New lake district in Europe: origin and hydrochemical characteristics

New lake district in Europe: origin and hydrochemicalcharacteristics

Mariusz Rzetaza1 & Andrzej Jagus2

1Faculty of Earth Sciences, University of Silesia, Sosnowiec, Poland; and 2Institute of Environmental Protection and Engineering, University of Bielsko-

Biaza, Bielsko-Biaza, Poland

Keywords

eutrophication; field mapping; lake district;

Upper Silesian region; water bodies; water

chemistry.

Correspondence

Mariusz Rzetaza, Faculty of Earth Sciences,

University of Silesia, Bedzinska 60, 41-200

Sosnowiec, Poland. Email:

[email protected]

doi:10.1111/j.1747-6593.2011.00269.x

Abstract

This article presents a new lake district in Southern Poland created as a result of

human activity in the Upper Silesian region. The area has been named the

Upper Silesian Anthropogenic Lake District. The lake density of the Lake

District as delineated by the authors (with an area of 6766 km2) is 2.74%. It

includes 4773 water bodies of various origins – reservoirs retained by dams,

flooded mineral workings, water bodies formed in subsidence basins and

hollows, levee ponds, residual water bodies following river regulation and

other water bodies. These are located in urban-industrial, rural-agricultural or

quasi-natural areas. The hydrochemical diversity of water bodies is conditioned

by their origin, location in the catchment and function. Studies have shown the

widespread occurrence of eutrophication processes in limnic waters within the

Lake District. The diverse origin and hydrochemical properties of water bodies

within the Upper Silesian Anthropogenic Lake District make it special among

other anthropogenic lake districts.

Introduction

The term ‘lake district’ is usually associated with areas

exhibiting early postglacial relief features, i.e. with

numerous natural postglacial lakes. Lake districts defined

in this manner are typical of the temperate climate zone

(Kapfer 1998; Boehrer et al. 2000; Schnaiberg et al. 2002;

Tipping et al. 2002; Pienimaki & Leppakoski 2004) and

distinguish themselves by their high lake density, i.e. the

percentage of the land area covered by lentic waters. If a

sufficiently high lake density is considered the main

criterion for recognising lake districts, this term could

apply to many areas all over the world, as lake density is

high in certain regions owing to the presence of diverse

bodies of water formed as a result of human activity. In

such cases, however, the term ‘anthropogenic lake dis-

trict’ is preferred (Jankowski & Rzetaza 2004), which

points to the different origin and functioning of limnic

basins compared with natural lake districts.

Long-term limnological studies conducted in southern

Poland by the authors of this work have demonstrated

that it is possible to distinguish a new Upper Silesian

Anthropogenic Lake District (the name is derived from

the historical and ethnographic region of Upper Silesia)

situated close to the Polish, Czech and Slovak borders

(Fig. 1). In this area (Fig. 2), a cluster of anthropogenic

water bodies has been found that can be considered a lake

district and that has not been mentioned earlier or has

only been referred to in the literature on clusters of limnic

water bodies in Poland (Choinski 1995, 2007; Kolada et al.

2005). Moreover, special features of this lake district that

set it apart among other anthropogenic lake districts

described by researchers from various countries have

been pointed out. It has been named the Upper Silesian

Anthropogenic Lake District after the region where it is

situated.

The anthropogenic lake districts described in the world

literature are usually associated with a specific type of

human economic activity and the water bodies present

within a single lake district exhibit many similarities.

Examples of such lake districts abound. They are present

e.g. in the Polish and German parts of the area where

lignite is mined (Solski & Jedrczak 1990; Duis & Oberemm

2001; Grunewald 2001; Nixdorf et al. 2003; Hangen-

Brodersen et al. 2005; Kleeberg & Gruneberg 2005;

Schultze et al. 2010). In the United States, anthropogenic

lake districts are associated with areas where water bodies

have formed in excavations formerly used to mine gold,

copper ores, zinc ores and other elements in Nevada (Eary

Water and Environment Journal (2011) c� 2011 The Authors. Water and Environment Journal c� 2011 CIWEM. 1

Water and Environment Journal. Print ISSN 1747-6585

108 Water and Environment Journal 26 (2012) 108–117 © 2011 The Authors. Water and Environment Journal © 2011 CIWEM.

1999; Tempel et al. 2000). In France, on the other hand,

such lake districts formed, e.g. within the Massif Central,

in areas where coal had beenmined (Denimal et al. 2005).

Among anthropogenic lake districts, areas with clusters of

levee ponds used for fish breeding are also found, e.g. in

the south of the Czech Republic (Pokorny & Hauser 2002)

or in southern Britain (Williams et al. 2003). The peculiar

feature of the Upper Silesian Anthropogenic Lake District

is the presence of water bodies of very diverse origins and

hydrochemical properties (Rzetaza 2008) resulting from

their formation and functioning in urban-industrial, rural-

agricultural or quasi-natural geographical areas. This

paper therefore endeavours to present the Upper Silesian

Anthropogenic Lake District not just as a new European

lake district but also as a region, providing special research

opportunities with respect to the development and pro-

tection of lentic water resources.

The purpose of this study was to determine the number

and areas of all water bodies situated in the Upper Silesia

region and on its edges, and subsequently, to delineate the

area of the anthropogenic lake district. Another purpose

of the study was to determine the origin of water bodies

and evaluate their natural and economic importance as

well as to determine and evaluate the quality of the water

retained in lake district water bodies. In connection with

the shortage of water resources in the region, the paper

describes the functions that the water bodies described

fulfil or could fulfil, given effective protection.

Materials and methods

An anthropogenic lake district was defined in the Upper

Silesian region and surrounding areas on the basis of

long-standing observations and field surveys as well as

the analysis of maps and satellite images. The entire area

of almost 10 000 km2 that stood out from its surroundings

owing to the visible concentration of water bodies was

divided into 10 km2, each with an area of 100 km2.

Hydrological mapping as well as inventory and carto-

metric work were performed on the basis of 1 : 10 000

scale maps. Aerial photographs and satellite images were

also used. As concerns the inventory of water bodies, only

those water bodies that were permanently filled with

water and those fish rearing ponds that were emptied

almost completely only in winter or occasionally when

harvesting fish or other water organisms were taken into

account (water bodies that contained no water during the

most part of the year were not included in the count).

Within each square, water bodies were inventoried and

lake density was determined as the ratio of water area to

the grid cell (square) area. On the basis of lake density

values assigned to the central points of grid cells, 0.5, 1, 2,

4, 8 and 16% lake density contour lines were drawn using

the interpolation method. The extent of the lake district

was determined by adopting the 0.5% lake density con-

tour line as the boundary and drawing an artificial lake

district boundary along the Polish/Czech border.

Fig. 1. Location of the Upper Silesian region.

Water and Environment Journal (2011) c� 2011 The Authors. Water and Environment Journal c� 2011 CIWEM.2

New lake district in Europe M. Rzetaza and A. Jagus

109Water and Environment Journal 26 (2012) 108–117 © 2011 The Authors. Water and Environment Journal © 2011 CIWEM.

M. Rzetała and A. Jagus New lake district in Europe

Interdisciplinary limnological field research was con-

ducted from 1993 to 2007. The study involved 28 water

bodies in the Upper Silesia region (Fig. 2). Using portable

devices, water reaction, specific electrolytic conductivity,

oxidation–reduction potential and water oxygen content

were measured. Water samples were collected for labora-

tory analysis in various water body sectors and stored in

tightly sealed polyethylene bottles. The samples were

then subjected to laboratory analyses in accordance with

the methodology set forth in ISO standards. The Ca2+

content and total hardness (TH) were determined using

the versenate method and titration with EDTA; subse-

quently, the Mg2+ concentration was calculated. Na+ and

K+ concentrations were determined using the flame

photometry method. The argentometric titration method

was used to determine the Cl� content. The SO42� ion

content was determined using the turbidimetric method.

The NO3� content was determined by potentiometry with

an ion-selective electrode. For the determination of the

PO43� content, the colorimetric molybdate method was

used with tin(II) chloride as a reducing agent. Analysis

results from the 1998–2007 period have been compiled

for selected water bodies selected by groups of origin, but

the generalisations and conclusions presented have been

formulated on the basis of the entire research material.

Results and discussion

Upper Silesian Anthropogenic Lake District

The Upper Silesian Anthropogenic Lake District has an

area of 6766 km2 (Fig. 3). In physico-geographical terms

(Kondracki 1998), it occupies the Silesian Upland (the

northern, central and south-western parts of the Lake

District), the Oswiecim Basin (the southern and south-

eastern parts of the Lake District), the Silesian Lowland

(the western part of the Lake District) and a few other

macroregions. It is drained by the hydrographic systems of

the Odra River (including the catchments of the Kzodnica

and Ruda Rivers) and of the Vistula River (including the

catchments of the Pszczynka, Przemsza and Soza Rivers).

The total area of the water bodies present within the

Upper Silesian Anthropogenic Lake District is 185.4 km2

(water bodies with an area of up to 1ha occupy

10.32 km2, while the total area of water bodies larger

than 1ha amounts to 175.04 km2). Therefore, lake

Fig. 2. Upper Silesian region water bodies included in the research programme: 1, Goczazkowice; 2, Kozzowa Gora; 3, Rybnicki; 4, Przeczyce; 5, Porabka

(Miedzybrodzki); 6, yaka; 7, Paprocany; 8, Czaniec; 9, Szupsko; 10, Dzieckowice; 11, Dzierz’no Duz’e; 12, Ku$nica Warez’ynska; 13, Pzawniowice; 14,

Pogoria III; 15, Dzierz’no Maze; 16, Nakzo-Chechzo; 17, Pogoria I; 18, Sosina; 19, water body at ul. Tarnopolska in Zabrze (N basin); 20, water body at ul.

Tarnopolska in Zabrze (S basin); 21, water body at ul. Zabrzanska in the Ruda �Slaska Chebzie district; 22, water body at ul. Goduli in the Ruda �Slaska

Chebzie district; 23, water body in the Sosnowiec Pekin district; 24, north-western side water body of Rybnik reservoir, i.e. Pniowiec; 25, water body in

the �Swierklaniec Ostroz’nica hamlet; 26, water body in Ku$nica (the Mitrega valley); 27, water body in the yez’czok nature reserve; 28, water body in

Karchowice.


New lake district in EuropeM. Rzetaza and A. Jagus


New lake district in Europe M. Rzetała and A. Jagus

density in the area amounts to 2.74% (of which 2.59%

are water bodies with an area larger than 1ha and 0.15%

are water bodies with an area smaller than 1ha). Locally,

as evidenced by the results of measurements within grid

cells, lake density exceeds 10%.

Within the lake district as defined, the average density

reaches a value typical of the natural postglacial lake

districts in Poland (Choinski 1995) and is higher than the

average lake density in Poland, which Choinski (2007)

determined at 0.9% on the basis of data for 7081 lakes

larger than 1ha. Lake density within the Upper Silesian

Anthropogenic Lake District is comparable to that exhib-

ited by the areas in Poland where lake concentrations are

the highest, i.e. the Mazury Lake District, Pomeranian

Lake District and Wielkopolska-Kujawy Lake District.

Taking into account lakes larger than 1ha, the lake

densities of these areas are 3.64, 2.16 and 1.32%, respec-

tively; if lakes smaller than 1ha are included, these values

increase to 4.04, 2.54 and 1.59%, respectively (Choinski

2007).

The number of water bodies within the Lake District is

impressive. There are 4773 water bodies in the area,

which is equivalent to an average of 70.54 water bodies

per 100 km2. In certain parts, more than 100 or even up to

200 water bodies are present per 100 km2. The largest

concentration of water bodies was found in the north and

south of the Lake District, while their density is slightly

lower in the central and western parts (Fig. 3). In the area

under consideration, small water bodies (up to 1ha) are

clearly most frequent – there are 3097 of them. Water

bodies with areas larger than 1ha are fewer (1676) but

they exert a significant and multifaceted environmental

impact (Jagus & Rzetaza 2008). This group consists mainly

of reservoirs retained by dams and water bodies formed in

old excavations fromwhere rock was quarried. The basins

of these water bodies are also the deepest (Table 1).

In order for the description of the Upper Silesian

Anthropogenic Lake District to be complete, it should be

noted that in the southwest, it borders on the Czech

Ostrava-Karvina region, which exhibits similar lake dis-

trict features. However, with respect to their area and

retention capacity, the Ostrava and Karvina region water

bodies cannot compete with Upper Silesian ones, as the

two largest such bodies (Terlicko and %ermanice) have,

respectively, the following areas and capacities: 270 and

250ha, and 27.4 and 25hm3 (Rzetaza 2001).

Origin of water bodies

The formation of the lake district described here was

related to the development of the Upper Silesian region,

which is currently perceived as one of the most industria-

lised and urbanised regions in Poland. From the 13th

century onwards, the region has developed as a result of

Fig. 3. Upper Silesian Anthropogenic Lake District at the beginning of the 21st century: 1, streams and water bodies; 2, boundary of the Upper Silesian

Anthropogenic Lake District; 3, significant localities; 4, national border.





the mining of minerals (lead, silver and iron ores, coal,

zinc ores, rock) and their use in the metallurgical indus-

try. As a result of industrialisation and population inflows,

urban centres developed and the services sector started

to operate. Additionally, land situated further from the

centre of the region was brought into agricultural use.

Ongoing development entailed the need to manage the

water conditions in the area while ensuring the supply of

water for both economic and municipal uses. All these

factors led to the formation of numerous water bodies

that either served certain social and economic functions

or were the unintended result of human activity. Ana-

lyses of historical maps indicate that the lake district

formed during the 20th century but a rapid increase in

water body area was only observed in its second half. In

the 1960s, only 3097 water bodies with a total area of

113.4 km2 existed within the present lake district. Lake

density amounted to 1.68% and there were on average

45.77 bodies of water per 100 km2.

The following types of water bodies can be distin-

guished with regard to their origin within the lake district:

reservoirs impounded behind dams, flooded mineral

workings, water bodies formed in subsidence basins and

hollows, levee ponds and residual water bodies remaining

after water management projects, various pools, park

ponds, tanks, sedimentation tanks, industrial or fire-fight-

ing tanks, etc. All these types of water bodies were formed

as a result of human activity. Apart from these, small

natural water bodies are found, albeit rarely (e.g. in

depressions between dunes).

Dams were built to retain reservoirs in places where the

morphology of river valleys was conducive to the erection

of dams. There are few such reservoirs within the Lake

District. The largest ones can be found on the outskirts of

urban and industrial areas. While constructed mainly as

flood protection measures and domestic water reservoirs,

they currently serve many purposes. Most of them also

serve as tourist and leisure destinations. An interesting

exception here is the Kozzowa Gora Reservoir, which was

constructed in the 1930s for military and defence reasons

(as a water barrier), and was only later adapted for water

supply purposes (Jagus & Rzetaza 2003). The largest dam-

retained reservoir in the Lake District with respect to both

area and capacity is the Goczazkowice Reservoir (32 km2;

167hm3), while the oldest one is the Paprocany Reser-

voir, which dates back to ca. 1870.

Flooded mineral workings formed in depressions that

were created as a result of open-pit mining of minerals:

coal, zinc and lead ores, sand, limestone, dolomite, clay.

Their areas range from several dozen square metres to

several square kilometres. They are numerous within the

Lake District, as excavated areas were usually reclaimed

by flooding them. Many excavations were also flooded as

a result of spontaneous inflows of groundwater. The

largest flooded mineral workings can be found in former

sand pits; sand was sourced in large quantities to serve as

filling in deep coal mining. Former sand pits often serve

leisure purposes precisely on account of their geological

situation. Flooded mineral workings – just like reservoirs

retained by dams – often serve as leisure destinations.

They are used for sailing, kayaking, angling and power-

boating (in those places where the use of engines is

allowed). Bathing beaches have been set up and, in

addition, there are some unofficial bathing spots that are

customarily used. A good example here is the complex

consisting of the three Pogoria lakes together with the

adjacent Ku$nica Warez’ynska lake (created in 2005)

(Jagus & Rzetaza 2008).

Water bodies in subsidence basins and hollows have

formed as an unintended by-product of mining activities.

In the case of subsidence basins, the formation of basins is

the result of the deflection and downward movement of

rock layers situated in zones where underground mining

takes place at deep levels (local subsidence may be as deep

as 30m). On the other hand, rock hollows flooded with

water are typical of shallow underground mining zones.

These water bodies are relatively numerous; their area is

usually small and they assimilate into their surroundings

most easily. Apart from the angling opportunities they

offer, water bodies of this type usually do not serve any

important economic purposes and are therefore often

Table 1 Largest water bodies of the Upper Silesian Anthropogenic Lake

District

Namea Maximum area (ha) Total capacity (hm3)

Reservoirs impounded behind dams

Goczazkowice 3200 167.0

Kozzowa Gora 587 15.3

Rybnicki 555 24.0

Przeczyce 470 20.7

Porabka (Miedzybrodzki) 380 26.6

yaka 350 11.2

Paprocany 120 2.5

Czaniec 45 1.3

Szupsko 35 1.2

Flooded mineral workings

Dzieckowice 730 52.8

Dzierz’no Duz’e 615 94.0

Ku$nica Warez’ynska 560b 51.1b

Pzawniowice 240 29.2

Pogoria III 208 12.0

Dzierz’no Maze 160 12.6

Nakzo-Chechzo 90 1.5

Pogoria I 75 3.6

Sosina 51 1.3

aLocation of water bodies (see Fig. 2).bTarget parameters.





filled in to obtain new areas for development after appro-

priate reclamation measures have been implemented.

A significant group of water bodies in the lake district

under examination are levee ponds. They are usually

clustered in river valleys in places where water can be

retained. These ponds are flat-bottomed and shallow

(typically around 1–1.5m); their depth is conditioned by

the height of the dikes or levees constructed around them.

In urban and industrial areas, levee ponds are used to

store clean or polluted water (wastewater). In rural areas,

they usually serve as fish farm facilities (fish ponds) and,

with a few exceptions, are typically emptied for winter.

They are used to breed many fish species, especially the

common carp but also tench, grass carp (Carassius auratus)

and Crucian carp (Carassius carassius), silver carp, ide,

pike, wels catfish and European perch. Common carp is

the most popular breeding species (yields range from 300

to 1000 kg/ha) but there are some ponds where the share

of other fish species is as high as 40%. The largest fish

farms are located in the vicinity of Oswiecim, where

ponds were operated as early as the 13th century. Pond

area in this region amounts to ca. 3000ha, with the

largest pond measuring 78ha.

Residual water bodies following river management

activities are water-filled sections of river channels that

were cut off during regulation work within the flood-

plain. Although they have usually retained morpho-

metric and biocenotic properties similar to natural

oxbow lakes, they should be classified as anthropogenic

water bodies. The number of these water bodies was

much higher several decades ago when river regulation

used to be widespread, because they tend to become

overgrown and have silted up with time. They are usually

classified as wasteland.

Water bodies belonging to the other types mentioned

above are very numerous and their areas are small. They

are usually single-purpose reservoirs. Moreover, they are

usually single-purpose reservoirs serving fire-fighting,

industrial, municipal or decorative functions, etc.

Water bodies in the lake district in question typically

have multiple purposes in both the economic and the

environmental spheres. One feature common to water

bodies of different origins is the fact that they are leisure

and tourist destinations. Nearly every water body in the

region serves anglers. The angling economy is regulated

by the Polish Angling Association (PAA). Fisheries admi-

nistered by the PAA are stocked with appropriate fish

species; in 2010 for example, water bodies were stocked

with eel (435 kg of fish fry were introduced into water

bodies) and pike perch (770 000 fry were introduced). The

range of fish species present in the water bodies under

examination is very broad. The fish that are most often

caught by anglers include predators such as the European

perch, pike perch, wels catfish, eel and pike as well as

nonpredatory fish such as the common roach, common

bream, common carp, Crucian carp, tench, grass carp and

ide.

All water bodies constitute significant factors that affect

natural conditions – hydrological conditions, microcli-

mate and habitats; they provide, inter alia, sanctuaries for

numerous rare plant and animal (particularly bird) spe-

cies. For this reason, nature conservation measures have

been instituted with respect to some water bodies; some

have also been declared bird sanctuaries with significance

at the local, regional (e.g. Zbiornik Rybnicki, Dzierz’no

Duz’e), national (e.g. Kozzowa Gora, yez’czok ponds) or

even international (the Goczazkowice reservoir) levels.

Chemistry of water bodies

Water bodies within the Upper Silesian Anthropogenic

Lake District exhibit considerable diversity with respect to

their hydrochemical properties – these vary even between

bodies of water that have the same origin (Table 2).

Differences are primarily the result of the fact that anthro-

pogenic pressure on their catchments varies but can also

stem from the different geological situation of basins or

the manner in which individual water bodies are used

(Rzetaza 2008). Water body catchments are subject to

various degrees of anthropogenic pressure – they can be

urban and industrial areas or rural and agricultural ones,

used for various purposes; sometimes, they remain largely

quasi-natural in their nature (woods, bogs, marshes).

Owing to their location on the boundaries of the most

industrialised part of the region, reservoirs retained

behind dams are usually subject to anthropogenic pres-

sure, mainly agricultural but also industrial and urban in

the case of the Rybnik Reservoir. This is often reflected by

their excessive content of biogenic substances, and in the

case of the Rybnik Reservoir, also other nutrients, salinity

and thermal pollution. This leads to annual blooms as well

as increased alkalisation and oxygen oversaturation of

surface layers while the hypolimnion has insufficient

amounts of oxygen.

Studies have found various levels of pollution in

flooded mineral workings – ranging from levels consid-

ered natural to those reflecting a complete degradation of

the water environment. The Nakzo-Chechzo reservoir is

mostly free from anthropogenic pressure and the quality

of its waters can be considered the best among those

studied. On the other hand, the Dzierz’no Duz’e Reservoir,

which has been affected by human industrial activity, is

subject to extreme anthropogenic pressure. Certain para-

meter values exceed those considered natural several or

several dozen times (or, in the case of phosphates, up to

several hundred times). The waters of the Dzierz’no Duz’e





Reservoir are hypertrophic and polytrophic because of the

supply of pollutants from the Kzodnica River. A special

group of postexploitation water bodies are small water

bodies formed in old quarries or mining pits; these lack

drainage. Owing to the limited possibilities of water

exchange and self-purification, their chemistry is affected

by the denudation of rock layers and local sources of

pollutants.

The physico-chemical properties of water bodies

formed in subsidence basins and hollows depend on the

manner in which the deformed land area is utilised,

irrespective of its size – e.g. the storage of mining or

metallurgical waste within the subsidence directly affects

the quality of the water accumulated in it. In areas subject

to subsidence that are under agricultural use, biogenic

pollutant concentrations can be observed. Among water

bodies of this type, the best parameters with respect to

quality are exhibited by those situated in areas where

forest, shrub and herbaceous plant communities are

present and that have not been in intensive use.

The hydrochemical properties of levee ponds vary and

depend largely on the intensity of fish breeding; when

such ponds are fed from external sources, their para-

meters are dependent on the type of land use in the

catchment that recharges them. However, these water

bodies are usually polluted with nitrogen and phosphorus

compounds whose concentrations exceed applicable stan-

dards. Unused levee ponds are often clean water enclaves

– an example here is the �Swierklaniec Ostroz’nica Pond.

As concerns the presentation of the results of analysis

of physico-chemical water properties in water bodies of

different origins (Table 2), the broad spectrum of extreme

values that document the real extent of differences be-

tween lakes and anthropogenic water bodies has to be

emphasised. With respect to water reaction, the lowest pH

(5.28) was detected in the Nakzo-Chechzo acidotrophic

water body, while the highest pH (9.50) was found during

the period when eutrophication processes reached the

peak intensity in the Kozzowa Gora water body, which is

situated in an agricultural catchment. The lowest specific

conductivity values were measured in the aforemen-

tioned Nakzo-Chechzo water body (169mS/cm) and in

the oligotrophic Ostroz’nica lake (169 mS/cm), while the

highest SEC (7320 mS/cm) was found in the Dzierz’no

Duz’e lake supplied with water by the Kzodnica river,

which drains the western part of the urban Silesian

Upland area. Differences in water electrical conductivity

values are related to concentrations of ions, mostly

Table 2 Physico-chemical properties of water in selected Upper Silesian Anthropogenic Lake District water bodies. 1998–2007 (mean values)

Water bodya Reaction (pH) C (mS/cm)

O2 Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ Cl� SO42� NO3

� PO43�

(mg/dm3)

Reservoirs retained behind dams

1 7.91 217.5 11.4 45.0 6.1 9.0 3.1 14.4 24.2 6.1 0.074

2 8.17 364.2 12.4 63.3 20.8 8.1 3.0 27.9 40.1 7.6 0.062

3 8.02 891.8 10.1 72.4 19.1 91.7 9.0 186.8 86.2 12.2 0.269

6 7.62 588.0 9.6 43.1 10.6 52.2 6.5 89.2 68.5 10.4 0.389

7 7.42 324.8 11.6 41.6 15.7 17.7 3.1 55.2 45.9 1.8 0.056

Flooded mineral workings

11 7.81 5829.5 9.8 199.1 78.4 887.6 38.2 1710.1 444.0 238.4 2.805

13 8.17 575.7 12.6 73.0 14.8 33.5 5.3 90.7 57.8 4.8 0.347

14 7.89 617.3 11.0 82.3 29.4 21.1 5.1 48.3 107.5 1.3 0.029

16 7.41 192.2 11.3 20.0 17.1 6.7 2.3 15.5 32.2 1.0 0.006

17 7.82 610.9 30.9 86.5 20.4 22.8 4.7 60.1 98.3 2.1 0.033

Water bodies in subsidence basins and hollows

19 7.70 134.5 – 38.0 159.6 77.4 70.0 176.3 469.3 4.2 1.200

20 8.40 139.5 – 36.0 141.6 72.6 34.4 162.1 415.6 2.6 0.580

21 8.01 1063.9 – 52.5 108.2 40.9 67.1 80.5 259.0 1.1 0.521

22 7.80 1453.0 – 62.0 190.8 51.6 120.0 74.6 546.3 0.4 1.400

23 7.62 3021.0 – 63.0 114.1 132.4 54.1 759.3 282.3 58.9 1.300

Levee ponds

24 8.20 270.9 – 55.5 21.9 9.8 3.9 42.6 36.6 11.3 0.028

25 6.91 224.0 – 40.0 0.1 5.5 1.5 8.0 20.1 1.0 0.008

26 8.25 409.0 – 60.0 40.8 6.2 4.3 20.7 44.0 3.0 0.080

27 7.53 415.0 – 46.0 18.0 12.2 4.7 34.0 85.6 11.5 0.096

28 7.25 822.0 – 30.0 51.6 21.1 9.6 66.7 83.6 17.8 0.111

aLocation of water bodies (see Fig. 2).





chlorides. As concerns biogenic substances, the highest

concentration of nitrates (288mg NO3� /dm3) was found

in the Dzierz’no Duz’e Reservoir (the largest flooded

mineral working in Poland to date), while the highest

phosphate concentration (51mg PO43� /dm3) was exhib-

ited by the Pzawniowice water body, with its predomi-

nantly agricultural catchment. The lowest nitrate

concentration was found in the Paprocany water body

(0.2mg NO3� /dm3), while phosphates were not present at

all in several water bodies, e.g. Paprocany, Nakzo-Chechzo,

Pogoria III.

A characteristic feature of water bodies in the Upper

Silesian Anthropogenic Lake District is widespread water

eutrophication, which results from their location in areas

that have been considerably transformed by human

activity. Eutrophication effects, which are reflected in

unfavourable physico-chemical water parameters, are

typical of many water bodies all over the world, but

they usually concern much smaller clusters or just single

water bodies. Therefore, some examples should be cited

with respect to eutrophication indicators that are of

interest: oxygen deficit, chlorophyll content and water

transparency.

Oxygen conditions in Upper Silesian water bodies are

relatively good from autumn to spring, but in summer,

the epilimnion is oversaturated with oxygen, while the

hypolimnion suffers from oxygen deficit or lacks it com-

pletely. Deep summer oxygen deficits and good oxygen

conditions during other seasons are also typical of the

South Australian South Para, Barossa and Warren Reser-

voirs (Recknagel et al. 1998). A pronounced oxygen

deficit below the epilimnion in summer is found in

the Japanese Ohmorigawa, Tomisato, Kawamata and

Maeyama Reservoirs; in the two latter ones, an oxygen

deficit or the lack of it are observed for several months

each year (Nakshima et al. 2007). Zones that are deficient

in oxygen are also found below the mixing layer in

equatorial lakes such as Victoria Lake and other lakes in

Central Africa (Hecky 2000). A certain peculiarity of

Upper Silesian water bodies is the presence of surface

water oxygen oversaturation, which is as high as 250%,

owing to intensive photosynthesis.

In many cases, the chlorophyll content a in Upper

Silesian water bodies, which reflects the amount of

primary production, testifies to the intensive growth of

phytoplankton in the water mass. Its concentrations

exceed the level considered sufficient to trigger eutrophi-

cation processes, i.e. 25 mg/dm3, particularly in water

bodies that receive flows from agricultural areas.

Maximum concentrations as high as over 100mg/dm3

have been recorded. Higher chlorophyll a concentrations

are found in few bodies of water in the world, e.g. the

highly productive hypertrophic polymictic fishponds in

the southern Czech Republic (Komarkova 1998), several

lakes in south-eastern Brazil (Petrucio et al. 2006) and the

Guadalupe Reservoir in Mexico (Lugo et al. 1998).

The transparency of water bodies in the Upper Silesian

Anthropogenic Lake District varies depending on the scale

of anthropogenic impact. In summer, the depth of the

photic zone (measured as the Secchi disk visibility) very

often does not exceed 2m, which is a sign of eutrophica-

tion. Many water bodies all over the world are reported to

exhibit similar water transparency levels. For example,

the transparency of certain eutrophic bodies of water in

Korea ranges from 0.8 to 2.1m (Kim et al. 2001), while in

a sample of 73 eutrophic Swedish lakes, the Secchi depth

ranges from 0.5 to 9.75m (Hakanson et al. 2005). Other

Swedish lakes have been described by Thierfelder (2000),

who reports depths ranging from 0.03 to 7.3m. Varied

transparency values, sometimes very low (starting at

0.3m), are also typical of many lakes in Florida (Conney

& Allen 2006).

According to the data provided by the State Inspecto-

rate for Environmental Protection (‘Environmental Con-

ditions in the Silesian Province’ annual reports), surface

waters in a considerable part of the Upper Silesia region

are significantly polluted with trace elements as a result of

industrial effluent dumping as well as runoff from agri-

cultural and urban areas. For example, the following

maximum metal concentrations were found in 2009 in

water from the rivers that supplied the following water

bodies: Kozzowa Gora – 120mgAl/dm3, 84 mgZn/dm3, 21 mgCu/dm3, 0.5mgPb/dm3; Dzierz’no Duz’e – 16 mgAl/dm3,

43 mgZn/dm3, 7mgCu/dm3; Rybnik Reservoir – 45 mgAl/dm3, 69 mgZn/dm3, 4 mgCu/dm3, 20 mgCrTot/dm

3; Goczaz-

kowice – 25 mgAl/dm3, 5mgZn/dm3, 12 mgCu/dm3, 119mgMn/dm3, 2.5 mgPb/dm3. In most cases, the concentra-

tions listed above indicated anthropogenic contamination

as well as toxicological hazard (Moore & Ramamoorthy

1984; Kostecki 2007). Anthropogenic pressure on the

aquatic environment was also confirmed by the presence

of organic micropollutants in water. High concentrations

of volatile phenols were most often found (e.g. up to 17 mg/dm3 in the waters feeding the Rybnik Reservoir), but

significant amounts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,

e.g. in the waters feeding the Kozzowa Gora and Przeczyce

Reservoirs, were also determined in some cases. Elevated

PAH concentrations were determined on the basis of the

combined concentrations of benzo(g,h,i)perylene and

indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene; 0.002 mg/dm3 was assumed to

constitute the threshold for assessing chemical water

quality as good. As opposed to organic micropollutants

related mainly to industrial activity, organic micropollu-

tants typical of the agricultural economy (i.e. pesticides)

were not present in detectable quantities in surface waters

in the Upper Silesia region.





With respect to the chemistry of water bodies of the

Upper Silesian Anthropogenic Lake District, it should also

be added that the physico-chemical parameters of their

waters are being transformed as a result of numerous

physical, chemical and biological processes typical of

lentic water environments. This is highlighted by studies

of water quality in flow-through water bodies (comparing

inflows to outflows) (Rzetaza 2008, 2009; Jagus & Rzetaza

2009). These have shown that individual water bodies

exert different impacts on the quality parameters of the

water flowing through them – the effect is varied and

selective with respect to certain chemical substances.

Among the regularities observed, it should be noted in

particular that eutrophic water bodies situated in catch-

ments subject to agricultural anthropogenic pressure

exerted almost an entirely adverse impact on the water

flowing through them. On the other hand, water bodies

loaded with municipal and industrial pollutants demon-

strated significant capabilities to absorb certain pollutants

(e.g. suspensions, heavy metals), but their trophic para-

meters deteriorated steadily. A relatively neutral or posi-

tive impact of limnic water bodies on water quality was

observed where these were situated in quasi-natural

catchments.

Conclusions

(1) The economic development of the Upper Silesian

region in southern Poland has resulted in the formation

of a new anthropogenic lake district with an area of

6766km2 and a lake density of 2.74% – the Upper Silesian

Anthropogenic Lake District.

(2) The 4773 water bodies within this lake district have

different origins resulting from varied human activity.

They were built for specific purposes, formed as a result

of land reclamation measures or emerged spontaneously

through anthropogenic transformation of the environ-

ment. They are used for flood protection purposes,

serve as potable and household water reservoirs,

breeding grounds, environmental use areas or leisure

and recreation destinations; sometimes, they are consid-

ered wasteland.

(3) The hydrochemical parameters of water bodies are

not conditioned by their origin but rather by the manner

in which they are used and the impact of their catch-

ments. Good-quality waters are rare and can be found in

water bodies that exhibit seminatural environmental

conditions.

(4) The diverse origins and hydrochemical diversity of

water bodies makes the Upper Silesian Anthropogenic

Lake District a unique phenomenon worldwide, also with

respect to the possibilities of conducting interdisciplinary

limnological studies.

Acknowledgements

Wewould like to thank Dr.Martin Cahn for correcting the

English language of the manuscript. The scientific work in

this research project was financed by funds for research in

the years 2006–2009 (project no. N306 034 31/2179,

project no. N306 031 32/1698).

To submit a comment on this article please go to http://

mc.manuscriptcentral.com/wej. For further information please see the

Author Guidelines at wileyonlinelibrary.com

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