CULTURE SERICULTURE: MYTHS ONTHE

ORIGINS OF SILKWORM AND ITSPRODUCTS

B y

Arega Bereded

Sponsored by UNESCO’S Fellowship Program for 1993 - IIIRAMAYA’S SILK ROADS

: i s

M inistry of C ultu re and S po rts A ffairs Addis ababa , E th iop ia

Jan u a ry 1995

CULTURE SERICULTURE: MYTHS ONTHE

ORIGINS OF SILKWORM AND ITSPRODUCTS

ByArega Bereded

Sponsored by UNESCO’S Fellowship Program for 1993 - HIRAMAYA’S SILK ROADS

M inistry of C u ltu re and Sports A ffairs A ddis ab ab a , E thiopia

Ja n u a ry 1995

C U LTU R E SER IC U LTU R E: M YTHS ON TH E O RIG IN S O F SIL K W O R M AND ITS PRODU CTS

C ontents

PageA cknow ledgem ent .............................................................................................................................. i

P reface .................................................................................................................................................... in

C h a p te r 1 ................................................................................................................................................. 11.1 T e rm in o lo g y ................................................................................................................. I

1.2 I n t r o d u c t io n ................................................................................................................3

1.3 H istorical V alidity o f M yth ................................................................................ 5

C h ap te r 2 .................................................................................................................................................72.1 T he Silk R oad and its s ig n if ic a n c e ....................................................................7

C h ap te r 3 .............................................................................................................................................. 13

3.1 H istorical out line of Chinese Silk ................................................................. 13

3.2 C hines M yth on S ilkw orm and Silk ............................................................. 21

C h ap te r 4 ............................................................................................................................................. 41

4.1 H istorical ou t line of Indian Silk .................................................................... 41

4.2 Ind ian M yth on S ilk w orm and S i l k .............................................................. 48

C h a p te r 5 ............................................................................................................................................. 555.1 H istorical out line o f E th iopian Silk .............................................................. 55

C h ap te r 6 ............................................................................................................................................. 616.1 C om m ents and C o n c lu s io n ................................................................................ 61

7 R e fe re n c e s .............................................................................................................................. 64

A CK N O W LED G EM EN TS

I would like to extend my foremost appreciation to UNESCO especially Mr. N. Noguchi, Director, Equipment and Fellowship Division, who upon selecting my research project has helped me in making it practical.

My appreciation, for the time he has taken in giving me valuable encouragement and backing all possible assistance, goes to II.E . Ato. Leuleselassie Temamo, M inister o f Culture and sport, Affairs.

I would also like to thank the Ministry o f Foreign Affairs o f Ethiopia, particularly the Asian directorate.

The interest, Ato Alemu Belete Ethiopian Counsellor in Beijing, China, has shown in the project and his valuable assistance in providing me with timely answer, has accounted greatly for the success o f this work.

I am truly grateful to the people of India who contributed much to my limited knowledge of silk and its historical, industrial, technological, economical benefits.

My sincere appreciation goes especially to:-

Mr. K-Giridhar, Administrator, central Sericultural Research & Training Institute and International Center for Training and Research in Tropical Sericulture, Mysore,

Dr. T .H . Somashekar, Director Central Silk Technological Research Institute, central Silk Board-Bangalore,

Mr. P.K Mondal, Superintendent Regional Office, central Silk Board, Calcutta,

Prof. Amigo Dev, Dean Faculty o f Arts, Jadavpur University,

Dr. Subha, Associate prof. of Comparative Literature, and all other profs, ofComparative Literature in Jadavpur University, Calcutta,

Staffs o f the National Library o f Calcutta,

Staffs o f the Center for Research Institute of Social Change, Calcutta,

Architect Befekadu who has been a post graduate student of Jadavpur University, and has kindly assisted me in getting a lodging.

My deep appreciation and thanks similarly goes to many o f the people o f China who have rendered their kind services in many ways; particularly:-

P rof Bingxing Zhang, D irector, International Exchange office, Zhijiang Agricultural University, Huangzhou,

Director o f South China Agricultural University, Asia and Pacific Sericultural Training Istitate, Guangzhou,

The assistance the Ethiopian students in China have shown me cannot go unmentioned. Their valuable help has greatly facilitated my research tour.

My appreciation extends to W /t Adey Abebe, Expert in the Internal and External relation Service, M inistry o f Culture and Sports Affairs, Addis ababa, who has kindly taken the time to edit this work.

My admiration and appreciation extends to W /t Negest Ergete who has generously devoted her time in computerizing the whole work

Finally, but not least of all, I am thankful to my wife Ketemash Degefu, My Son Fitsum and My Daughter Eskedar for their patience and support during the research tour and writing of this project.

■

PR EFA C E

Being a recipient of UNESCO'S Fellowship programme for 1993, on HIRAMAYA SILK ROADS, this study has been conducted on "CULTURE-SERICULTURE: MYTHS ON THE ORIGINS OF SILKWORM AND ITS PRODUCTS." The research has been undertaken in China, Ethiopia and India.

The research commenced in November 1993 through a pilot study: by library work, and distributing questionnaires among various professors,historians, elders with the aim o f investigate into when, where and how silk commerce and sericultural activities developed in Ethiopia.

Decem ber 26, 1993, travelling to India and visits were made silk producing states such asM aharashtra, Karnataka, Andra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Kerela and West Bengal. In these states, permission was granted to visit the Central Silk Board Head office, Regional Branch Offices, different sericultural production centers such as farming, rearing, reeling, dying and weaving, markets o f eggs, cocoons, silk museums and exhibitions. Visits have also been made to technological and agricultural research and training institutes o f sericulture and various laboratories. All affiliated universities and research institutions have also generously given their permission for the use of their libraries and archives.

Interviews with elder fanners, rearers, reelers of silk in the country side have been conducted. The interview also includes senior scholars such as historians, Culturalists, folklorists and scientists of silk production regarding myths on the origins o f silkworm and silk. It has, therefore, been possible to collect all necessary data upto March 19, 1994.

March 20, 1994, undertaking the next study tour to China, Visits were made to Beijing, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Guanghou provinces which are historically and currently the sources ofsilk in these provinces, visits to the historical places o f silk, silk museums, exhibitions eggs and cocoon markets were made.

consulting books in the libraries o f Sericultural Universities have been carried out.

Holding discussions with various scientists elder farmers and gathered sufficient data. In May 1994, leaving China for Hong kong more data was gathered on the ancient history and nyths o f silk especially at the Vniversities and silk affiliated institutes.

Being permitted to investigate into books and documents in their libraries, it was possible to get some important materials for the development o f the project.

Returning to Ethiopia in mid May 1994, detailed research activities was under taken by referring to historical books and documentations from various libraries and archives.

iv

■

M oreover, study tour programmes to various provincial historical monasteries, Churches and Mosques was arranged to investigate the practices of silk in Ethiopia.

This study is divided into eight parts:-1. Terminology2. Introduction3. The historical validity o f myth4. The Silk Roads and their significance5 . Historical out line o f sericulture in China and Chinese myths on silkworm and Silk6. Historical out line o f Sericulture in India and Indians myths on silkworm and Silk7. Historical out line o f sericulture in Ethiopia8. Comments & Conclusion

C H A P T E R 1

1.1 TERMINOLOGY

Bivoltine

Cocoon

Dupion

A Silkworm which, in its natural state, produces two generations a year.

An egg shapped casting of silk spun by the silkworm to protect itself in its dominant stage as a pupa is a protective covering for the chrysalid which is interim mediate state o f metamorphoses.

Silk reeled from double cocoons producing threads with a slubby effect.

Fibroin

Filature

M ultivoltine

Pierced Cocoons

Raw Silk

Silk Waste

Spun Silk

The silk filament remaining after the Gum (or sericin) has been discharged.

A mechanized Silk-reeling factory.

A silkworm which produces more than two (usually 5-6) generations a year.

Cocoons from which moths have emerged, breaking the filaments.

Continuous filaments or strands containing not twist, as drawn off or reeled from silk Cocoons.

The fibers remaining after drawing off, reeling, or throwing silk, and fibers obtained from damaged or unreable Cocoons.

Yarn produced by dressing or combining from silk waste that has been boiled to remove most of the sericin.

Silk

Throwing

Wild Silk

Sericulture

A textile fibre obtained from cocoon’s of silk moth.

The process o f twisting or folding raw silk threads into yarn.

Includes the fibre extruded by insect larvae other than Bombyx mori. The most important is Tasar, Eri, Muga, Anaphe, and Kuriwata.

’Serio’ is a Latin word meaning Silk:1) The raising or rearing o f silk w orm s for production o f silk.2) Refer to the activity of raising the food o f silk worm eggs or

layings and silk worms rearing ending with the disposal of the silk cocoons.

1

M ulberry Silk

Non-mulberry silk or Wild Silks

Sanjoy Sinha:-

Produced by silk worm Bombyx mori by feeding on mulberry leaves which is completely domesticated and hence reared indoors.

The worms are Tussah, Eri, Tasar and Muga which are not fully domesticated as mulberry worms and are practiced in forest.

The Developm ent of Indian S ilk :

A W ealth o f O p p o rtu n ities : (Bombay. Oxford & 1BII Publishing Co. P .V .T ., 1990).

2

Above : A moth lay ing eggs.

Au-dcssus: Un pap illnn de nu il qul poml dcs ocufj.

Ddow : Cocoons.

Au-dessous: Dcs chrysalides.

Above : S ilkw orm s eating mulberry leaves ravenously,

Au-dcssus: Dcs vers a so le mnngcanl avec vornc ilc les fcu lllc s dc murier.

Below ; Tho pupa In tlio cocoon.

Au-dessous: La c lirysn llde dans le cocon.

Picture taken from Indian Handloom Silk & Cotton C a t alogue

y -the government of Ind'i a

1.2 INTRODUCTION

The history of silkworm and silk begins over five thousand years ago, though their origin is shrouded in mystery. Silkworm and silk lucky enough were discovered at first by princesses from royal family; worn by the highest society by kings and queens starting from ancient Chinese, Korean, Japanese, Romans and in other parts of the world through the ages.

Cultivation processes were protected and hidden as well kept secret by Chines for about three centuries.

Cultivation processes were protected and hidden as well kept secret by Chinese for about three centuries. As time went, the growth o f the importance o f silk increased. Its economic return was great.

Thus, silkworm and silk have been celebrated and used for adornment since its discovery. They became a part of myth with elements of the miraculous, mystical and magical associated with them. This book examines the importance o f myth in relation to the origins of silk.

As many scholars agree, there are very few ancient records to verify the origins o f silk and silkworm. Because of the above mentioned situation, at least two countries which were traditionally rich in their silk productions. Viz. China and India are Claiming their respective Countries to be the source of silkworm and silk.

Scholars o f both countries and westerners have put some effort to show historical evidences, archeological findings, inscription, religious and secular written documents and books to prove the origins o f silk. An attempt will be made to show the above historical evidences.

Hazardous mountain terrains, hot and windy deserts, ragged gorges, thick forests, big rivers, deep seas and oceans were penetrated and crossed by western and other traders-a task un imaginable before the advent o f silk. This is what we call now the Silk Roads. Silk worm and silk were a means for and intermingling of experiences and civilizations of west and Far East or generally speaking of people from all over the world.

Although silk was taken as a prime factor of commercial commodity, the other ones Viz. Spices, gold, ivory, Pearls, Cereals etc were also important in the exchange of silk. The study examines the Silk Roads from the stand point of the travel records to get some historical Clues.

Silkworms, silk and sericultural cultivations of the past and present positions o f China, Ethiopia and India have been discussed.

3

Above all, the main objective of this book is to identify and collect myths ranging from elders among farmers, specialized scholars, historians to various research journals, books and other documents to enrich the supporting evidences on the inquiry o f the origin.

The book may give some comparisons on the basis o f the collected data of myths from the above mentioned countries.

4

1.3 THE HISTORICAL VALIDITY OF MYTH

From time immemorial Silkworm and its product silk have been used by man. Their origin was very ancient and was kept secret for centuries. Hence it is difficult to know the origin and course of their development especially at the time o f earlier Centuries sufficiently through other historical evidences. A great deal may be known by Concentrating on their myths.

Myth is the basic constituents o f human Culture. It exists in every society by which every society narrates, expresses, reflects the origins o f natural phenomenon, historical events, social institutions and structures, religions and beliefs as well as man himself.

The term myth was understood differently until the advent o f Twentieth Century: "fictitious" or "false" narration. Cosmogonic explanations, sacared truth o f religious etc. In the twentieth Century the concept o f the term broadened and deepened to be understood as the "true sto ry .” From this point o f view (Handoo, Lalita, 1988) explains:-

The Twentieth century marked the deepening of our understanding o f the "terms primitive" and myth. Added to its sense of fiction or illusion, the myth to day has developed new semantic dimensions. Myth is conceived as a "true story," a narrative with both human and super human characters, performing miraculous acts.It is the sacred tradition, Primordial revelation.

The nature and function of myths are devoted to retelling (relating) and justifying the origins o f all human concerns. (Eliade, M ., 1964) says:

Myth is an extremely Complex Cultural reality which can be approached and interpreted from various and Complementary View points. Myth narrates a sacred history; it relates an event that took place in Primordial Time, the fabled time of the "beginnings." In other words, myth tells how, through the deeds, of supernatural Beings, a reality came into existence, be it the whole o f reality, the cosmos or only a fragment of quality, an island, species of plant, a particular kind of human behavior, an institution.

5

Myth, then, is always an account o f a "creation;" it relates how something was produces, began to be. Myth tells only of that which really happened which manifested itself completely.

Studying and understanding myths deeply related to a particular phenomenon from all perspectives is to get the secret o f the origin o f the phenomenon.

Thus one can state that when writing was totally unknown and it was not possible to record history in the early stages of Civilization, myth and history were interwoven by narrators. They were transmitted from one generation to an other orally in mythical forms. From this point o f View, myth and mythical forms of narratives cannot be overlooked in the question o f origins.

6

I n

(52W

<Xu

auz<yE■—

zo55C/2H

Z<C<oas!addC/2fa

r i

MONGOLIANSTEPPS

KH A Z A R IA -/ A lii USCK

S7EP \ S'urcu '\jivd-.C 0 8 I DESES' PrKif'fSohout \

\ a n a T O IM h iem r

\aKv kansl I CORRIDOR

“ CVPRCS< ^ **. 0 * TjViwn! U.-.jrv?

NVHulAlfwndiu't

Cj*fo<Hanscnqu

V s h j p o rE C Y PT PERSIA H e ra tIttjrun

Bjmiyar*V4ft-n4t'Citron-K̂ ndjrui

H im a la y a s1 HormuiAvxJhJb

Tamra..p!!MuKil

ArabianSea

Aaen

T h e S ilk R o a d in E arly P a n g a n d M o s l e m T imes

Main Silk Road —------Route of H s u a n - ts a n g

Route of Zemarchos (629-645 A. D.)(568-570 A . D . ) -------- Spice Route

............Main Connecting Routes

I N D I A N O C E A N

The Silk Road is the oldest and the longest commercial routes across Asian continent. It was the greatest road o f the ancient world. Its first establishment perhaps had been four thousand years before Marco Polo’s time (1256-1323).

The Road extended from Xian in Shanxi Province in China to the Coast of M editerranean, with the distance o f 7,000 kilometers. It was a link between East and west.

The physical nature o f this ancient Silk Road was very impressive from the point of view of geographers: it started from around TaKla Makan Desert (China) and passed through Gobi Desert (Mongolia) Karakum, Kizilkum desert (Turkistan) upto the belt of Nubian and Sahara Desert (Northand Central Africa).

The Road crossed through many lofty and treacherous mountains, arid lands, deep gorges, wide and big rivers to reach to the coast of M editerranean Countries like Antioch, Tyre and Constantinople. Later on, after many years, the Silk Road had stretched from Mediterranean region to Europe, Africa and North and South America, at the same time, towards the east, it had this development had brought the complete cycle o f the silk Road locating California as the meeting point o f the West and the East.

The ancient Road was also very famous for various business activities, along with silk, other valuable commodities such as gold, jade, pearl, ivory, spices, cereals were bartered and or sold.

From historical points of view, it was the Road used by Alexander the great (256-322), Darius, Chang Chien, and Genghis Khan to accomplish their mission. Moreover, Pilgrims, fortunetellers, hunters, adventurers, immigrants and refugees had been using the Road as well.

Above all, a great deal o f cultural exchanges and creative works took place on the Silk Road. It was a center for literary works, guidebooks, folk songs, paintings, translations, poems, Occidental and Oriental medicines, diplomatic missions, dissemination of philosophical views between East and west.

Out o f many travellers a few had travelled across some countries, while others travelled long distances. But, very few of them such as M arcopolo travelled, the entire route o f the Silk Road. Marco Polo travelled from Vencia-Italy to Xian-China and back home to complete his two-way journey and study. Polo a Venician trader and explorer registered in his famous guide book each and every detail o f the events he had felt and come across on the Silk Road. He made known to the world the major activities that had happened on the road which crossed many Asian Countries. Polo’s famous phrase states "Noday in

8

the year passes that there do not enter the City (Beijing) 1000 Cart loads of silk alone, from which are made quantities of cloth of silk and gold and other goods..."

One may, therefore, say that many of the Chinese peasants were rearing silkworms, reeling and spinning the silks abundantly. Polo describes the quality o f silk bazaars in India and Persia as the best o f their kind throughout the Silk Road.

During the M ongol’s Yuan dynasty (AD1274-1368), power was consolidated over Asia, which was the golden period for traders and explorers to travel peacefully from one country to another. Polo was one o f them who crowned this opportunity.

Therefore, came decentralization of the Mogol’s power. Each country became independent to impose heavy duty and taxes upon the commodities o f travelers and traders.

Some times they even put the traders into prisons. They created problems after problems with them saving of time, and maximization of profits.

H ither to, the old Road shades away its gay time. The fate o f the land Silk Road and the cities, market places, religious centers, historical points along the Road slowly turned down to ruin and covered by sand.

In the later ages, the Silk Road attracted attentions o f many historians geologist, archeologist, environmentalists, to investigate and uncover which had already been hurried in the ruins.

Another very significant aspect of the Silk Road was the cross-country and the cross-continent development of Silk.

It is work while to investigate the movement o f silk development along the Silk Road. The wonderful creature the silk moth, the very wisdom or knowledge of rearing the silk moth, reeling, spinning and weaving were kept secret for three thousand years in China, although all these risks and obstacles pushed the world to look into other means of communication. Western Europeans were opening up new sea routes, not only to the New World but also around Africa and Asia extending to Far East (China). This was a remarkable time in the history of the Silk Road by which it had been totally shifted from highway to sea route.

The Sea Route of the Silk started from China Sea around Xian Country, Crossing Via Philippines, India. Ceylon to M editerranean and then goes to Europe and America. To-wards the East, the route continues to cross the beach of Pacific in California.

9

On the sea route, there are no boundaries of countries to impose rules and regulations against the traders. The traders had also other opportunities such as minimization of risks; better facilities of transportation, products were sold to all over the World.

But, as time went on, gradually this knowledge was spread to East and West.

According to myths and legends, the development of silk moth or sericulture first originated in china and then moved from China to Korea by Chinese refugees around 140 B.C.

The Japanese invaded Korea and took the silk technician as prisoners to develop silk in their country.

In the W est, sericulture transferred from China to Tibet, India, Persia and M editerranean countries. Europe had received silkworm and its knowledge o f development by the distinguished monks. The monks who had been spent by the order o f their king Gustinea, an Emperor o f the Roman Empire, smuggled Silk moth and skill of sericulture to develop it back to Istanbul, His City, in 552 A.D.

The king was very ardent for the developmen t o f sericulture in this Empire, this event was a turning point for silk production to grow in the western World.

During the time of the Roman Empire, silk commanded a very high value, equal to gold and pearl. Its development spread around the M editerranean countries: Sicily, Greece, Turkey, Italy, Egypt, Persia etc.

By fifteenth century, silk was introduced in France. Initially France used to import silk from Italy. However, Rehone Valley was found to be fertile with a suitable climate for cultivation o f sericulture. King Louis XI then ordered Lyon and Tour to be the center of Silk technology. He had been courageous to enact laws upon silk to be an important crop in the country for in come generating commodity as well as for prestigious dresses of royal families, lords and highest rank personalities.

He passed laws which prohibited and important silk from foreign countries. Henery IV, king of France, too was very fond of silk development in his country.

In the years that followed the fifteenth century, England. Spain, Germany and other W estern and Eastern Europe Countries had subsequently developed silk production.

Gradually, Britain and Spain had introduced sericultural development in their respective colonies: North and South America.

10

In the East; Korea, Japan and other South East Asian Countries have developed sericulture widely.

Besides their silk trade and consumption some African Countries like Zambia, Kenya, Nigeria, Malawi etc have strated to develop sericulture recently. Other African Countries like Ethiopia, Moroco etc are presently under taking research to introduce sericulture.

11

References

1. Balasubramanian, V (Editor) : Indian Silk Journal Vol. XXVII No. 1 (Bangalore, May 1988) PP27-29

2. Opict, "The Silk Road o f Religious Tolerance" Indian Silk Journal. Vol. XXV, No. 12 (Bangalore, April, 1989) P .5.7

3. Chowdhury, S.N ;: M ulberry Silk Industry; (D r.S .N .C how dhury pub., 1981).

4. Cuthill, R. (translator): Silk and the Silk Industry, Vol. XI (London, Constable and C o., 1930)

5. Nanavaty, Mahesh M .: Silk production processing and marketing (Wiley Eastern Limited, 1990).

6. The Silk Road on Land and Sea; (Beijing, China Pictorial Publication Company, 1989).

12

C H A P T E R 3

H IS T O R IC A L OUT LIN E O F SE R IC U L T U R E IN CH INA

QUEEN SI-LING-CHI

(Goddess of silk)

Photo is taken from monument of Zhijiang Agricultural

University, Hanghou, China

Sericulture has been known from the ancient times, in China. China was known by the Greeks and Romans as 'Seres' or silk county. Fabulous silks o f China were carried to Asian, European and African continents and other parts o f the world for trading. These silk conunodities were transported with caravan on the Silk Road which is about 10,000 kms away from Xian Southern China's province to Levant and Istanbul (Constantinople). Another Silk Road was the sea route which extends from Xian (China sea) via Celon-India to suez and Mediterranean countries especially Rome.

In the later age, 13th century A.D. Marco Polo, a Vinician traveller and trader registered in details in his travel memories ‘MIRABITTA M UNDI OR W ONDER OF THE W ORLD’ about Chinese silk and Silk Road in relation to the silk trade from China to the Western World.

Some archeological findings o f 1926 revealed in the form o f a cut silk-worm cocoon. This was among the Neolithic ruins at Xiyin Village in Xiaaxi County; Shanxi Province, which pre-dated the Qianshonyang relics. This cut cocoon is possibly linked with a phase of production by the ancestors o f the Chinese (Purre Dreje, 1989).

Chinese silk heritage have been stored and displayed at Summer Palace Museum of West Lake in Hanghou. Some o f the archeological findings are Bronze Urns, Weaving Patterns, Silk quilts, silk clothing and gowns etc. This heritages are taught to be about 4,000 years old.

th thOn many Bronze articles ot the Shang Dynasty ( 0 6 ^ -11 Century

B.C) are impressions of silk fabrics or fragments of spun silk.

The ancient historical inscriptions contain descriptions o f silk worm, mulberry trees, silk yarn and fabrics.

O f many sections and chapters o f Shi Jing (Book o f Odes) an example is taken from China Silk Corporation in Textile Asian Magazine, No-8,1979:

On Sunny Spring dayOrioles sing in happinessBaskets in hand, womenFollow the footpath in endless streamfor silkworms

Another slightly similar source o f poems and Odes in the Book Song of the western zhou period (1100-770 B.C) the following odes were reflected (Nanavaty. m. Mahesh, 1990):

Behind in the sun shine of beautiful spring Orioles singLasses with baskets in their hands Walk down the path to pick tender mulberry leaves That smiling lad Asks for an exchange o f sack­cloth for silkHe dose not come for silk Cut for my love instead.

14

During the Western Man Dynasty (206 B.C-8 A .D ), Chinese sericulture developed to the highest standard. The weaving and dyeing techniques improved gradually.

According to the accounts in the Shi Jing, Zuo Zhoan (Zhuoghu M ing’s Chronicles) and Yi Li (Rites) silk warms were reared as cottage industries where there were special mulberry and silkworm nurseries. Utensils included the silkworm frame and silkworm mat.

This period was the golden age o f silk development in China. Every type of promotional activities was encouraged. In relation to sericulture, an enquiry o f knowledge was relevant. For example, in the Book of Guanzi (The Book o f M aster Guan) an advertisement says.

Anyone who in proficient in sericulture and prevents disease in silkworms will be asked to introduce his experience and given one j in of gold and eight shi o f grain, and be exempted from military service as reward.

In the records of the Han Dynasty (206B.C-AD220) some written works had been done on sericulture. For instances, Can Fa (How to Raise Silkworms), Can Shu (Book on Silkworm Raising) and Zhong Shu Cang Quoxiang Can (How to plant Trees, Store Fruits and Judge Silkworms). Fan Sheng Zhi Shu (The Book of Fan Shengzhi), Can Shu (Book on Silkworm Raising), Ben Feng Guangyi (Comments on the ’Book of Odes’), Guang Can Sang Shuo (Treatise on Sericulture), Can Sang Ji Yao (Main points o f Sericulture) Yi Can Lu ( Information on wild silkworms) and Chu Jian Pu (Information on Philosamia

Stand Cynthia) (foreign Lang press, 1 ^ ^ ed 1983).

The above evidences have put impressions upon many historians to conclude that China is the first country to domesticate, raise and develop silkworms and learn o f their breedings, they introduced unwounding systems for Cocoon fibre, weaving, dyeing and embroidery.

The Spread of Sericulture to other Countries

For Centuries, China had been producing silk, keeping it a closely guarded secret for more than three thousand years. later, by about 1200 B.C. some Chinese immigrants started to cultivate silk in Korea. It was for the first time that the knowledge o f silk production was applied out o f China.

15

One source relates that the introduction o f Chinese silk moth eggs and silkworm rearing into China’s close neighbor Korea took place in the remote

th11 Century B.C. (Dr. SI Krshnaswami, FAO Agr. Services Bulletin,

15/2, 1973).

As to Japan, the oldest legendary and historical records revealed that war was

rdinstrumental in bringing the silk industry to japan during the 3A Century

B.C. Semiramus who was a general to Japanese Empress Singu-Kongo, invaded and Conquered korea. He returned with some of the prisoners who were sericulturists and were forced to produce sericulture in Japan.

Other sources like that of the Japanese scholars asserted that the skills of sericultural activities and technology was introduced to japan at about the time o f Qin (221-206 B.C) and Western han (206B.C - AD24). It has been said that the four Chinese girls, named, Anihione, Othohime, Gofuku, and Anaori, Who w ere experienced in the profession, were responsible to establish silk textile craft in Japan (Chinese Academy of scs., 1083).

Regarding the introduction of sericulture to the western world some historianssay:

A king of Khotan, named Vijaya Jaya, had taken to wife the daughter of a king o f China called Punyesvara she secretly brought to Khotan the eggs of silkworm moth and mulberry seeldings with her. Therefore, she started breedings o f silkworms.

From Khotan, the art of silk production spread to other Western Countries such as India, South East Asia, Persia, Eastern Roman Empire (especially Constantinople) and gradually to Western Europe (Italy, France etc) as well as to Africa ( Egypt etc..)

C h in a ’s Position in Silk Production

Since the discovery of silk in China, there had been many developmental dimensions in silk production countries prior to originally silk producing country, China. This had continued for a very long time up to the end of the nineteenth Century. Therefore, due to various reasons for about fifty years until 1940 Japan for outstripped China in silk production. At that time China became second next to Japan. Again from 1970s up to date China become the

16

leading country in silk productions at a global level. She occupies 60% o f the w orld’s mulberry silk production and 80% of the global wild silk output.

During the last decades, China has made tremendous struggle for silk production. It floods European and American markets with its silk products.

About ten million people are directly or indirectly engaged in the sericultural activities. China produce 350,000 tons of mulberry and 31,000 tons of tussah cocoons, yielding 35,800 tons of raw silk and 5,500 tons o f spun silk. China has achieved a record of US$1.65 billion worth of raw silk and silk products in 1988.

In general, at present, China accounts for 60 per cent of the world mulberry silk production and 80 percent o f the global wild silk output.

17

G LO B A L PRO D U CTIO N O F G REEN C O CO O N S

(m. tones)

No Country 1938 1970 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

1 Japan 282,211 111,714 87,838 79,292 77,588 81,263 73,060

2 China 65,500 120,900 165,000 170,000 186,000 200,000 250,000

3 USSR 22,343 33,638 45,064 43,06 46393 46,616 48,906

4 India 9,404 34,638 37,892 44,389 51,269 53,173 60,530

5 R.of.S.Korea 21,893 21,409 41704 31,884 27,974 26,232 20,035

6 Brazil 403 2,054 8,071 7,836 8,000 8,300 8,800

7 Italy 19,990 1,535 175 227 200 147 103

8 0 tliers 16,235 16,974 18.255 17,255 18,167 18,211 18,496

Total 438,000 342,500 404,000 394,000 415,600 433,942 479,930

SOURCE: Silk in India : Statistical Biennial, 1982, P .III.

Chart. 1

W O R L D PRO D U CTIO N O F M ULBERRY RAW SILK (1978)

C oun try Production (in m etric tones)

Percentage

China 19,000 39.17

Japan 15,957 32.90

South Korea 4,235 8.75

India 3,473 7.16

Russia 3,000 6.18

Brazil 930 1.92

Bulgaria 228 0.48

Italy 20 0.04

Other Countries 1,657 3.40

Total 48,500Source: Ghowdhurv. S .N .Mulhcrrv Silk Industry.( Assam. Chow dhury pub.. 1984)

C h a r t .2

18

Sericulture is cultivated in 19 provinces out of 25 autonomous provinces o f the country o f which 16 provinces produce mulberry silk, and the other 3 provinces wild silk (tussah). The major mulberry silk producing provinces are Sichuan, Zhejiang (chekiang) and Jiangsu (Kiangsu) and Guangdong (Kwangtung). Next to them, Anhui, Hubei, Shandong, Hunan and Guanxi provinces cultivate mulberry silk.

Tussah silk is concentrated in the province of Liaoning.

In general, silk producing area of China stretches from Mongolia, northern province o f the country, to the southern end, Guangdong province. The total area which is covered by mulberry plantation is about 330,000 that is 0.3 percent of China’s total cultivable land. China is endowed with natural conditions like suitable climate and rich soil as well as abundant o f waters for irrigation. The variety o f silk has regional specializations. The silk o f the north is wild (tussah and pongees); the Canton delta produces soft Canton silk and sichuan a special yellow variety. The other very famous finest white mulberry silk is produced in the lower yangtze valley-Taihu. (S.N . chowdhury, 1984, 14 - 20).

In China uni, bivoltine and multivoltine cocoon races are reared on a large scale.

ni

References

Nanavaty, Mahesh M:

Purre Dreje, Jean etal:

Dr. S. Krishnaswami and etal:

Foreign Languages Press:

Silk. Production.Processing and Marketing (Bangalore, W iley, Eastern Ltd; 1990

The Silk Road Saga(New york, N .Y; Facts on file, 1989)

FAQ Agricultural Services Bulletin 15/2: Sericultural manual 2-Silkworm rearing (Rome, FAOUN, 1973).

Ancient China’s Technology and science

,St(Beijing ed. 1983)

Institute o f History o f Natural Sciences,Chinese Academy o fNatural Sciences: Ancient China's Technology and Science

(Beijing, Foreign Language Press, 1983)

20

3.2 CHINESE MYTH ON SILK WORM ANI) SILK

H ISTO R Y O F SILK W O R M

5,000 years ago a beautiful queen of China, Si-Ling-Chi by name discovered the silkworm. The queen, as the story goes, was one day sitting in her royal garden noticing small insects crawling over a mulberry tree. Some days later, she observed the same worms grown big and devouring leaves. The curious queen ordered to keep those worms under strict royal super vision one fine morning the watch men found the worms missing! It was observed that the worms have disappeared. The incident was immediately reported. The queen, not believing it, came out to search the worms, herself. To her surprise she noticed cocoons instead o f the worms on the tree.

E m p ero r H uang P i and the god rew arded silk

In 5000 to 6000 years ago China was a tribal society and people suffered from disastrous Hoods. Huang Di (Yellow Emperor) Chief of a tribe, married Lei Zu, daughter o f Xi Ling Shi. At that time tribes were being harassed by Yan Di and people’s lives were disrupted. So everyone could live peacefully. Huang Di fought and defeated Yan Di. Later he led his people and others to fight, Capture and kill Chi You, Chief of another large tribe. After that he became leader o f a league of all tribes.

The Silkworm god rewarded Huang Di for his battle triumphs with spun silk. Huang Di handed it to his clever and deft wife. Lei Zu, who used the silk to weave cloth and make herself a robe. The light glossy, soft, silken robe made her feel like a fairy floating on the air, so she began Catching wild silkworms and raising them on mulberry leaves. She worked from dawn to dusk for many days and at last the silk worms started to spin fine smooth Cocoons. Lei Zu invented the skill of filature, then wove silk fabric. By spreading her skill to the common people, Lei Zu established China as the birth place o f silk.

She herself was much respected by the common people and by the year 557A.D was being worshiped as the silkworm goddess. From the tenth century on. all feudal emperors offered sacrifices to Lei Zu, the Silkworm goddess.

Invention of C hinese Silk

In 2700 B.C the empresses of China as surrounded by their women, engaged in occupations o f hatching and rearing silkworms, and in weaving tissues from their produce. To the Empress See-ling shee, the Consort o f Hoang-tee, is ascribed the honour o f having first observed the silk produced by the worms, o f unravelling their cocoons, and of working the fine filament into web of cloth.

-

Empress Si-Ling-Chi-goddess of silk

14 year old Empress of china named Si Ling-Chi discovered the usefulness of silkworm cocoons about 2640 B.C. There were many mulberry trees in her palace gardens. She must often have watched silkworm caterpillars feeding their leaves and then spinning cocoons. One day she carried a cocoon into the palace. A few days later dropped the cocoon into a basin o f hot water. The water softened the cocoon and she was able to unwind the long filament. She realized that a few such filaments twisted together would make a yarn strong enough for weaving.

Si Ling-Chi’s husband was Huang -Ti, the third Emperor o f China. With his encouragement Si Ling-Chi had a rearing shed built on the palace grounds. The ladies of the court helped her raise silkworms and make yarn from the Cocoons. For more than a thousand years only China’s royal family and the nobility were allowed to were silk. Su Ling-Chi was deified as the goddess o f silk, and each spring the court held a festival in her honor.

Q ueen Lei-tsu-Silk

Lei-tsu. daughter of Hsi ling-such and first wife o f the Chinese Emperor Huang-ti (c 2698-2598B.C). One day the young bride plucked a handful of cocoons from the mulberry trees in the imperial garden and carried them to her apartments. By Chance, she dropped one o f the Cocoons into a hand basin filled with hot water, and a delicate, cobwebby tangle began to separate itself from the flossy mass. This she drew into the air, only to find that one in credibly slender filament was unwinding from the cocoon. Lei-tsu had discovered silk, and sericulture-the art of producing raw silk-was established.

Silk was the gift of E m p ero r H uang I)i

The Goddess of the silkworm descanted from Heaven carrying a bundle o f silvery white silk, when Huang Di (yellow Emperor), the legendary progenitor o f the Chinese, was celebrating victory over his enemies, she presented him with the silk, which was later made into beautiful fabrics.

C hinese Princess IIsi-L ing-Shi

The beautiful princess IIsi-Ling-Shi of Chinese was once silting beneath a vast mulberry tree. Around her sat a dozen handmaidens attending to her every need. The princess drew a glass of tea to her lips and, as she did so, she noticed some thing bobbling about at the bottom of the brew.

It was the Chrysalis of a silkworm, which had fallen from the branches above. The story goes that the cocoon was removed and, on the princess’s orders, its

Empress Xi Ling Shi’s Observation

The Chinese Empress Xi Ling Shi when she was sitting under a mulberry tree with a cup o f hot tea before her. a silk cocoon from the tree accidentally fell into the tea cup. Attempting to remove the Cocoon she discovered that she could unwined a very fine glistening thread from the softened Cocoon.

Yellow E m pero r and the discovery of Silk

After defeating King Chiyou, the Yellow Emperor began to teach his people to grow five staple grains and domesticate wild animals. To his wife, Lxei Zu, he entrusted the task of making clothes. One day, Lei Zu became ill from working too hard. Her maids went to get her fresh fruit and came back with some tiny white fruits from a grove of mulberry trees. The fruits were too tough to Chew, so the maids tried boiling them in water. As they stirred, they discovered to their surprise that the stick was wrapped with long time, lustrous fibers. Lei Zu was elated, and she instantly got up from her sick bed to have a look in the mulberry grove. There she found that the tiny fruits were really cocoons spun by silkworms, and she then taught women how to grow mulberry trees and breed silkworms. Lei Zu was later revered as the Lady o f the silkworm.

G od Ts chin and Silkw orm

The benevolent god Ts chin constrained the worm to produce a golden thread to delight the hearts of making. Whilst according to another version, the silk worm first made its cocoon in the eyebrows of a beautiful maiden.

E m pero r Fu Xi-Silk

Fu Xi, Emperor of China spun silk by himself by the power of god. Then first he taught his wife how to spin silk and his wife Lei Zu taught the people to breed silkworms and make clothes out of silk. This was how the knowledge o f silkworm and silk came into existence.

An Invention o f Silk

The mythical em peror Fuxi, and Nugua, traditionally said to have been his sister or daughter, were believed to have created human beings, they are often shown entwined. Nugua is credited with the invention o f marriage, while Fuxi is said to have been the ’inventor’ of silk clothing.

E m pero r Shennong’s C on tribu tion

Emperor Shennong ‘the Farm er,’ had taught his people to grow the mulberry and hemp to make silk and cloth for the first time.

A) The out going o f Chinese Silk to Jap an

Chinese Silkworm trainers were sent to Japan in 199A.D., for the eighth year in the reign o f Emperor Chiuai Tenno. This roughly coincides with the time recorded "The Book of wei," in the " History o f the Three Kingdoms," at which Japan was raising silkworms and cultivating hemp and mulberry trees as well as producing fine double­thread silk wadding.

Silk as a m edium of gift

In 238 A .D the Japanese Empress Himiko sent envoys to Luoyong, Capital of the Wei Dynasty, by way of the Korean Peninsula bearing Japanese fabrics as gifts, the Wei Emperor Ming Di Conferred on the empress the title "Japanese Empress dear to the Wei" and gave her fine silk fabrics.

Japanese Empress Singu Kongo, invaded Korea, Conquered it and brought home many captives including some sericulturalists. Japan thus began to practice sericulture and Emperor Ninken ordered mulberry trees to be planted throughout the country.

The In troduction of Silk In dustry in Jap an

The silkworm eggs were first imported to Japan in 195A.D. in the

th year of Chuai Era of Chinese Emperor and slowly developed

Nihonshoki Vol. 8 (Book on japan)

Em press Singu K ongoand Silk

Around Century B .C ., Semiramis, a general o f the

its industry there.

24

Chinese Sericulturists in Japan

Silk worms and silk cloth were introduced into Japan at the same time by Chinese and Korean weavers and sericulture experts settled in Japan. The experts were assigned to official government workshops, where they began the production of fine silk ayo (figured twill) and NISHIKI (brocade).

C hinese four girls as silk tra in e rs in Jap an

thDuring the 4 Century A .D the Japanese were able to obtain the

details o f the silk industry by sending some Koreains to china to bring back weaving instructors. They returned to Japan with four Chinese girls, who taught the art of silk manufacture to the em peror and the people o f Japan.

A temple was built at settsu in honour o f these four pioneers of the industry that finally helped Japan to gain pre-eminence int he world silk industry.

Chinese Silk W eaving in Jap an

The Japanese 'Record of Things Ancient," says China’s silk weaving and tailoring were introduced to Japan in the western Jin Dynasty. During the reign of the Japanese Emperor O-Jin (270-310), two Paekche tailors skilled in the Chinese methods went to Japan; the one named Zhuo Su was good at making Korean-style satin garments and the other, called Xi Su, was an expert at making Wu-Style Clothes with Zhijiang Silk. Again in 308, the Japanese em peror sent two more emissaries.

A chino’omi and Tsukavo’omi-to the Wu Kingdom to recuruit skilled silk weavers

The origins o f Japanese Silk

thDuring the reign of the 14 Emperor, Chu-ai 199 A .D ; Koma-o,

a descendent o f a Chinese Emperor, came to Japan and paid tributes o f precious things from China among which were included the silk worm eggs. This was the first introduction of Chinese silk worm eggs into Japan.

25

Ninety years later, Tsudzuki-no-Kimi a son o f Koma-o also came to Japan bringing with him the inhabitants o f 127 districts o f his Country, who was accordingly distributed among various quarters o f the Empire and ordered by the Emperor )-Jin to engage in silk worm rearing. This took place about 1020 years ago and the real origin o f the sericultural industry o f Japan may be said to have dated from that time.

Japanese C am e from C hina

Japanese had already been imported to this country during the legendary age. Again the Chinese brought to this country silk worm eggs about 1,700 years ago when Chuai Em peror was ruling over Japan.

Chinese Im m igran ts & Silk

Chinese immigrants went to Korea to settle. Among them, some were sericulturists who had started sericulture in Korea in about 1200 B.C. In the later years the cultivation of silk spread to Japan.

B) The out going of Chinese Silk to K orea

Chinese immigrants & the introduction of Korean Silk

Chines immigrants went to Korea to settle abandoning their homes problem. Among them, some were sericulturists who had started the development o f sericulture in Korea in about 1200 B.C. In the later years the cultivation of silk spread throught the country and even across the sea upto Japan.

C) T he out going of Chinese Silk to India & the rest o f Asia

Chinese Silk in Khotan

A Chinese princess, who had gone to Khotan in Tibet in around 140B.C to get married to a King there, carried with her silk worm eggs and mulberry seeds hidden in her head dress. From Tibet the industry spread to India and took roots first between the Brahamputra and Ganges rivers.

From the Ganges valley India, sericulture moved slowly west into Persia and Central Asia.

26

Silk accross the h oarder

The famous Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang (A .D .602-664) tells the legend on how serculture transfers to Khotan:

'A t one time, the people o f this land did not know of the mulberry and the silk worm. They enquired about them from the Kingdom of the East that had them, and commanded an emissary to fetch them. At that time, the prince of the eastern Kingdom held fast to the secret and did not wish to reveal it. He had given strict instructions to the border guards not to let mulberry seeds or silk worms to be taken out. The King o f Jusadanna (Khotan), in terms o f humble address and observing respectful ritual, asked to take a wife in the eastern kingdom. The prince, who was o f favorable disposition towards distant peoples, agreed to his request. The King o f Jusadanna ordered an envoy to find a wife for him, advising him as follows: "Tell (he royal princess o f the East that our country has never possessed silk or quilting, and has had neither mulberry nor silk worm. These will be needed if she is to have clothes made." On hearing these words, the young girl secretly asked for mulberry seeds and silkworms and hid them in the lining of her headdress. When she arrived at the border, the head guard examined everywhere, but did not dare examine the princess’s headdress, thus, she came to the kingdom of Jusadanna... When spring cam e, the mulberry seeds were planted, and when the moth of the silk worm drew near, care was taken to gather some food for them, at first, they were fed with various leaves, but soon the mulberries were covered with leaves, the queen then had a decree carved in stone: ’It is forbidden to kill the silk worms, and the cocoons must not be unwound until the silk moths have flow n’.

Silk accross the b o arder

The same legend was repeated later in the middle o f the 5

Century in the Tangshu ’History of the T ang.’ At this time there is a "prophecy o f the Land of Li (Khotan)" as follows: A King of Khotan, Vijaya Jaya, had taken to wife the daughter o f a king of China, called punyesvara. She had started to breed silk worms, having brought some eggs with her. But when the worms were not yet fully grown, the ignorant ministers took them to be poisonous snakes and became concerned about the dangers that the creatures could cause when they became bigger. The King therefore gave the order to set fire to the breeding-house, the queen, unable to explain to the king what the creatures really were, rescued a few silkworms and bred them in

27

secret. She was thus able to obtain the silk and weave it, and brought the result to the king together with a full account of the matter. The King then repented o f having killed the silk worms and founded a Buddhist monastery. It was thus that sericulture came to Khotan.

Sere Indi [C hina & India]

Silk is described by the ancients as coming first form Serica or Sere Inda, that part of India which lies beyond the Ganges. Seres is the designation given by the Greeks and Romans to the people is, apparently, a compound of Seres and Indi. The latter is the general term, applied by the ancients to all distant nations, with as little precision as India is now used by modern Europeans.

It is now generally adm itted that the Sere: o f the ancients are the Chinese o f the m oderns.

C hcenam Sokam

According to some o f Sanskrit works refer to silk as Cheenam Sokam, or Cloth of China, while the Mohabharata describes pattakeetas (or Silk worms) as having been brought by Chinese visitors as present to king Yu dishthira during his reign at Indraprastha.

C hinese prisnors in M an inu r

The mention o f M anipur by Chinese force and their defeat in 1250 by the ruler of Manipur, the Chinese prisnors were allowed to settle at a place called Susa Kamng. Their descendants still leave a Loi community in the village of Kamng near Impol, according to legend current in the village. A Chinese prisnors introduced silk weaving in Manipur.

(Arthasastra of India)

I)) The ou t going of Silk to W estern W orldJn s tin ia n ’s m onks at the w ork of C on trohandThe Chinese monopoly of silk was broken in 552 A .D . When the Byzantine Emperor Justinean discovered the secret source of the costly fabric. Two Nestorian monks were quickly dispatched to the orient on orders to return with silk worm cocoons. Thus, they finally accomplished by hiding the controband eggs in the hollow shafts of their baboon crooks.

These m onks who were perhaps the first industrial spies in h istory, took the eggs to Constantinople, where they over saw their breeding. W ild m ulberry leaves were sought and the eggs becam e caterpillars before turning into cocoons and revealing the secret o f silk to the W est.

28

E) The out going of Chinese Silk to A frica

Developm ent Silk in N orth A frica

The monks o f North Africa first developed Silk in their home land-

ththen slowly introduced it into Spain and Sicily in the 8 Century,

and during the next 300 years both countries became substantial silk producers.

thBeginning in the 12 Century, the Italians also helped develop the

European Silk Industry. The art of sericulture and silk weaving was carried North from the silk centers o f Venice, Milan and Florence to

,th ,,<thFrance between the 14 and 15 Centuries and from there

thto England in the 15 century. It was not until 1810 that the first

silk mill was erected in the U .S.A .

SILK FO L K -T A L ES O F T H E CO M M U NITY

JIN G W E I D ETER M IN ES TO FILL UP TH E SEA

On Fajiu Hill grew a lot of mulberry trees. Among them lived a bird which looked like a crow, but had a colorful head, a white bill and two red claws. Its call sounded like its names: Jingwei. The bird was said to be Em peror Y andi’s youngest daughter, Nuwa, who, while paying on the East sea, had been drowned and never returned. She had turned into Jingwei, and the bird would often carry bits of twigs and stones all the way from the west mountains to the East sea to fill it up.

Shan Hai jing (Book of Mountains and Seas)

From H orse to Silk w orm

It was said that ancient times there was a man who was travelling far away from home and left behind a daughter and a male horse, which she fed and watered. Living all alone in a remote place, the girl longed for her father to return. One day, she said to the horse jokingly, "I would marry you if you could bring my father hone."

29

Hearing this, the horse broke its reins and galloped straight to where her father was. The man was surprised and also overjoyed when he saw his horse and got on it. The horse faced the direction it became from and kept an neighing sadly. "This is odd," the man said to himself. Maybe some thing has happened to my family?" He hurried home.

Because the horse had shown an uncommon feeling towards him. the man treated the animal especially well, giving it very fine forage. The horse, however, would not eat. each time it saw the girl coming in or going out, it would become excited, kicking and neighing. This happened many times.

Puzzled, the man asked his daughter in Private and was told the truth. Now that he knew the reason for the horse’s strange behavior, he warned the girl. "Do not breathe a word to anyone. It might bring shame to our family, and do not go outside." Then he killed the horse with a bow and an arrow. The skin he took off the horse was spread in the courtyard to dry.

One day when the father was out again, the daughter and other girls o f the neighborhood were playing games beside the skin. She kicked it, saying, "Is it not funny that an animal like you should want to marry a girl? It serves you right to have been killed and skinned."

No sooner had she said these words than the skin raised itself, wrapped the girl up, and vanished before the other frightened girls could do anything to save her. they made haste to tell the father, who came back at once to look for her, but it was too late.

A few days later, the man found that his daughter and the horse skin had turned into a silkworm, producing silk on a tree. The silk it made was much better than that made by ordinary silkworms. Women in the niehbourhood used the cocoon and raised more silk worms, and this greatly increased their income. The tree was then named "sang" (1), which was identical in sound with the word that meant death. After this people vied with each other in planting this tree. And this is the origin of the silk worms raised today.

Sou Shen Ji (Stories o f Immortals)

Don Y ong’s W ife

In the Han Dynasty in Qiancheng lived a man by the name o f Dong Yong. His mother died when he was a child. While living in with his father, he worked hard in the fields. Each time they went out, he would put his old father on a small cart and follow it on foot. When his father died, he was willing to sell himself into slavery for a little money for the funeral. Knowing that he was a virtuous man, his master gave him ten thousand coins and allowed him to go home.

Dong was in mourning for three years. When it was over, he decided to return to his master to work as a slave. On his way he met a woman so they

30

went together to his master. "I have given you money," the master said to him. "Thanks to your generous help," Dong said, "1 was able to bury my father. Although I am a man o f low birth, I know I ought to work for you to repay your kindness. "Then the master asked." "What is your wife good at?" "She can weave," Dong answered. "If you insist on doing something for m e," said the master, "Please ask your wife to weave a hundred bolts o f fine silk for m e." D ong’s wife set to work in the m aster’s house. Ten days later the hundred bolt were ready. When she came out, she said to Dong, "I am a weaver in Heaven. The Emperor o f Heaven ordered me to help you pay your debt because he was moved by your filial piety." After saying these words she flew into the sky and vanished.

Gan BaoSou Shen fi (Stories o f Immortals)

A Lost Black Gown

Cheng Zi o f the song dynasty once lost a black gown and couldn’t find it anywhere.

One day on the street he noticed a woman clad in a black dress and began to follow her Puzzled by his behavior, the woman quarried:"What do you want?"Cheng Zi answer: "I have lost my black gown.""What do I have to do with your black gown.""Let me have your black dress.""But it’s m ine."Cheng Zi continued with grievances: "What I have lost is a silk lined gown, while your dress is simple unlined garment o f cotton. I shall certainly get the worst o f this bargain. Isn’t it to your benefit to give it to me."

Wit and Humour from Ancient China 100 Cartoons by Ding Cong

New World Press, Beijing, China1986

A New Robe

A man was wearing a new silk robe for the first time. Throwing his shoulders back and strutting boldly, he hoped others would notice his outfit, after a while, he asked his attendant: ’Are people looking at me?" Theattendant replied. "There’s no one around." He relaxed his shoulders and said: "Since there’s no one here now. I will take a rest."

Wit and Humour from ancient China 100 Cartoons by Ding Cong.

31

How the Silk worm and the Mulberry Got Through Yuniengnan Pass

In ancient times only the Central Plains produced silk. The cloth, as bright as rosy cloud, as delicate as running water, had to be transported out of Yangguan and Yumenguan to the Western Regions by caravans o f camels and horses along what came to be called the silk road. Because o f the distance and difficulty silk was as expensive as gold. But princes and dukes, as well as their ministers, spared to expense in acquiring the delicate fabric.

In the ancient kingdom of Yutian the people were especially keen on wearing silk. They produced sparking crystal-clear jade which they traded for silk; but as time went by they produced less and less jade, but their fondness silk continued to increase. If nothing was done about this situation, the kingdom would soon become impoverished.

The king of Yutian was so worried that he lost his appetite and could not sleep. His eyes became dinner and hi body thinner by the day. But one o f his ministers, called Yuchi Mu, who was aware o f the cause o f the kings anxieties, advised him, "Your Excellency, there is no need to worry for I have secretly learned form the merchants how to produce silk. If we can obtain silkworm eggs and mulberry seeds along with some people skilled in silk cultivation, we can produce the fabric ourselves."

But the king’s face did not lose its look o f concern. "I used to think that myself: Tried to get the seeds; but the Han em peror issued an edict absolutely forbidding the export of mulberries and silkworms. Everyone crossing the Yangguan and Yumenguan Passes at Dunhuang is carefully searched. It’s almost impossible to get the seeds, and so your idea does not seem to be an especially good one.

But his adviser continued, "I have heard that when king W usun married a princess from the Han Court, she managed to struggle some seeds out o f the Country. Since you too are a king, could not also seek an alliance through marriage, encouraging your bride to bring to you some precious seeds from her country."

Upon hearing this, the king smiled, at once he ordered his minister to start o ff with rich gifts for Changa’an to arrange a marriage.

It so happened that at that very moment the Han Emperor was seeking a marriage alliance with the countries in the Western Regions. He agreed to the marriage immediately. A princess was selected, a lucky day was named, and plans worked out for her departure.

When M inister Yuchi Mu formally met the princess, he whispered in her ear, "Honorable princess, the kingdom of Yutian can produce beautiful jade, but not pretty silk, since you are now departing for Yutian to be come a queen, you should do something to help the people there. We all would be very grateful if you were to bring silkworm eggs and mulberry seeds to yutian."

32

The Embarrassed princess replied. "I do want to help the people, but I cannot disobey my father. And besides, how could I get through Yumengvan pass?"

Yuchi Mu dropped to his Knees, pleading, "O clever princess, the em peror urged us again and again to beg with you to bring the seed. We would rather you took some seeds than gold, silver, or other treasures. I know you can think o f some way. Do not disappoint us!"

The princess thought deeply, and replied, "I shall make great efforts to bring you what you desire. I will arrange everything. But not a word to anyone."

Several days passed and then the princess departed for the Western Regions. She was accompanied by a large number of imperial family retainers. The jingling of the camel bells of their caravan could be head far off. After the long journey to Dunhuang they rested for two weeks, and then set o ff again to cross the desert through Yumenaguan Pass.

Beneath the towers of Yurnenguan town soldiers vigilantly guarded the gates. They examined all the retainers, including the maid-servants and their luggage. Even the cap minister Yuchi Mu was carefully searched.

After the Party got through the pass, the minister turned to the bride, "Honorable Princess, have you brought along the seeds?" She smiled in response, removing the laurel crown from her head and picking the silkworm eggs out from her hair which she wore in a bun. She pointed out that her father,the em peror had once issued an edict forbidding anyone form searching the heads royalty and high aristocrats.

The minister was delighted and went on to ask her where she had concealed the mulberry seed. "Here they are" replied the princess asking one o f her maid-servants to open a box. It was full o f medical herbs; but she pointed out that since the mulberry was a king of herb it was indistinguishable from the others.

Once again the minister praised her cleverness, but then frowned nd asked where the craftsmen were to be found, since they had not brought any along.

The princess replied. "They are among us at this very moment."

But how can that be-or can these maid servants plant mulberries, raise silkworms and weave silk cloth?"

"Indeed they can; she said." "I t is the women, infact, who do this sort of work. I have especially chosen three girls particularly skilled in this work as my personal maid-servants. And here they are. "With these words, three girls smiled and nodded.

33

Yichi Mu stroked his beard and beamed with approval. All his misgivings had been dispelled. His administration of the princess’ resourcefulness was profound, he ordered one of his bodyguards to make all haste to notify the king o f the arrival of the princess in Yutian. Arousing welcome was to be prepared.

After the mulberry seeds, silkworm eggs and silk weaving techniques had been smuggled into the kingdom of Yutian. they were passed on to India, Europe and to her far o ff places.

How Yu Yin Came to be Born into a hollow Mulberry Tree

A girl was picking mulberry leaves in Youshenshi’s state when she found a baby boy in hollow tree. She presented the boy to the king, who after putting the baby under the care o f the imperial chief, sent men to investigate the case. It was found out that the boy’s mother had lived on the River Yi. During her pregnancy, she dreamed o f a god saying to her. "If water ever comes out o f your stone mortar, go eastward and never look back." Sure enough the next day she found water oozing out of the mortar. The lady hurried to break the news to her neighbors and then walked ten li in an easterly direction. There she turned to cast a last glance at her village, which had already been submerged in a vast sea. But the minute she did that, her body changed into a hollow mulberry tree. Later, people colled the baby Yi Yin (yi = refers to the river, yin=prininister). This was how the baby was born into a hollow mulberry tree.

Yi Yin grew into a talented young man king Tang, having learned about Yi Y in’s wisdom, asked Youshenshi for him, but Youshenshi refused. Yi Yin him self was nonetheless willing to serve King Tang. Tang then proposed to marry one o f Youshenshi’s daughters. This greatly delighted Youshenshi, who finally decided to hand over Yi Yin as part of the dowry.

When Yi Yin came, king Tang held a ceremony in a temple to free him from all ominous forebodings. He was first put in the midst o f the smoke of reeds, then near burning torches, and finally his whole body was painted with the blood o f Pigs and cows. The next day the king received him officially at the palace, and Yi Yin began talking to the king about gourmet food and all the rare delicacies.

Lu Shi Chun giu (Historical Writings Compiled by Lu Buwei)

34

The Painting on the Foldable Screen

In the Tang Dynasty a scholar who had passed the highest imperial examinations got from a painter a foldable screen. On it was painted a very beautiful woman. Zhao Yan, the scholar, said to the painter, "Such a beautiful woman can never be found in this world. If you could turn her into a real woman, 1 would marry her." The painter said, "In my paintings are many immortals. The woman in this picture has a name: Zhenzhen. Call this name day and night for a hundred days, and she will respond to you. Once she responds, pour into her some wine made with the ashes of silk collected from a hundred homes, then she will become alive."

Zhao Yan began, as he was instructed, calling the woman by her name day and night without stop. On the hundredth day the woman answered, "yes." Zhao Hurriedly poured into her the wine made with silk ashes from a hundred homes. This gave her life. She walked down from the screen and began to talk and smile, and she at and drank just like an ordinary woman." I am grateful to you for bringing me here, "she aid, "I am willing to be your wife."

A year later she bore him a son. When the son was two years old, one of Zhao’s friends told him, "That woman must be an evil spirit and will certainly bring you disaster. Let me give you my magic sword. Kill her with it. "That evening the friend had the sword sent to Zhao. As soon as Zhao entered her room with it, Zhenzhen began to cry, saying, "I am the goddess o f Hengshan mountain. It so happened that my image was painted on a screen and then you called out my name. I married you because it was your wish. Now that you have suspicions against me, I cannot live here any longer." After saying this, she mounted the foldable screen with her son, vomiting out all the wine of silk ashes she had taken. A glance at the screen told Zhao that the painting was the same as the original one except that a child was added to it.

AnonymousTai ping guang ji (Extensive Anthologies o f Taiping)

Ladv Guoguo

There was in chang’an a poor monk in shabby clothes selling a small monkey which understood human language and could do things formen on learning that, Lady Guoguo sent for the monk and, when he came, asked how he had got the ape. ’I used to live in western Si chuan, "he said," and spent more than twenty years in the mountains there. One day a group of monkeys passed my place, leaving behind this small one. out of pity I took him home. (In only half a year, this small monkey has learned to understand human wishes and human language. He is now able to do whatever you want him to do, just like an apprentice! I came to the city yesterday and have spent all my money. As I can no longer afford to keep him, I have to put him on sale in

35

the market. Lady Guoguo then said, "Leave the monkey to my care and I shall give you a bolt o f silk." The monk gratefully agreed and went away.

Lady Guaoguo became very fond o f the small monkey and had him near her day and night. H a ifa year later, Lady Yang, the imperial concubine, sent her some glossy ganoderma. She called the monkey over, showed the ganoderma to him and told him to have a look at and play with it. The monkey fell to the ground in front of the Iadys and changed into a handsome boy o f fourteen o f fifteen-Greatly surprised, she shouted at him, asking what he really was, "I was born into a family named Yuan, "the boy said," The monk who sold me was living in the mountains in Sechuan where my father collected medicinal herbs. Once he took me with him and we stayed there for three years. He often fed me with those herbs. One day I suddenly became a monkey. I do not know why. Father was so sacred that he deserted me. I was picked up by the monk, who not long a go brought me here. Although I could not speak, I remembered everything that had happened to me. 1 have been kindly treated since I came and I hated myself for not being able to talk because I wanted very much to tell you my story. All I could do was to cry to myself at midnight. Now that I have so unexpectedly changed back into a human being, I do not know how you are going to treat me."

After hearing this strange story. Lady Guoguo ordered silk clothes for him and made him one of her attendants. She saw to that it the whole thing was kept secret. In three years’ time the boy grew even more attractive, so much so that the imperial concubine could not help coming several times to have a look at him. Lady Guoguo put him in a small room and for bade him to go out for fear that he might be seized by other people. The boy had a special liking for medicine, so the lady ordered a maid to feed him with it. Then one day both the boy and the maid turned into monkeys. Scared, the lady had them killed with arrows. But the boy turned out to be a wooden figure!

Li YinTai Ping Guang ji (Extensive Anthologies of Taiping)

Old Man Yu

After serving as minister in the central government, Wang Qian was made the military commander o f the Tinnan area. One day a shabbily-dressed and hungry-looking young man by the name of Lu came on a donkey, hand in a card and asked to see him. Wang showed no hospitality to the guest, who was therefore very unhappy, after staying at an inn for more than a month. Lu was in such great straits that he had to sell his donkey at the market in Jinzhou.

Old man Yu, who served as a gatekeeper of the market, beckoned Lu over and asked where he had come from. "My home is in a place north o f the Wei River. Lu said," Both my parents are old and as we are poor, I can not get any good food for them. The military commander here is my m other’s

36

cousin. I came all the way to see him, hoping that he would take pity on us and give us some help. But he did not even look at me when I was shown in. I can only call this bad luck. "The old man then said," Although I am poor and cannot help you to get out of your difficulty, I hate to see you suffering from hunger and cold. Please come to my place this evening; I shall prepare supper for you and put you up for the night" Lu promised to come.

He was led into a small room, dark and wet poorly furnished, with dilapidated eaves and walls. There was no bed or couch, quilt or mattress. The old man unrolled a broken mat on the floor, on which both of them sat. after a long chat, supper was brought in-only coarse rice in earthen pots. Late that night when they finished the meal, the old man said "when I was young, I believed in Taoism and live a secluded life in the Siming mountains, trying to learn from a Taoist priest the secret of longevity. But this wish was not fulfilled. I have been living here for ten years without telling any one who 1 am, so no

one in this area knows anything about my past. I can not be different to your difficulties as a traveller far from home. To night , if you do not mind, I shall play a little trick to eet some money for you to spend on your way back."

This struck Lu as absurd and also strange. The old man took out an earthen ja r and placed it upside down on the floor. A short while later, he lifted it to reveal a little man about five inches tall, wearing a purple ribbon and a golden belt, bowing to him. "This is the soul of M inister W ang," said the old man, pointing at the old man pointing at the small figure. Amazed and silent. Lu gave him a careful look and found that he was really like the minister. The old man then began lecturing the distant area north of the Wei River to seek help from you, for his family is too poor to support themselves.

You should have behaved like a relative and given him due hospitality. But you did not show the least concern and would not condescend to receive him. How heartless you were! I will not punish you to night if you promise to give him generous o that he may leave for home. "The little man in purple bowed with clasped hands to show that he had understood the instruction." Lu has no servant or horse" the old man continued. "Give him these and tow hundred bolts of silk." At this the purple figure bowed again. Then the old man covered the figure with the jar. When it was removed a moment later, the figure was no longer there.

At down the next day, the old man told Lu, "Go back at once, for com m ander’s office came to invite, him. On seeing him, the commander said apologetically, "you have come from afar to see me, but 1 have not been able to talk with you because 1 have been busy with military affairs these days. 1 am sorry for this, and I hope you will excuse me. "That day Wang put him in the official guest house, and for several days entertained him a servant, a horse, and two hundred bolts o f silk. Lu was greatly surprised, but he did not say anything. Years later, at his home north o f the Wei river, he told the story to some friends who were staying with him while they were talking about ghosts and spirits.

Zhang DuTai ping, guang ji (Extensive Anthologies o f Taiping)

37

A Village G irl (for China)

In the year of the reign o f the emperor Qian Long, my w ife’s

uncle, Chen Yongzhai, was the Zhuang yu an in the imperial examinations. He was given a home leave and travelled southwards. On his way to Tianshui Town, he came across a little village nearby, the shady green trees and falling crabapple petals so enchanted him that he felt quite intoxicated and walked off to enjoy himself, quite forgetting how far he had strayed from the road. At the other and of the village, he saw a section o f bamboo fencing with a black double leaved door to the to the left. A young girl was leaning against the door catching and rolling them around in her palms and giggling. The moment he saw her, he became quite infatuated with her and walked up to her to try and start a conversation. The girl neither responded nor became angry, and only called out for her mother.

A hunch backed old woman quickly appeared, and asked what the m atter was. The girl replied, "I don’t know where this brash and talkative man has come from. He really is a nuisance."

Em barrassed, Chen pretended that he had just come to ask for some water. The old woman turned come to the girl. "It’s difficult to entertain guests inside this small house of ours. Go in and get him a cup of cold w ater." The girl snorted and went inside. I "How old is your daughter" Chen asked the woman "All I remember is that she was born in the year the figure," the mother replied; but I don’t know how old she is now."

When asked to whom the girl was betrothed , the old woman said, "my health is bad and she is my only daughter. I need her to look after me so I ’m not going to marry her o ff ."

Chen said, "A girl should marry. Anyway, you can’t keep her with you for ev e r."

Just then the girl, who had overhead the last bit of the conversation emerged with the cold water she said to her mother in a loud voice, she said to her mother in a loud voice, "This stranger has bad intentions. D on’t talk to him any more!"

The old woman laughed, "I can decide whether to listen or not. T here’s no need for a young thing like you to tell me what to do."

Chen then tried to tempt them by boasting about being a Zhuangyuan. after thinking for a while old woman asked, "What is a Zhuangyuan anyway? "It’s the scholar who comes first in the highest imperial examination. A Zhuangyuan works in the imperial academy or secretariat and is in charge of issuing imperial edicts in the name o f the emperor. His literary

38

accomplishments are a credit to his country. In short, a Zhuangyuan is the greatest scholar in the whole world."

"Mow many years does it take to produce a Zhuangyuan? asked the old woman.

"Three," was the reply.

The girl cut in with a faint sneer, "I thought was only one such person in the world. Now it turns out that there’s one every three years. That this type of person should boast on and on in front of others is really absurd!"

The mother scolded. "This naughty girl is much too frivolous and caustic, always touching people’s sore spots!"

"It’s not my fault. It’s this idiot who has brought it on him self," the girl replied and walked away smiling.

The scholar was at a loss, but then perked up immediately and turned to the old woman. "If you would, please accept this small betrothal gift as a token of my respect "He took out a fine gold ingot and handed it to the old woman.

The old woman fondled the ingot for a while and then asked, "if you smell this it has no sweet fragrance, and it is cold to the touch, what on earth it is?"

"It is called gold," Chen answered." If you have it, it can save you from suffering from hunger and cold. It really is one of the w orld’s treasures."

’We have a hundred mulberry trees and about three hectares o f land so we don’t have to worry about hunger and cold. I am afraid this thing is o f no use here. I t’s better for you, honorable Zhuangyuan, to keep it for some other purpose.

"She threw the ingot to the ground and mumbled to herself, "It's a pity he’s sucholunatic, rather than a decent and cultured person. All he does is try to intimidate others by bragging about his wealth and power!" Then she went in and closed the door, chen stood there dumbfounded for a long time before he finally found his way back, sighing endlessly.

The Chronicles o f this story comments: Even Children know how to boast of wealth while officials always like to take advantage of their power to bully others. Wealth and power have sapped the integrity o f many men, both ancient and modern, who would have thought that woman would have such a sense o f humour? men should prostrate themselves at the feet of the red skirts and know tow three thousand times to admit their defeat.

39

The Lady of the Horse’s Head

A goddess protector o f silk worms and mulberries the girl silkworm, Cannu, better known under the name of the ’Lady of the H orse’s Head," Matou Shang. In the time of the mythical emperor Gaoxin, the father o f cannu was captured by robbers when his horse returned alone to its stable. Cannu’s mother vowed that she would give her daughters hand to whoever brought back her father. As no one was prepared to under take this, the horse sprang off to seek for C annu’s father and brought him back. Once returned, the horse began to neigh incessantly and refused to eat or drink. The gather angrily killed the horse, then dried its hide in the courtyard. But when his daughters passed by there, the horses’s hide leapt up, wrapped itself round her, and How off with her to perch on mulberry tree where Cannu was changed into a silkworm.

4.1

C H A P T E R 4

HISTORICAL OUT LINE OF SERICULTURE IN INDIA

According to one school o f thought, Silk was known and produced in India long ago, even from pre-verdic times. The use o f silk fabrics (Cloth) and the nature of silk was mentioned in all the ancient religious and epic scriptures of Hindus and Sanskrit.

The great Mahabharata refers the great array of luxury items (silk fabric brought to the Court o f the Pandavas after their "Conquest o f the W orld." (S.R. Charley, 1982). Again Mahabharata mentions that Yudhisthitra received as gifts cloths o f woven from "thread spun by worms." In the famous epic o f Ramayana, too, the wedding gifts of the Queen Sita presented by King Ramaya was "fine silken Vestments of diverse colours."

Similarly an ancient kalida’s Sakuntala, in the fourth act of Sakuntala, "The trees are spoken of putting forth "moon white-garments o f silk well suited to the occasion o f Sakuntal’s m arriage’.

An ancient scripture Rigvada which is 5,000 years old indicates ’U rna’ (a kind o f silk). The most repudiated sacred law book Manusmrite mentions "Clothes made o f silk." These literary works had been written in around 2000 B.C which could be an indicator of the existence o f silk in India even before the above mentioned era (Mahesh, M. Nanavaty, 1990).

One o f the prominent historians, M .N. G. Mookerji has a historical theory to indicate that all the domesticated mulberry insect’s, particularly Bombyx mori, first were originated somewhere on the slopes o f Himalayas. Particularly, the birth place of Bombycidae is to the skirts o f Mt. Everest, the extension goes to west, north and West of the mountain towards Kashmir, Brahamaputra and Ganges Valleys.

In the early Christian era, Western literature ascertained that India had been the home o f silk in the olden days. One o f the writers was Servius who wrote in Virgin "Among the indians and Seres (Chinese) there are on the trees certain worms called Bombycis which draw out very fine thread after the manner o f spider; and these threads constitute silk." Bona, too, who was the court poet o f king Harsha (A .D . 606-648) mentions Indian silk in his work (C .f. Indian Hand loom, Silk and Cotton Catalogue-The handloom export promotion Council-Governinent o f India)

In some other source it was indicated that some hundred years before christ, one Indian King sent a gift of silk draperies to a Persian King. During that era silk was patronized mainly by the royal courts. The art o f weaving with gold brocades and perfected ornamental designs were developed and attracted world wide costumers. Regarding the philological some scholars including M .N .G Mookerji have support points of arguments for their thesis.

41

The English word "Silk" Greek work ’Ser’, French word "S o ie \ German work "Seiden’, Russian word "Sheiolk’, Latin word "Serecum", Anglo Saxon word "Seole", Ice landic word "Silke", Bunriese "Tsa" have an apparent family affinity to Chinese 'tsau ' (Cocoon) or "Tsi" (Silkworm). All seem to have derived from the Latin ’Sericum .’ But, in India the word for silk on Sanskrit is ‘Pat’ which does not resemble to have any foreign origin. The common Indian word "Resum" has Persian affinity. The Sanskrit word "Kauceya" signifies silk and "Pundarika" is the silkworm.

Other historical evidence reveals that the cultivation of silkworm and manufacture of silk fabrics before the Christian era. Coins of Kanishka ruler o f India, reveal that there was a regular foreign trade o f silk and fabrics with Rome. Similarly, from the coins, discovered from the old monuments of M ohanjodaro and Harrappa people used to wear silk embroidered gowns.

The originality o f mulberry trees and cultivation of silk in India was verified by some scholars in relation to traditions of the society.

For example in ancient Hindus it was indigenous fabrics alone, that could be used in these later days and in fact, even in the modern Hindu, society, for Ceremonial purposes. The Hindus from very ancient times, have regarded all foreigners and foreign articles as impure. An indigenous art o f bleaching and an indigenous art of embroidery are even unborrowed from foreign sources.

Silk dress has been always used among the Hindus for the most ancient o f all religious ceremonies and rituals Viz, that of marriage etc (Watt, 1972). Silk has been a leading symbol of purity, luxury, prestige and wholeness by all Indians. A marriage hymn is always chanted in the wedding ceremonies among the Hindus all over India. It always take a place at the top of the marriage invitation cards the Phrase "Prajapataya Namaskar" which means prajapati-moth of Silk and Namaskar-respect to the moth first because moth is entirely devoted for love making. The moth has no other work than only love. It takes birth for love and dress for love only. So it is regarded as the love god or marriage god.

A part from this point o f view, there is another school o f taught which relates the origin o f silk to be from China. Some of Indians and most of Western scholars believe that Indian domesticated silk worms introduced from china. Infact according to this theory mulberry silk insects had been first originated in china and from there spread towards East (Korea & Japan) and West (Through Tibet to India) of the world. It is said to have spread to Tibet when a Chinese Princess, Carrying silkworm eggs and mulberry tree seeds bidding in her headdress who had gone to khotan in Tibet in around 140 B.C, to get married to a King there. From Tibet the sericultural practices had spread slowly to India particularly through the brahamaputra and Ganges rivers.

Evidences to support this thesis have been sited from some of old sanskrit works which refers to silk as Cheenam Sokam means Cloth of China. In

42

M ahabharata, too, named as Patta Keeta which means silkworm that has been brought to India by Chinese envoys as a present to King Yudishthira during his reign at Indraprastha.

In some sources even they have been dareful to say that mulberry sericulture first came into development in India at about fourteen and fifteen centuries, though wild silks Viz. Tasar, Eri, Muga have been collected in India since ancient times.

The development o f sericulture to the west of China progressed gradually from India (Brohamaputra and Ganges Valleys) in to persia and Central asia.

Towards 6 , the Century, development of sericulture was introduced to

Asia M inor and then moved to Europe by the Roman Emperor, Justinian.

Position of Silk Production in India

India produces four varieties o f silks that is one mulberry and three o f non­mulberry. The mulberry insect is Bombx Mori, and the non-mulberry ones are Tasar, Eri and Muga. With its quantity and quality wise mulberry silk has much importance for Commerce.

The mainly mulberry silk producing states are Karnataka, Mysore, west Bengal Jamu Kashmir, Assam, Tamilnadu, Andrapradesh, and Uttar pradesh. The mainly wild silk or non-mulberry silk producing states are Madhya, Pradesh and Bihar (Tasar) Assam and Orissa (Muga and Eri). Production o f (1989-1990)Mulberry (10, 900 tons). Tasar (465 tons), Eri (590tons) and Muga (259 tons).

STATE WISE PRODUCTION OF MULBERRY SILK*

(Qty in tones)

C oun tries 1969 1970 1971

Assam 17 11 12

Jammu & Kashmir 50 44 48

Madhya Pradesh 1 < 1 1

M ysore(Karnataka) 1.357 1,877 1,810

Punjab 2 2 2

Tamil Nadu 1 2 2

Uttar Pradesh 3 3 4

West Bengal 326 317 263

Hemachal Prades 1 1 1

Total 1,758 2,258 2,143

* Information from The Wealth of India: A Dictionary of Indian rawm a te r ia ls and I n d u s t r ia l Materials, 1973.

Chart 3

Recently mulberry sericulture is practiced in Kerela, M aharashtra, Gugarat, Rajasthan and Orissa.

STATEWISE PRODUCTION OF MON-MULBERRY RAW SILK* (1971)

(Qty in Kg)

Countries Tasar Eri Muga Total

Andra Pradesh 395 3 - 398

Assam - 165,000 72,000 237,000

Bihar 187,635 - - 187,635

Madhya Pradesh 125,000 - - 125,000

M aharashtra 1,215 - - 1,215

Orissa 11,500 - - 11,500

West Bengal 9,567 3,770 - 13,337

M anipur 5 921 - 926

Tripura - 376 - 376

Total 335,317 170,070 72,000 577,387

C h a rt 4

INDIA’S POSITION IN PRODUCTION OF RAW SILK AND WASTE: SELECTEDCOUNTRIES.

(Qty. in metric tones)

Countries 1938 1948/52 1961/5 1966/70 1971/5 1976/80

India 690 927 1,395 1,785 2,657 2,522

Japan 43,152 11,624 19,045 20,075 19,655 16,406

China 4,853 2,240 6,391 8,526 14,095 24,604

R .of Korea N/A 455 688 1,998 4,025 3,574

USSR 1,950 1,855 2,640 2,869 3,311 3,574

World total 36,470 19,370 32,980 36,816 4,793 36,047

S.R . Charsley, 1982

Chart 5

45

W ORLD PRODUCTION OF GREEN MULBERRY COCOONS

( ’000 tones)

Countries 1938 1970 1980 1985 1987

China 65.5 120.9 241.0 307.5 345.0

India 9.4 34.3 58.2 76.7 86.5

Japan 282.2 111.7 73.1 47.3 34.7

USSR 22.3 33.6 49.0 52.0 52.0

Korea(South) 21.9 21.4 20.0 10.3 7.2

Brazil 0.4 2.1 8.8 10.7 10.7

Others 37.1 18.5 28.9 30.9 30.9

World Total 438.8 342.5 479.0 535.4 567.0

Source: Greenhalgh, 1986, and CSB. 1988

Chart 6

WORLD PRODUCTIONS OF MULBERRY RAW SILK

( ’ooo tones)

Countries 1938 1970 1980 1985 1987

China 4.85 11.12 23.46 32.00 35.00

India 0.69 2.38 4.59 7.03 8.46

Japan 43.15 20.52 16.15 9.59 7.86

USSR 1.90 3.00 4.41 4.00 4.00

Korea(south) 1.82 3.03 3.32 2.09 1.61

Brazil 0.03 0.26 1.28 1.46 1.78

Others 4.02 0.82 2.77 2.75 2.87

World total 56.46 41.00 55.98 58.91 62.38Sources: Greehalgh, 1986; CSB, 1986 and Indian Silk February,

1988.

Chart 7

V

46

International trade in silk is conducted in a number o f forms i.e at the stage cocoons, reeled raw Silk, Silk yarn, Clothes, made up decorational goods, rope, silk waste etc.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN MULBERRY SILK AND SILK GOODS (1982) (TONES)

Countries Exports Imports Net Exports

China 16240 200 16000

South Korea 2980 1380 1600

Brazil 930 - 930

India 1280 750 530

North Korea 10 - 110

Iran 120 20 100

Bulgaria 80 10 70

Taiwan 170 450 80

Thailand 370 520 150

Switzerland 150 370 220

UK 170 670 500

France 340 1100 760

W. Germany 220 1030 810

USSR - 1,030 1,030

Italy 1850 4340 2490

USA 400 5880 5480

Japan 1320 7690 6370

Source: Greenhalgh, 1986 Excludes waste silk

Chart 8

47

4.2 INDIAN MYTH ON SILK WORM AND SILK

Indian Epic & mvth

The ancient scripture Rigveda mentions "Urna" generally translated as a kind o f silk. Another sacred law book manusmiti refers to "Clothes made o f silk" and the great ancient Indian epic Mahabharata to a garment having a border embroidered with pearls. There are allusions to the fabric in the world famous epic Ramayana too. The wedding gifts o f the queen sita included, among other things, " fine silken vestments of diverse colours". Again, King Yuddhist tira (M ahabharata) received cloths woven from" thread spun by worms" as a gift from feudatory princes. All these references indicate the existence of silk in India in 2000 B.C.

Indian Origin

A certain Indian King aspiring a son had a daughter by his favorite queen. In sheer despair, the queen died. Another queen wanted the child also to die. She had a mulberry tree hollowed out, and the child sealed inside; the bundle was put on the high sea according to her orders. Eventually when it reached the coast of Japan, although the child had died of exposure, a miracle took place; the child’s body had been converted into a silkworm. The hollow trunk miraculously took root and burst into leaf, thus providing food for the tiny silkworm princess. This was how, says the ancient Japanese tradition, sericulture was transferred from India to Japan.

Silk in Kalika Puma Canton Story

Kanton 69. (first chanter)

In 1112 A .D or 12 Century, States that an offer Kaushoyo (Cocoon) or raw silk which is a form o f silk has been given to the diety. Ritual o f Silk came at the latter days.

Same Ch. verse 8 states that Kaushoyo red like colour is the best one for offering to the great Goddess (Kalika) and Kaushoyo garment o f yellow colour is the best to be given to God vishnu.

Silk is to be worm by the worshiper during worship and also to be offered as a commodity indicating devotion to the diety.

48

Silk in Arthasastra

Chinese silk and varieties of Indian Silk are mentioned in the Arthasastra

rd(ascribed traditionally to circa 3 ^ century B.C, though additions made

later on). But, a silk as a commodity usable in worship is not recorded in earlier Indian Literature.

The mention of manipur by Chinese force and their defeat in 1250 bv the ruler of manipur.

The Chinese prisnors were allowed to settle at still leave a Loi Community in the village o f Kamng near Impol. According to legend current in the village. A Chinese prisnors introduced silk weaving in Manipur.

Silk in Khotan and India

A Chinese princess, who had gone to Khotan in Tibet in around 140 B.C. to get married to a King there, carried with her silk worm eggs and mulberry seeds hidden in her head dress. From Tibet the industry spread to India and took roots first between the Brahmaputra and Ganges rivers.

From the Gages valley, sericulture moved slowly west into Persia and Central Asia.

Silk in Kashmir-India

The Chinese princess who, betrothed to a Kashmiri prince, defied the principal law, which decreed death by torture to those who revealed the secret o f sericulture, and brought to the Kashmiri Court silk worm eggs hidden in the lining o f her head dress. (Concealment in a hollow cave is reported to have been the method used by two persian monks).

Silk and the Buddhist monk

For centuries China had been producing silk keeping it a closely guarded secret. Hence, it was smuggled into India by the Buddhist monks who carried the eggs of the silkworms and seeds of the mulberry tree in hollow bamboo caves.

History

Domestication of silkworm, Bombyx mori originated somewhere at the foothold of the Himalaya. The Aryans discovered the silkworm in the subllimalayas beyond Kashmir.

49

Chinese Silk in India

The people o f India had fabrics o f wild silk as early as 1400 B.C. cultivating silk worms is thought to have spread into India from north western China

ndabout 400 B.C. By the century A.D. India was shipping raw silk

and silk cloth to persia and middle east.

50

Heroic Story related to Silk (Muga) at the era of feudal Kingdom in Assam

During the reign o f Ahom kingingdoms of Assamese, if any knight or feudal lord wants to conquer one place through the battle field, his wife must unties and spins the thread from the cocoon, then reel and make yarn. From the yarn o f silk a hand-Kerchieve or scarf would be made within a day to be an offer to her husband. This gift is symbolized as the gift of God Eswar. The reason behind is that the silk is the sacred one. Thus, the wife is obliged to present her husband the scarf at the eve o f her husband’s battle campaign. The scarf is the symbol of Conquering and all good fortunes. The night who possessed the hand kerchieve would go with full confidence to win his enemies. Whereas a knight without the possession of his w ife’s scarf is going with bad fortune in which he will be in so many problems. He will not be successful in his mission.

Spring season Festival in relation to Muga Silk

Spring season in assumese culture is the end of one cycle of harvestation of Muga production and other agricultural products. The season naturally endowed with beauty and meant for enjoyment. The enjoyment has deep rooted relation ship with muga sericulture and god (Eswar). At this juncture o f time, where one harvesting time ends and before the commencement o f the next cultivation period, the celebration of the Assamese cultural Festival will take place.

The name of the Festival is Bahagbihu. According to the traditional eleders, point of view in Bahagbihu, everybody should enjoy himself and his god with the yield that has already produced before he starts the next cultivation.

The people and especially youth have special role to play during the festival practices. Boys and girls dress up themselves with Muga silk saree where as the boys have to put up Muga shirt. On the process of the celebration, boys and girls come out to the open field together by wearing traditional dresses which are mentioned above.

In the celebration (bihu) boys and girls gather together to sing songs and perform dances to praise Muga the gift of god and as well as to express their love affectionate with each other.

Boys and girls who come to the open field to celebrate the festival must dress up silk dresses. I f not they are not allowed to participate in the occasion. The reason is that the god has already given Muga for silk for everyone although doing the cloth is his own job. Therefore, everyone has to celebrate all holidays and festivals with Muga silk dresses to blease his god the creator of Muga.

SILK FOLK TALES OF THE COMMUNITY

51

Cultural attitudes of 0 Rissians (Indians) towards Tassar Silk moth

Tassar is a wildmoth which is an indigenous silkworm for Orissians. From time immemorial Tassar is there. It is part o f the life of the people. They pluck the cocoons’ of Tassar from the Oak trees, reel, spin and weave the silk for their cloths and or they sell it for money.

Every one thinks that Tassar is Goddess of Silk which comes from vishnu, one o f the over all powerfuls trinity. Vishnu sent the Goddess Tassar to assist and give help to the people to give them their daily livinghood the silk fibre.

Tassar moth is pure, sanity and the symbol of fineness to wards the attitude o f the Orissans. Thus everyone who pluck the Cocoon or work on related activities must be honest, and pure. For example, a lady who is at her cycle (menustration period) is not allowed to work on related activities. Like wise, he or she who touches a corpse or dead body is a taboo even to come to the area where Tassar’s production is around. A woman who is a fresh delivery is also forbidden to go around. It is assumed that these people are not clean before the belief o f the society.

The above explanation is true for all south Indian people who are engaged in the activity o f silk. Silk is the centre of sanity and purity which determines the quality o f personalities according to the view of the community. Another important event that takes place is the selection of life partner by a girl or a boy for their future engagement at the time o f cultural processes. This was prevalent dominantly in some years back.

About the Originality of Muga Silk

According to the local people, Muga Silk worm and Sericulture is not originated anywhere else in the world, but only at the heart o f Assam, state o f India.

Hence, every assamese thinks that Muga is a special gift to him from his God, Eswar. Therefore, every Assamese has to worship deep at heart his God. Everyone also should respect and love Muga silk worm and its food. He should not harm and illtreat them.

In case if a person carelessly harm or illtreat the moth or plants, he will be cursed by the society to be "Kulakhyama’. This is an indication of uselessness in the society. God, Eswar never allows to cultivate again Muga, for such a person. Even he tries to cultivate by no means, he will not be successful at the result.

A Legend

* In the unguarded momentso f my heart’s escapades,I reach out to the farthest regions of the Silken Whisperings o f the recollections of my innocent blood.Legends o f Silk and gold, o f love which is without a past grow out o f the fondest events o f the mind, out of the probability of things and miracles:The unicom is at home, next ! to the dove and the silkworm,M ovement’s common place and events are perdictable In the nether regions o f time and place. But, I saw you as a timeless fact Shrouded in the grandeur of mystery, a dazzle more felt than real, a silent miracle that has found its place amidest the noises o f the ordinary.

* Silk, I love youmetamorphasis is for the immortalsFor us, you are too much, best enough.

Source : Journal o f Indian Silk(Bangalore, Jan - 1989) by Anju

Ode to the Silk moth (poetry by Deepti Dewakar)Death’s mild songsUpon gentle - winged butterfliesnot the silk mothsvoicelessmay, mothlessgagged within suicidal sinsawaiting hell’s watershow did they come to be so?Unanswered questions

„ entangle them-selvest within boiled threads

of lyrics

53

unsung poesyun written epitaphshungry, starvedOver sacrificial loomsO let me then sing you gloryCruel skeins of the human handWithin your woven destiniesO let me lead youfrom the silence o f anonymity.to silken glorylet me drape your silksover my breastsas you die unfedlocked within your ownfamished death yards.

54

C H A P T E R 5

HISTORICAL OUT LINE OF SERICULTURE IN ETHIOPIA

One could see Ethiopian silk experience from two point of views.

A) Consumption of Silk

B) Production o f silk (which includes both sericultural cultivation andwild silk harvestation.)

A) Consumption of Silk

Ethiopia has been a country with a tradition o f consuming silk since ancient times even before the birth o f Christ. The consumption mainly were o f the final products of silk such as different forms of cloths (cloacks, trousers, shirts, long dresses), yarns o f threads, umbrellas etc. These forms o f finished silk were imported especially for the local royal families, Chiefs (nobles), chief clergy men. Church and mosque services.

This was so because silken items were very much prestigious and thus out of reach o f the common people. The introduction of silk to Ethiopia from Far East and Middle East is to include to have been due to the fact o f their adjacent location along the Red Sea Coast which is recognized as the melting pot o f SILK ROAD from East to West.

Traders o f the ancient world: Africa including Ethiopia, Europe and Middle East, travelled to the Far East up to China to by silk, species, porcelains, jewleries in exchange for their gold, ivory, coffee.

SILK TRADE AND ITS CONSUMPTION

According to some sources at least Ethiopia has been trading silk with the Far East and Middle East since ancient times as it is mentioned above. Some disagree about the existence o f silk before the birth o f Christ due to the scarsity of evidences. They believed the existence of silk in Ethiopia to be from the early Middle Ages to the Mid Nineteenth Century where silk trade flourished then in Ethiopia. History also disclosed that Ethiopia’s silk trade with the East and West in the early Middle Ages was indeed a trade o f high standard.

Prof. Pankhrust (1968) clarifies as follows, how silken clothes have been appropriately arranged and sewed as suit (taste). "Kabba or Clock was an

55

impressive item o f clothing worm by Chiefs and young men o f noble families. It was made of black silk or satin. It was frequently adorned with gilt buttons round the neck and had gold embroidery on its edge which was also often fringed." He explains also how princes and princesses used to obtain it. "Princes and princesses, according to the law or norm of the state often had to obtain permission from the rulers before they could wear such decorations."

The records of the trade of silk between Ethiopia and Saudi Arabia, Persia and Ethiopia, Egypt, India and China in exchange for gold, Pearl. Ivory, skins of Cattle and sheep, Oxhorns, rhenoceros, gum, Civet, Senna, Cereals, butter has been especially in the middle ages.

In the present era the sources of silken materials are imported from East and West like any commercial commodities. India, Italy, France and England become the dominant ones.

As prof. Pankhurst (1968) again points out, the principal imports o f silk of Ethiopia through Massawas Port, have been from Saudi Arabia and Egypt.

Commodity Quality Value in M .T

Cloth 10,000 pieces 17,500

Silk 3,000 pieces 9,000

Course Cloth 2,000 pieces 3,500

Turbans 2,000 pieces 2,000

Copper 80 kilos 17,500

Beads - 16,000

Solder 9,080 kilos 2,000

Morocco Leather 4,000 pieces 1,150

Chapter 9

56

In the nineteenth century, silk imports to the capital city, Addis Ababa were as follows:

Green, blue, red 3,000 pieces o f 8 yards 4 - 1 7 per piece (from France, Germany & India) and yellow silk.

W atered silk 200 - 300 rolls o f 6 yards US$10 per roll (France)

Surat Silk 500 rolls of 6 yards US$ 5-15 per roll (Surat)

Satin green silk 3,000 pieces o f 20 yards US$ 1 per yard (Germany)

Coloured silk 2,000 piece o f 20 yards US$ 1 Vi per yard (France)

Black Silk 1,500 pieces of 20 yards $ 1 - 1 Vi per yard

Black and silk thread 5.000 bandies $1 per 3 yards (Egypt)

Valvet 3,000 pieces o f 22 yards $ 2 per yard (Germany)

*

Some Ethiopian export items in exchange for silk

Ethiopia used to export different precious stones and other commodities inexchange for silk. Combes and Tamsier witness that carvans transportedhundreds of slaves besides large quantities of gold, civet ivory, oxhorns, skins, coffee, rhinoceros, horns, gun, senna, wax butter and cereals. According to the writers, upon completing their business at massaw, the Ethiopian Christian merchants returned to their home, but muslims who combined piety with commerce, often proceeded with the pligrimage to Mecca, when they brought back merchandise from Jeddah, Mecca on return they brought silks.

B) Production of silk

Although Ethiopia is traditionally a silk consuming country, sufficientlypractice in either sericultural cultivation and or wild silk harvestation has not yet been exployed, yet, these might potentially be available in the forests. However, there is a scanty document account, historical developments o f silk in Ethiopia. W e have to see the different trials of sericultural development in the country at different times.

During 1930, the European silk productions were affected by perbin (disease). Many European countries were discouraged by the situation and were forced to look for countries o f silk source. Countries in Africa having climatic conditions different from Europe. In line to this, communication o f bilateral silk development began between Belgium and Congo, Italy and Ethiopia etc.

57

Hence, in 1937 the "Ente Nationale Service entrusted C Billi" Came to Ethiopia with the objective of silk development project. The first target o f the mission was to study whether or not it was possible to introduce and second goal was if the spread o f sericulture was possible, to develop widely (Reports o f French Mission program with Ethiopian Delegation (M arch 23, 1982). According to the document, the experiment o f mulberry plantation and the rearing o f silkworms, was carried out in selected areas o f the country.

" M ulberry trees have been planted in some 30 localities found between altitudes 1600 and 2000 mts. Distributed within two triangles, the apex being Harar and the base line being Jimma to Nekemte for the area located down south and a line from Asmara to Gondar for the one in the North.

Eleven mulberry plantation estations were setup. For example, in Adi Ugri a field o f experimental mulberry plantations with the best Italian, Japanese and Chinese varieties had been planted and a much wider one was in preparation at Endeber.

As to breeding ( rearing of silkwarm) and silk production, trials were carried out in Adwa, Adi Ugri and Addis Ababa. Cocoons obtained, have been reeled and woven by local materials.

According to the French reporter’s view the result of the preliminary experiments has left behind the experiences o f the following conclusions.

1) The mulberry tree grows well in Ethiopia. It can be multiplied by cutting or seed.

2) The most favorable areas for sericulture have been an altitude o f 1200 - 1600 mts with an annual rainfall of 1600-2000 mm.

3) Silk worm breeding is possible if die silk worms are protected against the night cold.

4) In the various areas where silkworms have been tried, peasants have shown an interest in the production o f cocoons. Breeding trials by peasants have there occurred. Results were considered satisfactory. However, all these serecultural trial establishments were destroyed in 1941 by the war caused by the Italian invesion upon Ethiopia. Even after the expelsion of Italians the development of silk production was

left untouched until 1970

PRESENT SITUATION OF SERICULTURE IN ETHIOPIA

The nation o f sericultural development has been re-initiated and has been established by the Institute o f Agricultural Research (IAR) under the ministry o f agriculture during 1970. However, the experimental station was confined to only one district:

Nazareth and Malkasa about 100 Ions away from Addis ababa. The Institute has one skilled personnel, trained in India and Italy. This individual is

responsible in the following of sericultural activities. 5000m experimental

plots o f land have been allotted for mulberry plantations in Malkasa-Nazareth. The Indian Kanva II and local varieties o f mulberry seeds are grown side by side since 1980.

Breedings:

The breedings o f some varieties o f silkworms have been introduced in Malkasa Station rearing house has been set up in different rooms: grainage store, feeding etc. The breeding equipments are local made.

In Malkasa the process of stifling of cocoons are done by drying them under the sun-Nazareth has introduced steam bath machine from abroad.

Reeling Spinning:

Reeling and spinning trials have been carried out on small scale, on individual bases since 1982. Some years back they brought reeling and spinning machines from India and trials have been carried out.

The sericultural development scholar Ato Metaferia, head the Malkasa- Nazareth sericultural development department, expressed that there are experiences gained out o f these trials. Sericulture could be developed favorably in many parts o f the country if economic experts, agriculturists and governmental decision makers give more attention to the sector o f economic development. The development of the sector should give significant importance in raising the national economy.

According to Ato M etaferia," 5000m‘A" ' experimental plots o f land have

Stifling:

Result

been allotted for mulberry plantations in Malkasa-Nazareth. The Indian Kanva II and local varieties of mulberry seeds are grown side by side since

1980. But, it was unfortunate that, in May 1991 during the victory of EPDRE over the old regime Derg, the sericultural stations, in Nazareth and Malkasa were looted and destroyed by the local communities. Some other trials from Mojo to Zaway and Shala Lake were made by Koreans. They approved the favorable condition o f sericulture in the country. The Koreans and French M issios’ projects thus were unable to continue.

Conclusion

From the experiences gained through the study tour undertaken in China. Hongkong, Thailand and India. It is my belief that Ethiopia has potentially favorable conditions for sericultural development. It could be one o f the major cash crops next or equaled to Coffee for the economic liberalization of the country.

But the state will have to pay more serious attention in encouraging the development of this sector on a large scale. In addition, it is important that the ministry of state farm, the Ministry o f Agriculture, individual investors and individual peasants should be involved in the developmental processes.

60

C H A P T E R 6

Comments and Conclusion

It is often said that the discovery of science o f silk is more than five thousand years. Since its discovery it has been very much adorned and hence especially made into clothes for royal families and high ranking personalities throughout the ages. It is admired due to its fineness, strength, colorfulness, lightness, and its uniqueness from other natural fabrics. It is a very widely known material used for making parachutes and jewelry and preparing medicine etc.

At present the harvestation of wild silk (Tassar, Eri & Muga) and the cultivation of domesticated silk (Bombyx Mori) are practiced in all continents. China, Japan, Korea and India are the forefront Countries in all rounded development o f silk.

Going back to find the origin o f silk has however still left room for scholars to debate, decide and locate particular places and persons responsible for the discovery o f the science of silk. The classical questions are: 1) Who was the first person to discover the science of breeding silkworms, spinning and weaving fabric from silk thread for the use of man? and 2) Which Country is responsible for the first discovery of silk prior to the present political boundaries?

Due to the scarcity of recorded history and lack o f sufficient archeological and other evidences both China and India . Claim their respected countries to be the birth place of the history of silkworm and silk. Others too, like Persia (now Iran & Iraq) and North African Countries presuppose their Countries to be the sources o f silk.

There are relevant methods to identify historical truth. They are mythological relates, archeological findings, inscriptions, religious and secular written documents. The main objective of this research, however, is to see it, from the cultural views o f approaches i.e. mythological, legendary and other cultural elements associated with silk.

China

In addition to the 4.000 years old silk relics found out by archeological excavation, in Shanxi province-China and which is displayed at Summer Palace Museum of West Lake in Hanghou City, there are many myths and legends which retell or relate the first discoverer o f the science o f silk in China. Some o f the most classical examples of these stories are:-

(1) Huang Di (Yellow Emperor) o f China Who received and was crowned on his head for the first time in the history of man a bundle o f silvery white silk, from his god, when he was celebrating the history over his feudal enemies. This was later made into beautiful fabrics.

(2) According to other legendary sources, Emperor Fuxi of China, Spun silk him self by the power of his god. The story goes on to say that he taught his wife Lei Zu how to spin silk and his wife taught the rest o f Chinese people.

(3) Another one is that which retells about the beautiful princess Xi Ling- Shi o f China who once found out the science o f silk through her own observation in her Palace Compound (refer to "Chinese Myth on Silk worm and silk").

Myths o f Japanese, Indians, Korens, Europeans etc. ascertained China to be the source of their silks. The Japanese and Koreans give credit to the Chinese four girls and to her Chinese immigrants whom they supposed introduced the science o f silk in their countries. Indians and Europeans myths a firm that especially Emperor Gustinean o f Byzantine Empire sent tow monks each to Far East [China] in 552 a.D The aim of getting back science o f silk and silkworm cocoons, which had been dept as a secret in China before. They all were successful in bringing silkworm cocoons with them and devoting them in their countries.

M oreover, many of the Chinese Cultural elements and life are deeply associated with silkworm and silk. Many of their folk tales are related to silkworm and silk (refer to "Silk Folk tales o f the Community")

India

Coming to india we find some mythological and legendary evidences in the % ancient religious and Epic scriptures in Hindus and Sanskrit. To site some

m ajor examples:

(1) "The Regvada" the sacred law book of Manusmrite mentions clothes made o f silk in 2000 BC;

(2) King Ramaya’s wedding gifts to his wife Queen Sita, 'the fine silken vestments of diverse colours’ is ascribed in "Rayamana," the great Epic of India. "Sakuntala" ancient play o f Kalida’s and "Mahabharata" another great Epic have mentioned the presence o f silk cloth in ancient India.

i* -----

Servius and Bona (606-648) ascertained in their works that indians and Chinese are responsible for the discovery o f silk used by man. One of the most

i prominent historians M .N .G . Mookerji has a strong historical theory to showthat mulberry insects particularly (Bombyx mori) and the science o f silk originated some where on the slopes of Himalayas especially extends from K ashmir to Bramhamaputra and Ganges Valleys. The are also Philosophical and other Cultural elements in the daily life o f the Communities which are associated with silk. For seasonal festivals, wedding ceremonies etc the hymns are enchanted with silkworm and silk. The Silkworm and silk have

* became the symbol of purity luxury, prestige, wholeness and love among ages** groups.

The Assames to [Myga] and Orissians to (Tassar) and other communities to their specialized silkworms, give their highest regards and considered them as their good messengers from their gods.

Form these points o f views and personal observations, it could be suggested that the Chinese have very strong and deep relations and association with the domesticated mulberry moths (Bombyx mori) and their silk more than mild silks. Whereas, Indians have very strong and deep attachments to wild silk moths (Tassar, Eri and Muga) more than to mulberry silk moths eitherhistorically or at present positions. It is also unlikely to put it in a reciprocalarrangement.

Therefore, one might say that china is responsible for the science o f silk which comes out of domesticated mulberry moth and India could be the first

* country in harvesting the mild silks.

However, it is very difficult to point out which one country first brought silk into m an’s use.

63

JT

V

REFERENCES

»

1. Anju:

2. Bharall, No:

3. Bloom field:

4. Boriah, G.:

5. Boulnois, Luce:

6. Chakraborty, S .,B .,K .G upta & M. Hague:

Charsley; S .R .:

Chow dhury, S .N .:

9. Cuthill, R. (translator):

10. Dundes, Alan Ed.:

11. Felt Well, John:

12. Fontenrose, Joseph:

13. Gosh, Charu :

"A legend" Indian Silk. Vol. XXVI, No. 5, September1987 (Bangalore-CSB).

"History of Muga Silk Industry in Assam" Indian S ilk . Vol.VII, No. 12, April, 1969.(Bangolore-CSB)

Morton Wilfred: Allegory Myth, and Sym bol:(Cambridge, Harvard Uni,Pub. 1981).

Lecture on Sericulture: [Bangalore-Surmya Pub.Deshwara, 1986]

Silk Road: [La Route dele Soie] (London. George Allen & Unvin, 1966).

"Sericulture in Murshidabad and its glorious past" Indian Silk Vol.XXXVI, No.5; [Bangalore-CSB, September 1987).

Culture and sericulture: Social Anthropology and Development in a South Indian Livestock Industry: (London, Academic Press, 1982)

Mulberry Silk Industry: (D r.S .N . Chowdhury Pub., 1981)

Silk and the Silk Industry. Vol.XI (London, Constable and C o., 1990).

Sacred Narrative: Readings in the Theory of Mvth. (Berkeley, California, The University Press, C 1984).

The Storv of Silk: (Gloucesershiro, Alan Sutton Pub., 1990).

The Ritual Theory of M vth: (Berkeley, Uni of California Press, 1971).

Silk Production and Weaving in India: [Delhi. Council o f Scientific and Industrial Research, 1949],

64

i*

14. Graster, Theodor, Herze:

15. Handoo, Lalita:

16.

17.

18.

19.

20 .

Hurst, george Henery;

Mvth. Legend and Custom in the Old Testam ent: [London, Gerald Duck Worth, C 1969],

Folk and Mvth An Introduction: (Mysore, Control Inst, o f Indian Longs. October 1988).

Silk Dying. Printing and Finishing: [London, G.Bell, 1892].

Irene, M ., Franck &Daund, M .Braw; The Silk Road: A History: (New York, N .Y . Pub,

1986],

James, Edwin, Oliver;

Jean, Purre Drege, Emil M.Bahera:

Kirk, geoffrey Stephen:

21. Klimkitt, Hans:

22. Krishaswami, S.etal(Ed):

23. Koshy, T .D .:

24. Manjula, A .,:

Mvth and ritual in the Near East: Archeological and Documentary study; [London. Thames and Hudson, 1958],

The Silk Road Saga: (New York, N .Y .facts on file, 1989],

Mvth. its meaning and functions in ancient and other Cultures; [London etc, Cambridge Un. Press, 1970].

"The Silk Road of Religious Tolerance." Indian Silk. Vol.XXV, No. 12 [Bangalor, April, 1989] P .57.

"Silkworm Rearing" FAQ Agricultural Service Bulletin 15/2, Sericultural Manual-2: [Rome, Food andAgriculture Organization of the UN. Rome, 1973).

Silk Exneorts and Development: [New Delhi, Ashish Pub-IIouse, 1990],

"The origin o f Silk Industry in Japan and its Progress" Indian Silk Vol. 30, No. 4; |BangaIore-CSB, August, 1991],

65

25. M uharji, NityaGopal: A Bird’s Eve View o f Indian Sericulture [Calcutta,

Thacker, Spink & Co; 1907],*

26 .__________________ ; Hand Book of sericulture: [Calcutta, Bengal sericulturalPress, 1899],

27. Nanavaty,Mahesh, M .: Silk production. Processing and M arketing: [Wiley

Eastern, Limitted, 1990].

28. Norman, Dorthy: The H ero: Mvth. Image, symbol; [New York, WorldPress, 1969].

29. Pankhurst, Richard: An Introduction to the economic History o f EthiopianfromEarlv times to 1800:fLondon. Lalibela House, 1961],

^ 30. Phillip, Tomy: "The Story o f the conquests of Silk Through the Ages,"Indian Silk. Vol.XXVII, N o .l; [Bangolore CSB, May, 1988] PP27-29.

31 Ramana, D .V .: Economics of Sericulture and Silk Industry in India:[N.Delhi, Deep & Pub. 1987.

i f 32. Ranga, Swami, G .: "Report on Chinese Silk Development" FAQ"* Agricultural Services Bulletin 15/1. Sereculture manual

1-mulberry ultivation; [Rome, FAO of the UN, Rome. 19761.

33. Roy, Samiran & B.,Kumar Das: "The ancient Scripts o f Resham Shilpa Capture the Saga

of Silk in Midnapur"; Indian Silk. Vol.XXVIII N o.5, [Bangalore, CSB, September 1987],

34. "The story o f theSilk Road" Selamta; The In-Flight Manager o f ethiopian Air Lines,

Quarterly Vol. 10, N o.2; [London; July-September 1993],

35. (The) Silk Road onland and Sea: [Beijing, China Pictorial Pub. C o., 1989],

36. Sinha, Sanjay: The Development of Indian Silk. A Wealth ofopportunities [Bombay, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. P .V .T ., 1990],

66

37. Son W aker,Tammanna N .: Hand Book o f Silk Technology; [N .Delhi, Wiley

Eastern Lanted, 1993J.

38. Tazima Yataro: The Genetics o f the Silkworm XII; [London, LagosPress, 1913].

39. Thomas, Edward: Charaka Silk Reeling Technical Option: [Delhi,Gurgaon, Printed in India, 1993|.

40. Trum boo, N .M ;: Silk: Its origin and Development, " Indian Silk:Vol.XII, N o.9 [Bangalore-CSB, Jan. 1974) PP. 17-19.

41. W ardle, SirThomas: The Wild Silks of India Principally Tussar; [London

George and Edward Eyre and W. Spatiswoode; 1880].

42. Watt, George, M .B.,C .M .. C .I.E .: A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India;

StVol.VI. nart III [Silk T eal: [Delhi, Cosmo Pub. 1 ° ^

ndPub. 1832, 2A A ^ Pub. 1972],

43. The Wealth of India-A Dictionary of: Indian Raw materials and Industrial Products, Part VIII.

(S i-T il: [N. Delhi, Publication CSIR, 1973],

44. Yokoyama: Silk worm Genetics Illustrated; [Tokys, Japan Societyfor the promotion o f Science, 1959|.

45. Yokoyama, Tadao: Synthesised Sciences of Sericulture: [Bomboay, trans.& Publisher Central Silk Board, 1962.].

67