearing several works by agiven composer, the audience better unclerstood thatperson's language . When Beethoven is pro_grarnmed, the audience knows what to expect! Evenif it is a piece they have never heard before, theyalready understand Beethoven's language.

currently, most audiences aren't familiar withthe diverse languages of new music. However,when Stephen Albert was composer-in-residencewith the Seattle Symphony, w€ used to do three orfour of his pieces a year: one or two on the sub-scription concerts, and one or two on the ..New

Music series" or the "American Music series.',

soon we got to the point where the audience acru-ally looked forward to hearing Stephen Albert.when Albert wrote a cello concerto, quite natu-rally the audience expected that we would pro-gram it! I followed the sarne fcrrmat with piecesby David Diamond, Howard Hanson and walterPiston. We are now programming works byBright Sheng.

It is really gratifying to know that we've beenable to develop an audience that doesn't run awayfrom new music. I no longer get letters complainingthat we're doing too much of it. Happily, it is nowan accepted part of our programming! But, pleaseremember, I do not program serial music on themain series- I happen to love Schonberg's FivePieces, but I realize that not in 100 years will anaudience like that music, by and large. you couldplay it five times, play it every year, and they stillwould not like it.

vB: Is that because it's language is so far removedfrom more accessible contemporary music?

GS: serialism is best described as 'intellectual mu-

sic.' It does not spring from what audiences haveexperienced in terms of harmony and melody.

Now you and I are educated. not just generallyeducated, thoroughiy educated, especially in mat-ters of music and sound. But even well-educatedpeople won't always understand. My father, forexample, plays the piano very well. He's gone toconcerrs all his life and is very knowledgeable aboutrnusic. He has even studied counterpoint. But, hedoesn't l ike serial muslc" probably because hedoesn't understand it. you might ask, ,.Couldn't

he learn to understand it?" Well, he could if hespent time studying it, as we have. Then it mightgive him a little intellectual pleasure. But realisti-cally, I doubt it will ever happen.

vB: This raises another interesting subject, namelythe dwindling access to music education for theyounger ages. So many school music programsare being cut that children are currently growingup without any significant knowledge about music.

GS: It's tragic. but that shortfall even affectsMozartand Beethoven! we're not just talking aboutSchonberg now. It's a deplorable situation whenyou compare whar was once taught in all of ourschools with what is offerecl in only some schoolstoday. Support for music education will always bea low priority if people believe music is a superflu-ous luxury that is not genuinely important to thecourse of their lives. However, there are someencouraging signs that things are geffing better insome areas. For example, here in seattle, there,sa new excitement both in the private and publicschools for education in music. I feel that negativeattirudes and other threats have receded in this re-gion and have been replaced by a more enlighteneddedication. Perhaps other places are doing betteras well.

VB: I think as artists, it is very important for usnot only to be advocates for music but also to pro-claim why music is vitally important to the lives ofour citizenry as a cultured people.

JCG Vol. 14, No. 2 ll7

GS: Absolutely! A while back I spoke at a localRotary Club and later received a letter in which thewriter proclaimed how grateful he was for our con-certs and the approach that we follow here. Hewrote of going through a very difficult year withthe death of a loved one, and that attending our

concerts transported him to a different place andprovided a kind of spiritual guidance that he des-perately needed. Our music helped him throughthat very difficult year.

It is truly unfortunate that many people say,"Oh, I don't know anything about that music - Inever go. " How sad that this element in their livesis lost. You and I can talk about this 'quality' ofmusic, but in reality it is something that can't beexplained, it must be experienced.

The world of music is very, very special! Howwonderful it would be to have everyone experiencethe mental, emotional and spirirual elements of mu-sic in the same way we do. It would make thembetter human beings. They would have more ap-preciation of life and their world. However, untilyou experience it first hand, it is almost impossibleto envision the impact that quality music can makein your life.

VB: Does your audience come from different eco-nomic and social brackets?

GS: I don't have hard statistics on that, but myguess is that ours is similar to most audiences aroundthe country. Our audiences are somewhat diverse,but the concert-goers tend to be older and from themiddle class, like most other symphony audiences.

VB: In your opinion, should the government

support the development of 'new' music?

GS: I don't believe that government should besupporting experimental music. The avant garde

has to find its own way. I think that the commis-

sioning projects in which the government is involved

are quite wonderful, but I am not a great fan ofconsortium commissioning. If somebody writes apiece, I want to look at it; then, if I like it, I canperform it. With a consortium commission I'm ata disadvantage, because I've given a sight-unseenguarantee that I will play the piece. Unless I'm

doing the premiere I have nothing to gain and pos-

sibly much to lose! I prefer to perform music Ibelieve in. Although I premiere pieces, I am notpersuaded by the premiere as an event but by thework and the composer! Commissioned works canbe wonderful pieces, but they are a gamble. If thecomposer produces a quality work, you get thehonor of doing the first performance. Realistically,however, the consortium commissioning idea is any-thing but fool-proof, and should be approached withextreme care.

VB: Do you think government has done enoughfor music?

GS: Government support of orchestras that play

American music has been a big help, but I feelmore should be done. I'm also unhappy with the'ASCAP' awards. It is a travesty that the awardsare given only for performances of music writtensince 1945. What's wrong with the great Ameri-can music of the first half of the century? Doesn'tthat body of masterpieces need to be supported andhonored as well. It's a shame that you, or in asense your community, receive the honor only ifyou do 'new music' and not 'new older music.'The awards should acknowledge support of musicfrom the whole century, not just that written since1945. After all, the pride and satisfaction that de-rive from an ASCAP award are wonderfullv im-portant to a community.

Government interaction with the arts is a com-plicated issue. I think the idea of government sup-porting organizations that play new pieces, or in

some cases commission them, makes a lot more

sense than providing government support directly

118 JCG vot 14, No. 2

to the composers. I don't see a great deal of valuein that. In countries where it is done directly (Fin-land, for example, supports its composers to thepoint where they are able to make a good livingjust from government grants), the process doesn,tproduce great composers. Why that is, I don,tknow. Perhaps it is the security! In principle, Ithink government grants are a step in the right di-rection. I'd like to see more, perhaps twice thenumber of those given presently. More than thatwould constitute too much interference. In the past,we've seen what problems can develop when gov-ernment meddles in the arts.

VB: How do your orchestra musicians feel aboutdoing 'new music'? Are they excited about it, ordo they resent having to learn something that is outof the mainstream?

GS: I think they're very excited about it, as longas they can function as interpreters rather than ro-bots programmed to perform in a specific way. Ifthey can establish some kind of identity or affilia-tion with the music, they're very happy to do it. Infact, when they are not challenged, they becomebored. When they're given music that they con-sider mediocre, or music that doesn't adequatelyuse their talents, they become angry, and justifi-ably so.

VB: Obviously, the virtuosos of the less-popularconcerto instruments have everything to gain fromdoing 'new music.' However, many of the com-posers with whom I've spoken expressed a wishthat concert soloists, particularly those who playthe more popular instruments such as violin andpiano, would be more encouraging of composers.

GS: Your composer friends are absolutely right.If you survey the repertoire of the violin for ex-ample, you notice that there are dozens of piecesthat just aren't played. Many of these lesser-known

works are wonderful. Recently I programmed theStrauss Violin Concerto on a concert. When wasthe last time you heard the Strauss Violin Con-certo? And yet, it is a fabulous piece! I talked toa violinist about the Conus concerto; she confessedto me that she had never heard of it! As for theBusoni Violin Concerto, the Nielsen or the Hin-demith, while they are played occasionally, they'reall great works that deserve to be heard more fre-quently "

If you are searching for contemporary pieces,consider Stephen Albert's piece, In Concordium, awonderful work that is rarely done. Composerswho have violinist friends occasionally receive apremiere, but generally most soloists are not inter-ested in delving into the newer repertoire.

Whether it's a concerto by Robert Stall or EarlKim (whether they're great pieces or not, I don'tknow), there is a wealth of twentieth-century vio-lin and piano music that is not played. Everybodyplays the same half dozen pieces. I'm getting tiredof receiving repertoire lists from celebrated artiststhat contain little or nothing beyond the popularstandards!

VB: That seems to be true as well with the reper-tory of many orchestras. There is not a tremen-dous amount of new music being played. you areadventurous in the repertory of other times as wellas today, but most conductors program from a sortof 'top 50' list containing pieces that are heard allthe time.

GS: Unfortunately, your right. If people get usedto that approach, watch out! Your audience willshrink. When your listeners don't grow, musi-cally speaking, they get bored and will atrophy.When they are immersed in popular repertoire, andare not encouraged to listen with an open mind tounfamiliar pieces, they will stop coming altogether.Conductors who believe they are building an audi-ence with that approach are, in reality, destroying

JCG Vol. 14, No. 2 ll9

it. Is it so difficult to come to terms with the concept

that when a conductor programs on the assumption

that audiences will come only for 'those' pieces, he

or she will develop an audience that will get bored

with only 'those' pieces. If the audience is not chal-

lenged to listen to anything else, you are finished!

VB: Along those same lines, increasingly concert

programs are becoming locked into standard for-

mats and formulas to procluce maximum rehearsal

efficiency. Because you do so much new music.

are you given additional rehearsal time'/

GS: Not really. I used to do a lot of split re-

hearsals, a format in which I would always do a

wind/brass/percussion sectional foliowed by a sepa-

rate string sectional. That would count as a single

service. But I don't schedule that way as much

anymore. On a rare occasion, I ' l l get a f ifth

rehearsal. However, like most thoughtful con-

ductors I try to get av/ay from the rigid over-

ture, concerto and symphony format for every

program.

VB: That's what I mean by a 'standard program

format.'

GS: Standardization, which sometimes works won-

derfully, can get a little dull. It's why I like to

vary the format. I have done programs with mul-

tiple concerti, with two symphonies, and without

soloists. I'll try whatever makes musical sense.

At all costs, avoid a routine in which you open

with a new piece, follow it with a Beethoven Piano

Concerto, and after intermission present a Brahms

Symphony.

VB: I know you do a lot of guest-conducting

abroad. Let me ask you about American music in

Europe and Asia. Do foreign audiences know

what's being written in this country? Are Ameri-

can composers well received there?

GS: Unfortunately not! Musically, audiences

abroad don't know what's going on in this coun-

try, and they don't want to know. Several years

ago in Manchester, I performed David Diamond's

Second Symphony with the BBC Philharmonic. It

was the first time I had a major success conducting

American music there. Even though Diamond's

Second is an absolute masterpiece, in the early re-

hearsals I had a hostile orchestra on my hands. It

was a clear manifestation of the phenomenon that

foreigners, Europeans rn particular, are not will-

ing to acknowledge that America has great com-

posers. They're willing to grant us great instru-

mentaiists, orchestras, conductors, anything - but

not the composers. Apparently, they want to re-

serve that creative domain for themselves, that

greatest honor, to be a contemporary Beethoven or

Brahms, or if you're English, to be the new Elgar,

Tippett, Britten. Vaughan Williams, or whoever.

It's truly sad that European audiences can't bring

themselves to give our composers their due, but I

understand why. To acknowledge a society's cre-

ators is to pay their culture the highest compliment.

Towards that end, I've been programming Ameri-

can music all over the world, but not with wonder-

ful results in terms of audience response. I re-

member going on tour with Leonard Bernstein and

the New York Philharmonic in 1976. We did all

Amencan music, and even that orchestra, with that

conductor, was not enthusiastically received.

VB: Is it possible that the enthusiastic audience

response you received in Manchester for the Di-

amond Symphony might signal a change in atti-

fude?

GS: Maybe it bodes well for our future. I hope it

cloes! One positive sign is that the recordings of

American music that I've made have been getting

very good reviews in Europe. In the past, British

record magazine reviewers would automatically pan

American music. Now, however, they are writing

120 JCG vol 14. l,'lo. 2

some very good and intelligent reviews.Of course, foreign critics have yet to come

around. They complain that Hanson is too ac_cessible, that his music is not adventuresome, thatit's overly this or overly that! They draw parallelsbetween it and mediocre music they already know;for example, in England, it is compared to GeorgeLloyd, whose music is 'less than inspired.' Com-parisons like that are ridiculous. I'm not program-ming the Grand Canyon Suitet. If they comparedthat to something by George Lloyd, they might beright. Unfortunately, such a criticism is not lim-ited to Europe. When I was programming half ofthe Hanson symphonies, I was severely criticizedfor doing so here in Seattle, as well as in Los Ange-les, New York and elsewhere. I never got agood review for a Hanson Symphony until I madethe first recording; then everyone loved theworks. The recording changed the whole envi_ronment.

Recently, I did the two William Schuman op_eras. John Rockwell, the renowned music critic,skewered Mighty Casey, a great American folkopera. Casey is fabulous, one of Schuman's grear_est pieces, but John panned it mercilessly. In asense, that's snobbery. Someone with John's cre_dentials should be able to appreciate a work on itsown terms. Contemporary masterpieces don't al_ways have to created by the minimalists or the avantgarde. So acceptance is not only a problem inEurope, it's a problem here, too.

There is a silver lining to all of this. At themoment, the record reviewers have the potentialof providing significant help to us, simply becausethey are in a position to spend more quality timewith the music so as to really digest it before pro-viding an assessment. Because of this, they,ve been,

in some ways, the greatest supporters that we havehad for American music. I am genuinely gratefulthat when we now make recordings of Americanmusic, the reviewers are responding to it, and thepublic, after reading the reviews, are buying theCDs and cassettes containing those works.

VB: Certainly, the climare has changed. Forsuch a long time, the muslc of composers likeHoward Hanson and Diamond was completely outof favor.

GS: That's true, but let's remember the manyyoung composers, Ellen Zwlhch, Stephen Albertand many others, whose music communicateswith an audience but who have not had to wrlte'pop' music in order to do so. It 's a ripe timefor us to support American music and composers.I believe at last our audiences are saying, ..We

love it too. "

VB: Thank you so much for your t ime andthoughts. I especially appreciate hearing that de-spite an uphill struggle, you have managed to cre-ate a composer-friendly environment for your au_diences and for the American record-buyingpublic!

:F rF ,f * {€ ,l€ {< rF

The tape transcription of this interview waseffected by Michele Gutierrez, a graduate stu-dent at Baylor University qn. The interviewwas subsequently edited by Stephen M. Heyde,Conductor-in-Residence, Baylor (Jniversity, andMusic Director/Conductor, Weco (TX) SymphonyOrchestra.

JCG Vol. 14, No. 2 l2l

Scores & Parts

Firebird Swite (1945 by Igor Stravinskyversion)

compiled by

Several years ago, the 1945 version of Stra-

vinsky's Firebird Suite was the target of some criti-

cism in the Journal of the Conductors' Guild. As a

preface to this errata list, I would like to make the

case for the opposing view - that the 1945 suite is

preferable in several ways to the l9I9 version.

Part of the neglect for the 1945 suite may have

to do with its origin. As is well known, anomalies

in the international copyright system allowed many

of Stravinsky's early works to pass into the public

domain. It is alleged that this fact, with the atten-

dant loss of royalty income, inspired the composer

to prepare the L945 version of Firebird; the unspo-

ken feeling is that the later version is therefore some-

how tainted by an unworthy and inartistic materi-

alism. However, it should be self-evident that cre-

ative artists have rights to the products of their

imagination. Even if Stravinsky's motivation in

making the 1945 revision were merely commer-

cial, it would be nonetheless defensible. Ultimately,

of course, that entire question is irrelevant to the

musical and historic value of the work.

When a composer revises an earlier work, he

may have one of several purposes. He may wish

to create an alternative version that has equal stat-

ure with the original. Bach's numerous revisions

and adaptations are good examples. He may, oo

the other hand, wish to provide a new version that

he considers an improvement on the original. The

Schumann Fourth Symphony is an example of this

122 JCG vol 14, No. 2

David Daniels

type . Still other revisions are the result of outside

pressures (Bruckner's symphonies, Mussorgsky's

Boris Godunov), and it may not be always clear

which version the composer preferred"

In the case of the Firebird Suite, however, there

is little doubt. Stravinsky maintained that he in-

tended his 1945 Firebird to supersede the I9l9 suite.

Of course it is possible to hold that he secretly

preferred the l9I9 version, but I am aware of no

clear evidence for this view. Therefore, unless

one has a special reason for performing the 1919

version, the 1945 suite should be the score of choice.

The 1945 suite has numerous errors in score

and parts, but not nearly so many as the l9I9 ver-

sion, as a glance at the following list will show. In

the L945 score, some errors from l9I9 are cor-

rected, some are carried over (and even made

worse!), and some are finessed by a change of or-

chestration or context. On the whole, however,

one can approach this version with much more con-

fidence in its accuracy, not to mention consistency

between score and Parts.It is true that the orchestration changes in this

version are not always obvious improvements: that

is, for the most part they don't sound significantly

better, nor are they any easier to play. Jonathan

Sternberg has some justification in describing them

as "minute and often senseless changes of dynamic

markings, instrumentation, phrasing, and other

details" (JCG, Winter, 1983 , P. 2l).

The obvious bonus in the L945 version is theadded music, which consists of two additionalmovements plus brief connective transitions. The"Pas de deux; Firebird and Ivan Tsarevitsch" isa langourous and seductive dance with promi-nent solos for oboe and flute. The more activemiddle section of this movement prefigures TheRite of Spring in its melodies that repeatedly de-part from and return to a particular central pitch.

The other added movement is "scherzo;

Dance of the Princesses. " In the original balletscore it is titled "The Princesses play with theGolden Apples. " This is a charming and hu-morous movement, about three minutes long, thatwould be a good programming choice for youthconcerts. At one point it sweetly anticipates themelody that will appear in the "Infernal Dance"with increasing brurality (the melody at #15 inthe 1919 score).

The three "Pantomimes" that occur before,between, and after the two major added move-ments are merely transitions, each one minuteor less in length.

Having conducted both versions of the suite,I much prefer the 1945 version. All the bestfeatures of 1919 are present; attractive music hasbeen added; and one can have far greater confi-dence in the accuracy of the score and parts. Iheartily recommend the 1945 score.

The errata in the following list refer for themost part to the score only; in general, though,the parts are highly consistent with the score.Simply stated, most of the score errors are alsofound in the parts, though in the set of parts Iused, some of them had already been correctedin pencil. It would be best to assume that anyerror in the score is also present in the parts un-til it has been checked.

Sources for comparison were the 1919 suiteand the full score of the complete ballet, as pub-lished by Schott in 1933 (Dover reprint).

Reh.#/Bar * Inst: Correction

413 Vla: Slur probably includes the G#714 . Vln 2,Znd & 3rd div: Should be

identical to previous bar; this was incorrect in1919 and only partially correcred in 1945

ll l5 . Cl2: Last note F#. and 1st note ofnext bar F-nat.

. Pno: Dyn s/r like Pteh.#1213

t 4 t4 .

Vla: lst note s/r A#Pno: S/r F#in LH (a probable error

Vlns 1 & 2: Last note in top div. s/r

Fl, Cl, Pno: Dyns analogous to those

Vln 1. Vla: Slur lst half of barVla: Played on the G string (III, not IV)Pno:15th note of bar s/r A-nat. (not B)Yc ArcoCl2. A-nat. (in the bar labeled "For

12t 2r2t3 .

from 1919)12 t4 .

F-nat.

at Reh.#12

I 7

1 3

17t4 .r8 t4 .1 8 / 5 .

ending")1914 . . . . . . . Vla: Last note is correct in score, but

parts have Gb (incorrect)2212-3 .... Ob 1: Accents should be on trst note

of slurred group each time; also 5th and 6th notesin b. 3 (An) should be tied

2413 . Ob 1: Slur after 2nd comma2414 . Ob 1: Slur entire bar3412 Ob 2: lst note s/r A#3513 . Hn 3: add accenr3514 . Ob 2. Znd note s/r G36 . Vla: Muted (not an error, but a

confirmation: Vla has been muted since Reh.#9)36. b. I -2 " . . . . . Hn 2: add accenrs36, b. 2 . . . . . . . . Hp' Presumably "pris de Ia table, '

(not "taste")

4 5 , b . 4 . . . . . . . . V l a : L a s t b e a t s l u r r e d56, b. 3 . . . . . . . . Bot tom l ine: Should be Vc (not DB)5913 . Bsns 1,2: 4th and 5th notes s/r C# and

C-nat., respectively5914 . Pno: 2nd through 5th nores s/r: F#, F

nat., E-nat., Eb (retaining the disjunct shape of thefigure)

62 Vlc: No mutes67 . Vlc: Complete ballet gives sfpp subito

here; it is questionable whether this is an inadvert-ent omission, or a deliberate change. In Stra-vinsky's own recording of the complete ballet thissfpp is preceded by a cresc.

* rF ,1. :l€ rt !t< ,f ,F

JCG Vol. 14, No. 2 123

Insrnuc'rroxsShould rcad : s / rAdd - (+;

De le te : ( )Bar numbcr - IJarmeasurc(s) : m.

Norrseighth noteirest .- e.n./r.quarter note/rest - c1.n./r.hal f notc/rcst : h.n. / rwholc notc i rcst : lvh.n. / rnatural : nat.

Scons - ScCES - cr i t ical edi t ion scoreCEP : cr i t rcal cdi t ion parts

Srnrrcs : StrV i o l i n : V l n

Abbreviations

Vio la - VaC e l l o : V cl)ouble tlass - I)B

Bn,q,ss - []rI r rench l lorn - l lnl 'rurnpct = I pt' l ' rornbone - ' l 'bn'l 'Lrba ' l-u

Woonurrus - Wr.rFlute - - I : lI ) iccolo - I ) icc( ' l a r i ne t ( ' l

P icct- r lo ( ' lar inet - PCIBass C' lar inct . - IXl lOboc - ObI :ng l i sh I l o rn - I : l ll ]assoon - []sn( 'ontra [ ]assoon - CI lsn

Key

Dvnanrcs - dyncrescendo: cresc'.de c're sce ndo - dec're sc'd iminuendo: d im.espressivct - espress.slaccalo - .tlacc.subi to ' sub.

PnrcrrssroN : PcrcI lass Drum - [ ] [ )C'yrnbal .= ('y

Snarc Drum - SI)' I -a rnbour inc ' - ' ' l ' amb

I ' impan i - ' l ' r np' l ' r i ang lc - ' l ' r i

X1' lophonc Xi '

Pl,rNo - Pno

ILrnp I Ip

Reh.#/Bar : Inst: Correction

7614 . . . . . . V lc : S lur the 2 Sth notes7918 . . . . . . V ln 2 , Y la : Cresc . , l i ke V ln 1 ; V la

probably mf like vlns.8 2 1 4 . . . . . . C l 1 : s / r E #8714 . . . . . . Tba: Probably Tuba sola (3rd tbn

tacet)88 , b . 4 . . . . . . . . Tp t 2 : Las t no te s / r Eb91 . . . . . . V lc : P iano subi to on 2nd note93 . . . . . . Tmp: Probably s / r low A99 . . . . . . Vn l , V la: ls t mul t ip le-stops inc lude

D-nat. (precautionary)1 0 4 1 3 . . . . C l r : ( - ) p106 . . . . . . P icc : 2nd no te s / r Bb : 5 th no te s / r

B-nat.108/3 . . . . Tpt 1: This note open115 . . . . . . Hns 2 ,3 ,4 : Cresc . , i us t l i ke subse-

quent figuresl l7 l2 . . . . Cl 1 : Last note s / r C-nat .l l 7 l3 . . . . C l 1 : 3 rd no te s / r D#1 18 . . . . . Cl 2 : ls t note s / r A-nat .12013 . . . . DB: Piul25ll-2 .. Hp, Should probably be the same asI24ll-2. However, as it stands, this is identical

to the l9T9 score (at Reh.#23), so if it is an over-sight it was overlooked both times. The originalballet is not comparable in the correspondingpassage.

13313 . . . . Tbn l , Pno, Hp: 3rd beat s / r D-nat(not Db)

13313 ..... Vla: 3rd beat s/r G-nat. (precautionary)

Reh.#/Bar : Inst: Correction

13512 . . . . Hns | & 3:Znd beat ; the chord onthis beat is suspect in all versions; if one believesit should be an A minor triad, perhaps Hns I & 3should each have a written E. On the other hand,it sounds fine as it is.

13914 .. . . Vla. Vlc: S/r dotted whole-notes145 . . . . . Cl l : S/r C-nat. (precautionary)147 . . . . . . Tbn 1 ,2 : ( * ) G l i ssando ; a l so 1471315214 . . . . . V la ( lower d iv . ) : S lu r t r i p le t15512 .. . . Bsn 1: Should probably be identical to

Reh.#15014157

the same as1 5 8 - 1 5 9 . .

harmonicsI b e f . 1 5 9 . . . . .I b e f . 1 5 9 . . . . .r59r64

Vln 1: What is intended is probablythe second note in#15712-3Hp. Al l RH notes probably s/r

Hp: RH s/r bass clefYln2: Lower div. probably s/r E-nat.DB: Upper div. s/r Bb

. . . . . . Hn l : S / r F -na t . (o r E#) . Th is i s aninteresting case in which the original ballet givesE#; it was simplified in 1919 to F, and thenwrongly "corrected" in 1945 to F#.

{< {c {< >F ,F {< *< {<

In order to assist in making comparisons of the1945 version with its predecessors, the following

table gives a concordance by rehearsal number. The

movement titles are those of the 1945 version.

124 JCG vot It. No. 2

Introductionl 12 Z3 Z4 45 5

Prelude and Dance of the Firebird6 67 78 8

I4

1 5T6I 71 8

I bef . 213 after 2728

4 l4243444546474849505 152535455565758596060 bis6 1

Pantomime III62636465666768

Rondo (Chorovod)6969 bis70v l7273747576777879808 18283848586

57

58

59

81 3

6 I

622bef , 631 bef. 646566

67686970

3 after 7l

72

4 after 7374

Variations (Firebird)9l 01 lt 2l 3l 4l 5l 6t 71 8

Pantomime I1 9202 l

91 01 1t 21 3l41 5t 6I 71 8

l 920

Pas de deux (Firebird and Ivan Tsarevitch)22 2923 3024 3 r25 3226 3327 34ZB 3529 3630 373 1 3 832 3933 4033 bis

75

76

7778792 bef. 808 1

828384854 bef. 865 after 86872 bef. 88

Pantomime II343536

Scherzo (Dance of the princesses)37383940

4 I5354

55

56

21J

456

-

89101 lI 21 3T 4

JCG Vol. 14, No. 2 125

1945 1919 Complete (1933) 1945 1919 Complete (1933)

lnfernal Dance878889909 l9293949596979899100101r02103r04105106101108109r 1 01 1 1l121 1 3r141 1 5tt6l171 1 8

45

3 after 67892 after l01 l2before 124 after 123 after 13t 4

1 5

1 6

1 7

1 8I 920

134

1 3 5

1361371 3 8r39

3 after 140t4l

2 after 1423 after 143453 after 1462 after 147148t49

150

1 5 1

152

153r543 after 155156

1572 before 1583 after 1583 after 1593 after 1603 after 1611 before 163t64165166r671682 after 169

170

t7Ir72173

139140r4l142r43144145146147148149

Lullaby (Firebird)1501 5 1r52153r54155156r57158158 bis159

Final Hymn160t6l162163164165166t67168r69170t 7 lt72t73r74175

3334353637

38

39

2 before23456789

10

1 i

t 21 3t 41 51 61 7

1 8

I 9

20

,1. {. rl. rl€ {< tlc tl. ,l€

174175176\77178

r791801 8 1t82

r83184

r8s

186

t87195

3 before 196

r97

19819920020r202203

204205

206207208209

133

[119 non-existent]120t2lr22r23t24t25126t27t28r291301 3 1r32r33t34135136r37138

2 l

22

23

4 after 242526

3 after 27282 after 29

30

3 1

3 after 32

David Daniels is Associate Editor of the Joun-

NAL oF rHB CoNDUcroRst Gurr.o and Music Di-

rector of the Warren (MI) and Pontiac-Oakland(MI) Symphonies. The third edition of his book,

OncuBsrRAL MusIc, is currently under prepara-

tion.

126 JCG vol 14, No. 2

Books in Review

by John |ay Flilfiger and Flarlan D. Parker

William H. Halverson, ed., Edvard Grieg Todoy; ASymposium, Q\orthfield, MN: St. Olaf College,1994), 87 pp., $ 1 5.95 ISBN 0-9640020-0-0.

In 1993 the world celebrated the l50th an-niversary of the birth of Edvard Grieg. Among theyear's tributes to the Norwegian composer was afour-day symposium at Minnesota's St. Olaf Col-lege. Ten lectures presented at this event make up anew book, Edvard Grieg Today. At first glance, thebook's title may seem surprising, applied as it is toone so long dead, but it reflects a changing attitudetoward Grieg and a growing desire among musiciansand scholars to reassess his work in light of newdiscoveries. It was once fashionable, if unfair, todisparage Norway's favorite son. Confirming this,Maurice Ravel declared that his countrymen had"always been most unjust towards Grieg." How-ever, it now seems that the tide is turning, especiallytf Edvard Grieg Today - where hardly a negativeword is to be found - is any indication.

The symposium's theme was "Edvard Grieg: AMusician for Today," an idea given carefully con-sidered support by many of the contributors. In thebook's opening chapter, "The First Spring," Nor-wegian expatriate Reidar Dittmann offers the viewthat Grieg played a major role in the awakening of along-dormant Norwegian culture. Although Grieg'sart derives from the very soil and bedrock of hishomeland, his message had such broad appeal thathe gained international renown in his own time. Withthe current renaissance of interest in his music, onceagain he may serve as his nation's cultural ambas-sador.

The next two papers were contributed by thepreeminent Grieg scholars, Dag Schjelderup-Ebbeand Finn Benestad. Schjelderup-Ebbe's "The Emer-

gence of Genius" discusses Grieg's education andmusical development. His comments about Grieg'sharmonic style, his influence on the French impres-sionist composers and Bartok, the national elementsin Grieg's music, and the largely ignored master-works are particularly informative and provocative.Benestad deals with "Grieg in the Twentieth Cen-tury"" His paper reviews critical opinion and Grregresearch from Daniel Gregory Mason to the present.Several enticing matters, such as the symphonywhich was not performed for over a century, the 1984discovery of twenty-nine long-lost Grieg holographsand nearly 400 letters, and the thirteen piano record-ings left by Grieg, make for fascinating reading.

Several chapters in the middle of the book offerviews from diverse musrcal perspectlves" In "A

Composer's Perspective," Peter Hamlin focuses onGrieg's beloved Piano Concerto and demonstratesthat this work is not a collage of unrelated minia-tures, as some earlier critics would have us believe.Hamlin's essay supports the view that it is a master-ful and highly integrated composition. EinarHenning Smebye's "A Pianist's Ferspective" cel-ebrates Grieg's shortcomings. Grieg seemed lessable to compose in large forms as he matured, theoverly large codas in some of the piano miniaturesseem to indicate a grand conception which fell short;in these and some other efforts his reach sometimesexceeded his grasp. Nonetheless, even if the com-poser did not always realize the greatness he strivedfor, precisely because of his striving he achievedsomething remarkabiy good and became a model andinspiration to his countrymen. Bradley Ellingboe'scontribution, "A Singer's Perspective," explains thatGrieg's songs have not become more widely known,in large part, because of the language barrier. Fewsingers outside Norway will attempt to sing Nor-

JCG Vol. 14, No. 2 127

wegian, and many of the English translations are

woeful. Ellingboe has made the songs more acces-

sible by transcribing them into the International Pho-

netic Language. In his article he briefly surveys

Grieg's career as song composer in several lan-

guages. In "A Critic's Perspective," Octavio Roca

suggests that perhaps Grieg's day has dawned, per-

fectly timed for a public that has become discon-

tent with modernism. Romanticism never really

died and is now being revived. Grieg's music is'easy to love' and has influenced many other com-

posers, especially in his own country. Readers of

this journal may be dismayed to learn that there is

no "Conductor's Perspective" chapter! (Perhaps an

oversight at the bindery?)"Grieg Research: A Progress Repofr," by Dag

Schjelderup-Ebbe, complements the earlier chapter

by Benestad. This essay identifies the areas of

Grieg's life, output and musical impact needing fu-

ture research. They include a thorough examina-

tion of the many as-yet-unpublished letters, an in-

depth stylistic analysis of Grieg's compositions,

study of his influence on a surprisingly long list of

other composers, and a critical survey of the recep-

tion of Grieg's works at home and abroad. Finn

Benestad's "Grieg's Chamber Music" points out that

this part of Grieg's output has been "unjustly ne-

glected," that in this geffe Grieg demonstrates a

mastery of form, and that his "importance for im-

pressionists and modernists is stronger than has thus

far been recognized." In "The Neglected Legacy,"

William H. Halverson suggests that the general pub-

lic knows only of Grieg's early and most accessible

works, too little to really appreciate the depth of his

innovations. Grieg himself was aware of this pre-

dicament and believed that one day the public would

come to understand and appreciate his more inven-

tive and modern compositions. Two appendices

contain thumbnail sketches of the symposium's par-

ticipants, together with programs from the concerts,

recitals and master classes that took place.

Taken as a whole, Edvard Grieg Today is an

appreciation of the artist and a sensitive, informed,

128 JCG vol 14, No. 2

defense of his work. As most of the papers present

new or little-known information, many readers will,

perhaps, see Grieg from a new perspective and gain

a fuller understanding of an important, but histori-

cally underestimated, composer. This little volume

was not meant to supplant basic biographical stud-

ies of Grieg, but it is a welcome publication which

deserves a place on library shelves and in the hands

of anyone with an interest in this very Norwegian,

yet very international, musician.

Dr. John Jay Hiffiger is Associate Professor of

Music at the (Jniversity of Wisconsin Center - Fond

du Lac and Music Director of the Fond du Lac

Chamber Orchestra.

Frank J. Cipolla and Donald Hunsberger, eds. ,, The

Wind Ensemble and its Repertoire (New York:

University of Rochester Press, 1994), 3l2pp., pho-

tos, appendices, ISBN 1 -878822-46-2.

The Wind Ensemble and lts Repertoire: Essays

on the Fortieth Anniversary of the Eastman Wind

Ensemble is a collection of papers presented under

the aegis of the American Sonneck Society at the

Fortieth Anniversary Celebration of the Eastman

Wind Ensemble in February, 1992; this celebration

also included a Conductors' Guild Workshop and a

series of concerts. The book is divided into three

sections: "The Wind Band: Origins and Heritage;""studies on the Repertoire;" and "The International

Spread of the Wind Ensemble."

The opening section, "The Wind Band: Origins

and Heritage," contains five presentations. The first

paper, "The Wind Ensemble Concept" by Donald

Hunsberger, describes the philosophy of the wind

ensemble and its inception at Eastman. The details

of instrumentation, copious concert programs, and

the rationale are presented in a clear and logical fash-

ion. If any reader had questions about the functionand philosophy of a wind ensemble, this articleshould provide the answers.

Three of the first section's articles, ..The EarlyAmerican Wind Band: Hautboys, Harmonies, andJanisaries" by Raoul camus, "The American BrassBand Movement in the Mid-Nineteenth Century,'byJon Newsom, and "J.A.c. Somerville and the Brit-ish Band in the Era of Holst and Vaughan williams"by Jon Mitchell, provide a historical perspective ofthe various band eras that are addressed. Addition-ally, they offer an excellent historical survey of thewind band and its development.

The remaining article, "Before the Brass Band:Trumpet Ensemble works by Kuffner and Lossau"by Robert Sheldon, supplies an interesting retrospec-tive of trumpet and kettledrum ensembles, togetherwith their literature and role in the eventual emer-gence of brass bands and wind ensembles.

Included in the book's first division are reper-toire lists and excerpts, instrumentation of variousensembles, discographies and bibliographies. Forstudent or professional, the information provided in"The Wind Band: Origins and Heritage', is an in'alu_able reference source and guidepost for additionalresearch.

The second division of the book, "studies on theRepertoire," includes three articles: "Toward a criti-cal Edition of Stravinsky'r symphonies of wind In-struments" by Robert wason, "sousa Marches: prin-ciples for Historically Informed performance,, byFrank Byrne, and "Richard Wagner, s Trauermusik,WWV73 (Trauersinfonie)" by Michael Votta. Thetwo composition-specific articles will provide prac-tical performance information for the wind conduc-tor. Byrne's article gives a very interesting and au-thoritative discussion of Sousa's performance prac-tices; it is a 'must read' for anyone seeking to pro_duce authentic Sousa performances.

The book's final division, ,,The InternationalSpread of the Wind Ensemble,', contains three es_says: "Contemporary

British Music for Band andWind Ensemble" by Timothy Reynish, ,,Wind Bands

in Continental Europe" by Leon Bly, and ,,Histori-

cal Development of wind Bands in Japan" by ToshioAkiyama. Even though the international develop-ment of bands around the world has already beendocumented elsewhere, the influence of the windensemble philosophy is the prevalent theme of thethree articles in this division.

The appendices in this book will be of much in-terest to many wind ensemble conductors since theyinclude all of the programs by the Eastman Sym-phony Band (1935-1952) and Easrman Wind En_semble (1952-1992). Two formats for listing therepertoire are provided: first, a chronological pro_gram-by-program survey; and second, an alphabeti_cal listing by composer (with concert dates) of allperformed repertoire. These compilations allow thereader to review the development of programmingby the Eastman Wind Ensemble and furnish a com-prehensive list of available literature performed byAmerica's pioneer wind ensemble. Also found inthe Appendices are a complete discography of theEastman wind Ensemble (1952- 1993), and the For-tieth Anniversary Celebration program.

This publication contains important informationfor anyone interested in wind ensembles. For thosewho are unfamiliar with the "wind Ensemble con-cept," Hunsberger provides an excellent discussionin the first chapter of the book. The rest of the textprovides excellent historical perspective, valuableinsights into contemporary performance, and ex-amples of the impact ofthe Eastman wind Ensembleand its philosophy throughout the world.

The t4rind Ensemble and its Repertoire shouldbecome an important reference in the wind ensemble/band conductor's library. Although every articlemay not be of interest to all conductors,it remains an excellent source book.

* r k ? k * t r * t ( *

Dr. Harlan D. Parker is Conductor of thePeabody Wind Ensemble at the peabody Conser-vatory of Music in Baltimore, Maryland.

JCG VoL 14, No. 2 129

Letters to the Editor

To the Editor:

Congratulations to Meg Freeman Whalen and

the Editor for a stimulating and thought-provok-

ing article on "Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel's Sun-

day Musicales" (JCG, Vol. 14, No. 1). I would

like to add some pertinent comments.

F i r s t , t he s to ry o f Fanny and Fe l i x

Mendelssohn offers a striking parallel to that of

Nannerl and Wolfgang Mozart. In both instances,

the sisters were three to five years older than their

brothers, child prodigies who were considered to

be as musically gifted as their brothers, and indi-

viduals whose musical careers were held in abey-

ance during their adolescent years in deference to

the promotion of their brothers' careers. Both girls

were restricted by their families to the demonstra-

tion of their musical gifts at home.

Whereas Fanny Hensel sublimated her musi-

cal talents by creating a concert-style musical sa-

lon of the highest professional standard, Nannerl

Mozart became her father's teaching assistant in

Salzburg. After the death of her father (1787) and

her husband (1801) she returned to Salzburg to

resume her teaching career where she gave cla-

vier lessons and prided herself on the fact that "one

can tell the Nanette Mozart pupils from all others

by their delicacy, precision and true application

when playing." Her performing and teaching

skills were such that in 1781 Wolfgang Mozart

vainly tried to persuade her to move to Vienna

where he was certain that she could earn a living

from teaching and performance at private concerts.

He continued to send her his sonatas and concer-

tos for performance and criticism until 1784.

The restriction of the musical careers of Fanny

Hensel and Nannerl Mo zart is not entirely clear

to me, since in Mozart's time a professional mu-

sical career was possible for young women of good

family. For example, Josepha Auernhammer, one

of Mozart 's ear l iest pupi ls in Vienna and the

daughter of an economic counsellor, and Ehza'

beth von Timmer, who pursued a professional mu-

sical career before and after her marriage to a city

official . Mozart wrote a piano concerto (K456)

for the blind pianist, Maria Theresa von Paradis,

daughter of a government official and godchild

of the Empress Maria Theresa. A pupil of Salieri,

she carried out two successful European concert

tours with her mother, and a life-time professional

musical career.In his biography of Mozart, Otto Jahn men-

tions several musical salons of varying character

which Mozart frequented during his last Viennese

decade (1781-91). These included the aristocratic

sa lons o f Coun tess Thun , and Me tas tas io ' s

protdgde and heiress, Marianne Martinez;the ama-

teur chamber music salons of Franz von Greiner

of the Austro-Bohemian chancellery, and Bern-

hard von Keess, director of the Augarten amateur

concerts; the scholarly ancient music salon of

Gottfried van Swieten; and the hausmusik soir6es

of the celebrated botanist, Nikolaus Joseph von

Jacquin and his family of three grown children,

pupils of Mozart. Mozart' s entry into the musi-

cal life of Vienna and access to the Emperor Jo-

seph II in 1781 was largely facil i tated by the pa-

tronage of Countess Thun, a cultivated gracious

woman at the center of the Viennese musical

scene. Her influence with Joseph II may have re-

sulted in Mozart's 1787 appointment as Imperial

Chamber Musician.According to Jahn, Mozart felt most com-

pletely at home with the von Jacquin family.

Karol ine Pichler descr ibed their Wednesday

evening soir6es: "Learned talk went on in the

father's room, while we young people chattered,joked, made music, played games and entertained

130 JCG vol 14, No. 2

21,20, and 18), six musical amateurs ranging in agefrom 18 to 37 (average age 2g), and four profes_sional musicians (Mozart,, age 3l; hornist JosephLeutgeb, age 55; clarinetists Anton and JohannStadler, ages 34 and32). rtcan be imagined that theambience ofthe Jacquin soir6es appealed to Mozart'sjoker, fun-loving personality,and was far differentfrom the aristocratic salons of countess Thun orFanny Hensel's later Berlin Sunday concert Musi-cales. Reflecting their informality and good humor,

Mozartcomposed twenty-three pieces for the Jacquinsoirdes, consisting of two comic canons and onecomic concerted song (Bandl-Terzett), the sixJacquin Notturni,, four lyric songs, a piano sonatafor four hands, and light chamber music (a clarinettrio, a flute quartet, five basset-horn diverti-mentos, and twelve duos for two horns).

Benjamin Simkin, M.D.,Los Angeles, California

A Call for Area Editors and Contributorsfrom the Journar of the Conductors'Guild Editoriar & Research Board

The Editorial & Research Board of the Journal of the conductors' Guild is in need of editors andcontributors (authors) for each of the areas of specialization listed below. contributors should refer to ..A callfor Proposals or Articles" located on the following page for details on the writing and submittal ofan article orproposal.

'/cG editors have broad latitude in how and when articles are secured, produced, or caused to be pro-duced' There are three general categories of editorial/research board assignments.

1 ' A "specialized area" editor is charged with producing or causing to be produced original articles ontopics germane to his/her area' It is expected that one ir more articles will be produced each year. .,specializedarea" editors are encouraged to develop an area "team" of research assistants to faciliiate the production ofarticles and, from transcripts, interviews, lectures, master classes, etc.

2' An "atJarge" editor secures articles through personal contacts, t}rough inquiries at the major schoolsofmusic (dissertations and theses), and from profes-sional joumals and other publications (reprints).

3' An "organization and texl" editor receives proposals or articles from the Guild office for evaluationand editing' Ifneeded, and in_collaboration with the author, articles may be reorganized, expanded, truncated,or edited for syntax and style before being retumed to the Guild office for final r"r-"ni"g and publication.

The areas needing editors and contributors are:

l. Choral music - a cappel/a and accompanied 4. youth orchestra and repertoire2. Opera3. Chamber orchestra

5. pops orchestra _ rcpertoire and arrangements6. Contemporary music for conducted ensembles

Members interested in providing editorial assistance as described above should send a brief summary ofexperience in the area of interesr ro:Journal of the Conductors' Guild, Editoilal & Research Board,

103 Sourh High St., Room 6, West Chester,pA 193g2_3262

JCG Vol" 14, No^ 2 131

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