The Social and Economic Legacies of Major Sporting Events“Perceptions of the Olympic Ideal”

1 Introduction

1.1 Research Focus

The Olympic Oath was developed by Pierre de Coubertin (Review Olympique 1906)

and was first used at the 1920 Olympics in Antwerp. It underpins fair play and the

true spirit of sportsmanship. The Olympic creed or Motto (de Courbertin 1894,

adapted from Didon 1897) further underlies the Olympic principles of participation,

overcoming adversity and fulfilling ones potential.

The oath and the creed are a diatribe to fair play and inclusion. The sentiment is

central to all sports. However, when it comes to the staging major events like the

Olympics, Commonwealth Games or Soccer’s World Cup, for example, do the

governments, organisers and construction companies play fair with local

communities or the inherent population? This paper will look at the staging of major

sporting events and the resultant positive or negative legacies.

The research focuses on the Olympic games with particular focus on the 2012

London event. This is situated with a brief Olympic history and necessary socio-

political and structural analysis. The investigation then situates a comparative study

of the dichotomy between the Montreal (1976) and Los Angeles (1984). This hiatus

and the historical perspectives will provide an understanding of the legacies the

Olympics have for the Hosts.

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2 Literature Review

2.1 Structural Perspectives

The development of sport has a chequered history (BBC 2011)(Telegraph 2010) but

presents two distinct strands both academically and in popular culture. It is usually

remembered for its great spectacle or for some kind of intrigue (FIFA 2010)(Toohey

& Veal 2007). The furore and kudos of being selected for a major international event

provides national cohesion and distinctive jingoistic pride (Walters 2008). The

events are structured by international governing bodies, which then devolve specific

organisation to the host nation.

As the study is centred on the Olympics it is pertinent to highlight the role of the

International Olympic Committee (IOC). The IOC is totally autonomous and self-

funding. In essence it maintains the Olympic ideal, controls the rights to its products,

awards the Olympic 4 year cycle to host countries and overseas discipline of events

via its various departments. It is seen as the ultimate global body overseeing and

promoting sport. Jones (2009) is a little more critical of the IOC’s underlying modus

operandi and relates it as an international capitalist drive to redevelop economic

structures by utilising the media circus as a front for a more controlling Gramscian

like hegemony Strinati (1995), Simon (1991)

The paradox of the Olympics is important as it situates itself within the hosts own

predominant structures. The IOC charter states:-

Olympism is a philosophy of life exalting and combining in a balanced

whole the qualities of body will and mind. Blending sport with culture and

education…seeks to create a way of life based on joy, the educational

value of good example and respect for universal fundamental ethical

principles,

IOC (2004)

Brohm (1978) is more critical and relates the primary aim is not for sport but for

capitalist profit through sport. This discussion is reinforced by (winter Olympics). The

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neo Marxist pre-occupation with capital (Clark 1978, Barrow 1993) helps to situate

the Olympics within its modern context within the modern and post-modern world.

This underpins the 1976/80 hiatus by relating changes in global social, economic

and political systems in the world in this period and differences in the socio-cultural

structures in Montreal and Los Angeles.

2.2 Comparative Studies

2.2.1 Montreal/Los Angeles Hiatus

The dichotomy of Montreal/Los Angeles is an important epoch that has change the

map of the modern Olympics. The legacy of Montreal was a 30 year debt, which

caused political and economic concerns over the whole project. However, as Guay

(1996) relates there were benefits from the legacy that need closer realization. The

bad press has been around problems surrounding the construction and the capital

costs in preparing the facilities. Guay (opt cit) relates that there can be various

interpretations.

Accounting principles consider the language of financial numbers only.

Therefore to fully appreciate the impact of the Games, one must take

into consideration the costs and benefits, pecuniary or otherwise, direct

and indirect, quantifiable or not which had an impact on the socio-

economic environment and particularly on the urban fabric of Montreal"

during a certain period before and after the games.

The outcome for Montreal was to produce a crop of top class athletes in a variety of

sports that represented Canada. Additionally, Montreal hosted 10 International

world- class events from 1979 to1987, Robin (1988). Thus, the games provided

world-class facilities relating the long term investment of the capital construction.

Also structurally, Canadians became more health conscious and followed more

structured recreation programmes.

The controversy of Montreal reduced the number of applicants to host the 1984

Games. This allowed a certain amount of negotiation for Los Angeles as winning

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host. Organiser, Peter Ueberroth declared that the local residents would not be

incumbent to the games cost. Unlike Montreal LA had many sporting venues it could

utilize many through the collegiate system. The result was a $215 million profit. The

commercialization was via sponsorship and TV rights with some income from ticket

sales. The legacy was to reinvest some of the profit to local community groups.

The importance of these two distinctive events, relate two specific facets. The first is

the need for short-term financial expediency. It underlines also the cultural

differences between the USA and Canada. Los Angeles provided an economic profit

orientated package that was specific to 1984. Montreal provides a longer-term

investment with social cost benefits to health, education and recreation. Unlike other

games they did not try to hide the truth of their financial imposition but bore it all.

These are considerations that future hosts need to bear in mind.

2.2.2 Lessons from previous Games

There is a growing body of research on the impacts derived from previous Olympic

Games. The 1976/1984 hiatus is seen as the modernization of the Games via

commercial tenets as related in 2.2.1 is a sound foundation. However, like the Luton

Town method of controlling football hooliganism, or the Nottinghill Carnival they have

to be contextualized to the specific project. Planning around any event needs to

analyze the necessary local cultural, structural, socio-economic and political

relationships. Many of the lessons are captured in University of East London (UEL)’s

report A Lasting Legacy for London (UEL, 2007).

Further reflection is gleaned particularly from the policy into action success of the

2002 Manchester Commonwealth Games (Lessons Learned Manchester City

Council 2002). Several of the lessons apply to achieving outcomes that are desired

for East London. East London has a specific set of needs that could in part be met

by the outcomes from the 2012 Olympic Games, in terms of economic and

sustainable development and livability, engagement in employment, transforming its

image, tourism and environmental perspectives.

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2.3 Models of Governance

Before looking at the structures involved with both the delivery of the 2012 event and

the mooted legacy it is necessary to relate how the project matrix is governed. There

are three main approaches and they influence the Games in varying degrees from

start to finish. MacRury & Poynter (2009) relate this by analysing institutional

relations as follows:

State-centred – where central government provides the policy framework and the

role of non-state institutions is mainly confined to the (part) financing and delivery of

the project;

Public/private partnership - where the economic or commercial interests of the latter

are privileged in the process of the projects development;

Networks of Stakeholders – where the interests of all stakeholders (the state, private

sector and local communities and civic groups) are represented in the governance

framework and the vision and policy goals of the project.

The relative success so far in Preparation for 2012 has been the development of

supportive networks. The planning stage created such links from the outset

particularly those for legacy development. Disagreements have been minimal e.g.

British Olympic Association wanting upfront revenue payments from main games

before total profit including Paralympics’ costs calculated. There has been some

concern over the future of the Olympic stadium and how developments will realize

promises.

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2.4 London Legacy Planning

2.4.1 London Olympic Organisation Bodies

It is essential here to relate the bodies and structures responsible for running the

London Olympics. The Olympics itself is a brand owned by the International Olympic

Committee. It has strict copyrights to its distinctive five coloured bands. To this end

the 2012 Games have adopted similar corporate status. Unfortunately, it is merely

more than a collective of Government influenced structures parading as companies.

It comprises six supporting entities. The London Organising Committee of the

Olympic Games (LOCOG) a public limited company owned by the British

Government. It is responsible for preparing and staging the games. The Olympic

Delivery Authority (ODA), which is responsible for facility provision and its legacy.

The Olympic Board provides oversight and strategic co-ordination to the entire

project. It monitors delivery and ensures commitments promised to the IOC when the

games were awarded to London are honoured.

The Lord Mayor of London Works with the Greater London Authority to ensure

Londoners benefit from the event. In addition the 5 incumbent London Olympic host

boroughs are involved with local strategic and policy perspectives. They monitor

implementation and delivery in order to secure the legacy benefits of the 2012

Games. National government is further represented by The Department for Culture,

Media & Sport (DCMS), which is responsible for the London Olympic Games and

Paralympic Games Act 2006, the overall finances of the Games, and sponsorship of

the Olympic Delivery Authority. The DCMS is also responsible for bringing together

the legacy benefits brought by all the wider sporting, cultural, environmental,

educational and business enterprise initiatives that will take place all over the country

as a result of the Games before, during and after 2012. The DCMS leads on this

work in coordination with other Government departments. (london2012.com)

The final component is the Nations and regions group which is set up to accrue

benefits for the rest of the UK by utilizing the Olympics for local business and

community activities, initiatives and business opportunities. Finally there are a host

of sponsors who are classed as national and international commercial partners.

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These Olympic manifested groups have the same centralised QUANGO trappings

given to Regional Development Corporations in that they are able to over-ride the

petty party politics of local government. Such organisation is designed to allocate

money directly to the relevant projects, which allows shorter time spans for revenue

allocation. The down side is that such seamless efficiency is deemed faceless and

can ride rough shod over local interests.

2.4.2 Legacy Planning Organisations

In addition to the organisations in 2.3.1 there is a selection of other bodies that have

been established for the legacy once the pageant closes. London and the UK

government have ensured that organisations have been established well in advance.

Such is the importance of the post Games regeneration. Furthermore, the bodies will

evolve so that the transition period can be as seamless as possible (it needs

expanding/enhancing)

i) The East London Legacy Board which is one of four legacy boards established by

the UK Government to oversee and co-ordinate legacy planning and management.

The other Legacy Boards cover Economic, Sport, and legacies which come together

through the Olympic and Paralympic Legacy Board.

ii) The Olympic Park Legacy Company (OPLC), established in 2009, to take

ownership of the Park prior to the Games and manage it for the long term to achieve

the intended legacy outcomes.

iii) The Olympic Park Regeneration Steering Group, established to give political

oversight to the regeneration of the park and surrounding areas.

iv) The Host Borough Unit, which is a co-ordination group of the main boroughs in

East London with Olympic activities happening in their areas.

v) The City Operations Group, led by the GLA is a joint group of local, regional and

national authorities that are working together to plan and manage the "Games time"

experience of London by athletes, spectators, media, and others.

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2.4.3 Planned Legacies

The bid for the 2012 Olympic bid centered not just presenting a memorable sporting

spectacle. The success of holding the Games in London was a testament to the

legacy envisaged and the planning process for this especially in advance of the

pageant so that the transition from sporting event to socio-genesis could be as

seamless as possible. The legacy was built on 5 promises (DCMS 2008):

1 Making the UK a world leading sporting nation

2 Transforming the heart of East London

3 Inspiring a new generation of young people

4 Making the Olympic Park a blueprint for sustainable living

5 Demonstrating the UK is a creative, inclusive and welcoming place to live

in, visit and for business.

The basis of achieving the 5 promises is based around a central action plan. Each

promise has between two and four measurable headline ambitions, each backed by

major delivery programmes. These programmes fall into two categories: new, 2012-

specific programmes developed as a direct result of the Games coming to London;

and existing government programmes expanded or re-focused as a result of London

2012 to deliver improved results on their previously agreed objectives. But many

more will be developed between now and 2012. National, regional and local plans for

2012 also contribute to these aims: Before, during and after provides them with a

clear framework within which to drive and develop those plans.

For example in 2009 the Department for Communities and Local Government -

Cambridge Policy Consultants (2008) commissioned a report on how the department

could best harness the legacies proposed by the games. The relative success of the

bid came from the legacies linked with regeneration issues in East London. From

the Games Programme strategic plan Objective 3 was of greatest interest. Figure 1

relates The London Olympics Legacy planning to Local Government Regeneration

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Figure 1 Local Government adaptation of Olympic Legacy Objectives source:

Cambridge Policy Consultants (2008)

2.4.3.1 Sports Development

Key Objectives

Inspiring young people through sport: offer all 5 to16 year-olds in England five hours

of high-quality sport a week and all 16 to19 year-olds three hours a week by 2012.

Getting people more active: help at least two million more people in England be

more active by 2012.

Elite Achievement: aim for 4th in the Olympic medal table and at least 2nd in the

Paralympic medal table in 2012.

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Key Programmes

The PE and Sport Strategy; Sport England’s strategy for quality community sport;

£75 million healthy living marketing campaign; and UK Sport’s World Class

Performance Programme.

2.4.3.2 Regeneration

Key Objectives

Transforming place: create a well-planned and well- managed environment in and

around the Olympic Park which will attract business investment and promote

recreational and cultural use for years to come.

Transforming communities: build over 9,000 new homes, a large proportion of which

to be affordable; and provide new sport, leisure, education and health facilities that

meet the needs of residents, business and elite sport.

Transforming prospects: help 20,000 workless Londoners from the 5 Host Boroughs

into permanent employment by 2012; and create 12,000 job opportunities in the area

of the Park post-Games.

Key Programmes

The ODA Delivery Plan for the Olympic Park; the Legacy Masterplan Framework and

Regeneration Strategy for the area; and local jobs and skills training initiatives

including the London Development Agency (LDA) London Employment and Skills

Taskforce for 2012 (LEST) Action Plan.

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2.4.3.3 Social Cohesion

Key Objectives

Giving time and expanding horizons: tens of thousands more young people giving

time to their local communities as a result of the 2012 Games.

New cultural activities: tens of thousands of young people participating in cultural

activities as a result of the 2012 Games.

Engaging and learning: thousands of schools, colleges, universities and other

learning providers inspiring young people through the Olympic and Paralympic

values.

Going global: three million young people overseas accessing quality physical

education and sport, and at least one million participating in these regularly by 2010.

Key Programmes

The Cultural Olympiad and the work of Legacy Trust UK; the Personal Best

programme; the London 2012 Education Programme; and the International

Inspiration programme.

2.4.3.4 Environmental

Key Objectives

A model of sustainable development: a 50% reduction in carbon emissions from the

built environment of the Olympic Park by 2013 as part of delivering the ODA

Sustainability Strategy.

Inspiring sustainable living: people encouraged to live more sustainably as a result of

the 2012 Games, such as reducing their carbon footprint, being energy efficient or

recycling on a greater scale.

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Key Programmes

The London 2012 Sustainability Plan;4 a new methodology for measuring carbon

footprinting; and local sustainability initiatives.

2.4.3.5 Business and Service Culture Development

Key Objectives

Improving business: contribute to increasing and sustaining growth in UK business,

including small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).

More jobs, improved skills: help more people across the UK get and stay in work and

build their skills long-term.

Making the UK more welcoming: create a warm welcome for all our visitors and

ensure they receive world-class service while in the UK.

Key Programmes

The Business Network brokerage service for businesses across the UK, Train to

Gain Compact for 2012, Personal Best, skills strategies in construction, hospitality

and leisure, sport and media, the Government’s Tourism Strategy, and the Cultural

Olympiad

2.4 Synthesis

The 2012 Games has been planned strategically and long-term. The legacy planning

has been built into the original planning as part of a continuous process. The lessons

of previous events have been learnt and incorporated into the planning and legacy

process. More difficult factors like global economic activity were factored in so that

the impact of any slowing would not be too much of a burden. Although making the

project more of a challenge it was not a total shock. The most important design

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though is the long-term impact of the legacy planning. The first phase is timetabled

for 2013-16 the second phase is looking at 2020 and beyond. Unlike Montreal it is

not a short-term plan that attempted massive development with ensuing massive

debts. Masterman (2009) criticises the London legacy planning

‘Unlike the New York City (NYC) bid, London’s legacy planning is long winded

and lacks clarity of investment.

Masterman relates the structured approach to NYC’s bid. It not only includes venue

by sport but also includes investors and post game body continuing to run the facility.

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3 Initial Research Design

3.1 Introduction

The project is designed to develop an understanding of the current provision and

then post event use for the 2012 London Olympics with particular reference to the

development of sport in the UK. The initial data is provided from the London 2012 bid

and supported by the documents produced from the organising Agencies for the

Games. This is then expanded to include a plethora of texts on the Olympics, Event

Organisation, Financial planning and academic research papers. This data will be

analysed to situate the design of the field research. Any modifications will be

highlighted during design, execution and analysis of the fieldwork exercise

3.2 Data Collection

3.2.1 Initial Data Collection

To commence reviewing any relevant data local library sources provided little data.

The next stage was to use the internet. First port of call was Amazon.com and that

spurned 12 titles specific to the 2012 Olympics legacies. The University search via

MetaLib provided 29 relevant texts. I expanded my search further and searched on

Google. After various inputs the final attempt was “London 2012 legacy plans” which

provided 9810 results. The data included many reports and up-dates from the

organisers and government departments. Most of this was ongoing developmental

work that can be condensed into the necessary salient sections. There were many

newspaper reports relating the progress of the project and equal amounts warning of

the pitfalls previous Games encountered especially the negative affects legacies can

present.

Further data included Academic journals and papers most of which was produced at

the University of East London. More critical writings relate yet again comparisons

with previous Olympics and errors that London should avoid. Superfluous data

related to a variety of business opportunities, consultancies and local interest

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groups. The remaining data was sports specific and related not just the local

infrastructural facility gains but how almost all interested sports bodies in the UK

wanted to utilise the vehicle of the Olympics for future development.

In comparison to previous Olympics 2012 already has a dearth of information and is

highly ranked in any information league table. Only Los Angeles had significantly

more. Beijing has almost nothing but that is hardly surprising due to greater

government control

3.2.2 Data Sift

After looking through the initial data the documents form the Official Organising

bodies have been used as a foundation. Although they are in some instances

marketing brochures they have been designed to give a sound outline brief to the

2012 legacy.

3.3 Fieldwork Design

From 3.2 the main concern appears to be the legacy of the Games and this falls into

two distinct areas. The first issue is the cost of the Games and who is paying for it,

especially if it runs at a loss. The second strand is what will happen to the site and

facilities and again at what cost. 2.4.3 Highlights the proposed after use of the site

regarding regeneration, especially housing, shopping and educational facilities. The

use and relocation of some sporting facilities still has not been decided and are still

as vague as the original submission document.

The desired research methodology was two fold:

i) a background questionnaire situating the Olympics from a non-host

borough

ii) interviews with high ranking and experienced coaches and support officials

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3.4 Investigation of Olympic Perceptions in a Non-host London Borough

The first strand of the fieldwork was to create a basic questionnaire that would be

presented to a specific area of Northwest London. The document is straightforward

and the analysis is in a simple statistical format. The use of SPSS has been avoided

as it was felt the results should be represented in simple statistical form. This will link

more readily with the second phase of the fieldwork.

3.4.1 Sample Group

The questionnaire was given to 100 potential respondents in the Wembley area. This

was chosen

i) due to the redevelopment of Wembley Stadium

ii) ethnic demographics

iii) socio-economic perspectives

Although, Wembley is not in one of the host boroughs, the stadium is hosting

Olympic Football matches particularly both the Men’s and Women’s finals. The local

populous are used to the staging of major events. They are also have experience of

major construction work and its impact on the local road transport network. The area

has a large and diverse ethic mix. This has been extended in the last 20 years by the

influx of refugees from Sudan and the migration of workers from Eastern Europe

3.4.2 Survey Topic Overview

The initial thrust of the questionnaire relates to the redevelopment of Wembley

Stadium and its impact on the local area. The next stage is to investigate the

perceived impact of 2012 locally, in London and nationally. The final thrust of the

questionnaire was to ask the Wembley residents their opinions on the 2012 event

legacy.

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3.4.3 Results

3.4.3.1 Wembley

The overall results (Table 1) were quite mixed.

Jobs in Wembley

More Temporary More Permanent Less Same

65 8 2 25

Wembley Event Patronage

Yes No

11 89

Wembley Re-Development Beneficiaries

Yes SomeYes Only Business No Unsure

15 56 19 10

Changes for Worse

No Yes

30 70

Table 1. Local Wembley Responses.

As …relates the contract for the stadium had requirements for local labour to be

employed and this was seen as a positive outcome. Unfortunately, the contracts

were only temporary and there was perceived to be little long-term benefit to the

local labour market. Other benefits gleaned related extra revenue for local

businesses especially the larger ones supporting events. The main downside was

the inconvenience for the locals when events were on, the Wembley market had

closed and that most locals do not go to the events.

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The hidden benefits have been local public transport has been improved partly by

the Transport for London Plan and to some extent to reduce car congestion.

Additionally the local council have banned on street parking 2 hours either side of the

event. This has actually generated extra revenue from private enterprise providing

parking on any available off-road site. The final impact has been on property values

(Needs bit of research?)

3.4.3.2 2012 Olympics

The event results (Table 2) were quite positive with the majority stating they would

be watching some of the events.

London Olympic Interest

Yes Lots of TV Yes Some TV Yes Lots of Events Yes Some Events None

49 28 0 3 20

Barriers to Events

Price Access Time-table Not interested

40 20 15 25

Watching Wembley Olympic Football

Yes No

13 87

Pricing Subsidies

Not interested £10 Free

20 23 57

Table 2 Interest/potential Patronage

Unfortunately, very few expressed an interest in attending the event due to the cost

of tickets and uncertainty of event timetabling. Relating immediate benefits to the

area the respondents saw very little in the event for the average citizen. Many did not

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know Wembley was hosting Olympic Football. The majority once informed of the

Football saw it as just another inconvenience.

3.4.3.3 Legacy

The replies regarding the legacy (Table 3) were interesting in that the majority of

people hoped there would be some long-term benefit of hosting the games.

Perceptions Of Legacy Use

In Favour Against

92 8

Legacy Service Beneficiaries

Housing Jobs Sport Health

85 80 50 73

Financial Concerns

No Funding Debt

28 32 40

Brent Inclusion Interest

Yes No

93 7

Table 3. Legacy provision Perceptions

Most people were in favour of the Olympic Park being utilised for the local people of

East London. The promise of housing, jobs, health benefits and a range of

community provision was welcomed. In summary the provisions in the bid were seen

as welcome but the main responses from the Legacy related welcoming increased

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provision tempered with concerns over funding and debt issues. The final questions

related the involvement of local people in the Olympics if it had included Brent. There

was a resounding yes to this.

3.5 Conclusion

The respondents in Wembley are used to major sporting and musical events on a

regular basis. The general feeling is positive towards the 2012 games. Although,

there is a large diverse ethnic population there is also pride in London hosting the

Games. Nearly everyone said they would watch some of the event on TV. Most said

they would not attend live events but asked if the prices were greatly reduced or free

over half were more interested.

Although this is a small cross-section in an area with links to the Games the data

gleaned does fit with some previous concerns. If the study had been more

longitudinal perhaps it might have captured the local mood in more depth. For

example if the study had been completed at the time of the bid, now, at the start of

the Olympics and after the results would be different.

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3.6 Interviews

3.6.1 Introduction

The questionnaire results as discussed were similar to other studies relating feelings

and perceptions of the forthcoming Olympics (DCMS 2008 p10). As the thrust of the

research is the legacy to sport after 2012 the second part of the investigation relates

a more sports specific theme. This section collects a number of interviews from high-

ranking coaches and officials. The interviewees have been involved at national and

international level including World Championships and Olympic competitions The

rest are involved with national level competitors but all are still involved with grass

roots and development work. All proposed respondents are based within the

Plymouth area but have travelled extensively within their specified sport.

3.6.2 Interviewee Panel

The interviewees were as follows:

i) High performance Gymnastics coach and Judge at numerous Olympic and

Commonwealth Games, World, European and British Championships.

ii) GB U20 Fencing Coach.

iii) Fencing Coach and a Performance Director of Modern Pentathlon in

Southwest England.

iv) Level 4 Athletics Coach coaching all disciplines including multi-events.

v) Level 3 Endurance/Middle distance athletics coach

vi) Level 3 Gymnastics and Level 2 Athletics Coaching all disciplines

including multi-events, high jump and Pole vault.

vii) Community Basketball Coach

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viii) County Basketball Development Officer

ix) Regional Netball Development Officer and Former Wales Coach

x) Swimming Head coach and Performance Director.

3.6.3 Interview Perspectives

The interviews were semi-structured but included the following themes.

i) How well do you think team GB would do in the Games both generally and

in your own sport

ii) What impact will the Olympics have on sport nationally and locally

iii) What legacies for sport would you envisage from 2012

iv) What other legacies do you think will result from the London Olympics

The transcripts are summaries in Appendix form.

The outcome of the interviews provides a combination of emotion, personal reflection

and analysis. The data here is in its rawest form but is still valuable for both analysis

and the foundation of further recommendations.

3.7 Interview Results

3.7.1 Assessment Of Potential British Performance

All the interviewees were optimistic about British performance at the Games. They

were not quite so positive about finishing in the top 4 in the medals table as

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development plan suggests. There was a general consensus that being on home soil

would spur competitors to be at the top of their game. Also for those younger less

experienced competitors it would be a fantastic opportunity to gain experience for

future competitions. There was some discrepancy here about performance. All

agreed that participants should do their best on the day. However, the term best was

qualified by some as personal best rather than trying hard but not really progressing.

Within the individual sports the mood was a little more reserved it ranged from no

chance because netball is not yet included in the Olympics but we are on the

agenda. The other sports had a long tradition within the Olympics with varying

success. Athletics always brings medals with varying success. Fencing, especially

the team foil, possibilities in Pentathlon but the rules keep changing along with

mention of Media interference to make it more interesting for audiences. Gymnastics

is mainly associated with the Olympics so it is a showcase and we do have genuine

medal hopes. Swimming has been solid since their great success in Beijing.

Basketball saw it as a developmental experience so that they can measure any

performance increase in the UK. Unfortunately, the NBA is more attractive.

The interviewees were very realistic about success in terms of medals at the

Olympics. This is one of the prime indicators of sports performance and can greatly

influence commercial sponsorship and funding. The failings at the 2004 Olympics

caused many sports to have their funding drastically cut. If the medal haul does not

materialise then deeper structural and cultural perspectives need further in depth

research and analysis.

3.7.2 Impact on Sport

3.7.2.1 Olympic Impact on UK Sport

The impact of the Games on Sport was of concern. The Games had presented a

massive uptake in participation after the successful bid. However, after the first year

the numbers interested in gymnastics at the competitive level have declined

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especially in the artistic discipline that is the traditional format popular at the

Olympics. Athletics maintained the initial interest with perhaps a slight increase.

Success at the Beijing Games and International success in other competitions has

maintained the activities popularity as it embraces a myriad of disciplines suitable for

a wide range of performers. Fencing although a minority sport has grown

consistently over the last four years. Swimming has always been one of the most

popular activities with a solid base and is accessible to a large cross-section of

society. Basketball is in the shadow of the NBA. Interest in the Olympics will

surround the latest ‘Dream Team’ selected from the professional ranks. Modern

Pentathlon is a very specialist minority sport. Olympic success has grown over

recent Games. The changes to the event format since Beijing has seen a combined

run and shoot similar to the winter Biathlon. In 2011 the shoot section has taken on

laser shooting negating traditional pellets on environmental grounds. The Olympics

recently has spurred on the sport but it is still heavily supported by the Independent

schools sector due to the costs of participation particularly equipment and specialist

training that combined events necessitate.

Although the acquisition of the games has increased interest in sport there are

structural problems that have impacted on participation. The 2012 edition should not

offer a short-term knee jerk solution to policy failings, socio-cultural restrictions and

perspectives around competition. The central concern was that although,

participation had increased the quality of the extra proponents had not kept pace and

was negatively exponentially skewed. The problem was linked in someway to the

non-competitive sport scenario of the late 1980’s and early 1990’s. The perceptions

were that many parents caught up in this schism had then passed it on to their

children.

3.7.2.2 Olympic Impact on Local Sport

Locally, the effect of the Olympics was similar to other parts of the country.

Gymnastics in Plymouth has struggled recently due to funding problems, lack of

political favour and changes in the coaching structure. The sport has traditionally

relied on volunteers with perhaps one full-time coach. The other coaches are either

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willing parents, students visiting for a few years or ex-gymnasts who go up through

the ranks. Unfortunately, nearly all the ex-gymnasts leave the area for university.

The impact of the Olympics will be a TV spectacle with little extra funding being

available. Gymnastics is such a disciplined and specialist sport that it requires total

dedication from an early age, specialist training facilities and like many sports in

Plymouth a need to travel for competitions. The Games might bring interest and

added motivation for those top competitors. Structurally, nationally and locally many

gymnastic clubs are traditional in outlook and have been ensconced in the voluntary

sector. They have little commercial acumen but generally survive on the goodwill

their charity status provides. There is a transition from this. There are clubs that

cross subsidise from a recreational section to a competitive arm. The more

successful clubs come from the more commercially aware or are funded by local

councils in larger urban areas. Fencing is currently going through a transitional phase. England Fencing has

produced a whole of sport plan that is being developed through schools and clubs.

British Fencing (BF) has rationalised and employed the successful former CEO of

the Amateur Swimming Association (ASA). BF is developing a corporate structure

and increased commercial awareness. Within the sport they are developing a

fencing academy structure which initially is on a national basis but which is being

rolled out to the regions.

The growth of Fencing in Plymouth is due to long-term development and the coach’s

involvement within the national framework. The U20 British fencing coach is involved

with the new academy. He coaches in the local schools, with the University of

Plymouth and has developed Plymouth Fencing club to include fencers from the age

of 6-90+. The Fencing coach works closely with the Modern Pentathlon Director who

started as a Fencer then fencing coach before diversifying in Pentathlon. The

Olympics will have an impact as Modern Pentathlete Heather Fell trains at the club.

The impact will be increased by the links that the fencing club has with Plymouth

College. The Director of Modern Pentathlon is based here and liaises with the

Director of Swimming at Plymouth Leander. Leander has several international

swimmers who are Olympic hopefuls. Additionally, Tom Daley attends the school. As

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a spectacle Plymouth has much invested in the Olympic team, which can be part of

Plymouth’s own legacy.

Netball is on the Olympic list of events but has not yet been included within the

Olympic games. The sport was promoted by both Brown (PM) and Cherie Blair to be

included in the 2012 games. The sport is popular in Plymouth with leagues from the

age of 10 to senior (over 16) level. Plymouth teams are just below the top flight in

national leagues. The new Life Centre, which is scheduled to open in autumn 2011,

will provide international level facilities. Netball England has assigned £100,000 for

the development of the sport. The centre will provide a for a range of sports including

an Olympic sized swimming international diving facilities, which the Canadian Diving

team will train at for final preparation in 2012. Any success associated with the Life

centre and associated patronage would reflect on the other incumbent sports.

Basketball is a popular activity within the city and has 2 main teams Plymouth

Raiders the more successful team within the National League and have been in the

top flight intermittently over the last 20 years. They provide training camps twice a

year and community development within local schools. Plymouth Marjons, formerly

Tamar Cannons, currently provide the majority of development work up to senior

level. The junior sections are highly ranked nationally as are local schools. The top

schools in the country are specialist Basketball Academies. Such specialist

institutions are beginning to flourish and combine the access of state schools with

the specialist training usually afforded the independent sector.

Locally, the Games will be of great interest due to the inclusion of local competitors

and the use of local facilities as training facilities. The individual sports in the

research have mixed feelings as to the immediate effects of 2012. Those with more

vested interests and developmental structures in place will have greater interest in

their particular sport. All the officials in the interviews will at some stage watch some

of the Games on TV. A few will have competitors taking part others will have

potential competitors for future Olympics.

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3.7.3 Perceived Sporting Legacies from 2012

Initially the interviewees saw little direct legacy provision for their particular sports

because there was a feeling that it would very much depend upon the results

supporting the medal tally. Initial perceptions related the redevelopment of the

Olympic park and the possibility of facilities provided at national level for the

development of International level performance.

At a strategic level there was a realisation of investment in education particularly the

increased provision of P.E. in schools. This would have to be a long term objective

and was seen not as a development but a realisation of previous failings in

developing competitive sport. There was an understanding of the wider health

education impact from the schools provision. The interviewees accepted that part of

their remit in coaching was the development of the individual to realise their

potential. For some of the participants in their charge this would be a leisure pursuit

with health choices supporting lifestyle perspectives. For others aspirations would be

higher only limited by socio-economic factors. Even such limitations for the most

motivated would mean reached their goals might take a little longer.

3.7.4 Other Perceived Legacies

There was a consensus that the Games would be a successful pageant and that it

would be in the long-term more a vehicle to regenerate the East of London. There

was a realisation that seasonal and temporary employment would occur but that was

a facet of the tourist component of the local economy. There was little confidence

that any long-term employment prospects would materialise especially in the sports

sector. There were further concerns that funding aimed at community and

performance sports development had been expropriated towards Higher Education.

This siphoning off of funds would develop graduate sports professionals at a cost to

local sports development. Although it provides jobs within Higher Education through

training the investment train will continue as the graduates that remain will be

negligible.

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In the long term there was realisation that participation numbers would increase via

investment to P.E. through the schools programme. Plymouth has over the last 4

years developed a schools network providing sports opportunities through Schools

Sports Partnerships. The Partnership has been supported by the Armada Athletics

network that provides links between schools, clubs and the community. It is further

supported by the work of the County Gymnastics Development officer based in the

community and at Plymouth Swallows. Basketball has similar community links but

due to funding implications the County Development Officer is now based in Torbay

rather than at Marjons. Fencing opt cit has school and community links. There is a

schools network provision a new fencing club in Plymouth and from the established

network from Plymouth Fencing club.

The long-term health benefits were appreciated but there was frustration at the

timescales envisaged for any whole of sport plan. Further concerns were voiced over

the politics that have seen a variety of sports Development posts manipulated for the

career advancement of the post holder rather than to the greater benefit of sport. To

be successful the interviewees related the need for a more centralised and or

structured approach that could be adapted locally. There was also a need for

coaches to coach to their own level and within their own level. Within athletics there

appears to be a number of coaches who are enigmatic but misappropriate others

work. Additionally, in athletics and some other sports outside this specific research

remit do not allow the participants to develop within their own chosen specialism. In

athletics many performers have been lost because of coaches keeping them in the

coaches own area of specialism. At best the participants move to other coaches or

activities or if they have the opportunity will rekindle interests in Higher Education.

The idea of academies is of interest especially if it is rolled out to the regions. The

long-term vision is for the structure to filter down to clubs so that they have the

access to cutting edge training. This format also provides interaction and debate so

that clubs, coaches and participants can have access to best practice. The over-

riding structural criticism related such a deeply embedded tradition of local interest,

mistrust of change and specific colloquial habits that have been in place for

centuries. Part of the stability of the UK system is individual freedom and perceived

participation in the democratic process. The weakness is fragmented structures,

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strained lines of communication and a postcode lottery especially with funding issues

that favours Urbanised conurbations against Rural communities. Unfortunately, high-

level competition is not cheap. An International level fencer is looking at costs of

around £10 000 a year.

There was an understanding of the marketing value of the Olympics especially the

events supporting the regions. The Life Centre is the flagship for Plymouth with the

aquatic provision. The Media coverage afforded Plymouth’s local Olympians is of

merit if it can be harnessed for future development. Unfortunately, it was envisaged

that only a minority would benefit from such exposure and that the feel good factor

would soon be lost after the Games finishes.

3.8 Field Work Analysis

3.8.1 Impact on National Sport

The Olympics represents the pinnacle of sporting achievement it is steeped in an

amateur tradition although more recently professionals from a variety of sports have

been allowed to compete. To represent ones country is massive reward and national

governing bodies are now becoming more corporate and commercially aware. The

relative success of individual sports is scrutinised by its results at the Olympics. The

success of whole of sport plans are tested in a matter of a few weeks each year.

The problem in the UK is that previous sports planning has been influenced by the

parliamentary life cycle of the incumbent administration. The difference with 2012 is

that it has reached consensus and the organisers have had more autonomy to

provide seamless processes. They are of course still accountable to the public

purse, IOC frameworks and under public scrutiny but they have transcended the

usual bureaucracy that stifles development.

The mechanisms used by the organisers are fundamentals that should be followed

throughout the country. Fencing has approached this by Setting up an academy

which is national at inception but that is being rolled out to the regions and eventually

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the basis will be mutually supportive to clubs if they require such help;. This is a

model developed from swimming that has highly organised planned yet flexible

training and development facets. Like the rest of this study the actual success will

only be measurable during and then after the Games conclude. The rest is just

speculation.

3.8.2 Impact on Local Sport

Interestingly, linked to national developments Netball has benefitted well in

Plymouth. The construction of the Life Centre opening in October 2011 has

facilitated investment from England netball, comic relief and Sport England. The

desire to make netball a full Olympic sport has developed awareness of the sport.

This development opportunity has been utilised nationwide so that all local netball

clubs and associations can benefit from the up-take in the sport. Netball is one of the

largest women’s team sports in the country it is popular in schools and the school to

club network provides further participatory opportunities.

Gymnastics in Plymouth is predominantly recreational in nature. The Olympics will

fire the enthusiasm of more young people to participate. The competitive side

especially in the artistic discipline mainly associated with the Olympics is more

problematic. The activity is not very cost effective. The disciplines require expensive

specialist equipment that ideally has to be accommodated in a purpose built centre.

The sport requires 20 hours a week for younger inexperienced competitors and in

excess of 30 hours a week for elite performers. The skills are very technical and

place tremendous strain on the body. Progression especially in the men’s disciplines

is very slow and requires more individual coaching. Unfortunately, higher-level

men’s coaches are in short supply. At national level there are squads that train but

no academy plan. Most gymnasts leave before they are 15 and even before Tom

Daley’s success many gymnasts left to go diving.

Diving will flourish because of the ongoing success of local divers at major

championships. There will be great local interest in the Olympic diving due to such

representation. The life Centre is also going to be a training venue for the Canadian

in the build up to the Olympics so will attract a variety of overseas visitors.

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Fencing and Modern Pentathlon will probably have little impact from the Olympics.

There will be great interest with Heather Fell in the Pentathlon but both activities

have succeeded from excellent planning and socio-economic perspectives. The

fencing club has 2 International coaches and interest and up-take after the Olympics

is possible. However, Fencing has developed in the schools particularly in the

Grammar schools and Independent sector so has relative stability. Modern

Pentathlon is almost exclusive to the local Independent school due to their Fencing &

Modern Pentathlon programme. Anyone else that has taken up the sport has come

via fencing or other multi-event activities. Success for either sport in the Olympics

might facilitate further funding as the England Fencing all of sport plan is keen to

extend patronage in schools and to make the activity more accessible.

Basketball in Plymouth is very popular in relation to the over-all population. It has a

professional team Raiders that has been in the top flight but is rekindling that form. It

runs basketball camps twice a year and is also responsible for some of the schools

development work. Marjons play in the national league but are also responsible for

development of Under 16 basketball. They have been quite successful as have off

shoots into school competitions. Plymouth schools managed to get to the quarter-

final stage. All the teams that contested the top four places were specialist basketball

academies. Apart from American basketball this is the next biggest thing so there will

be keen interest. The paralympic possibly has a greater chance of a medal but again

it gives the youth a chance to aspire to greater things.

Athletics is possibly the most problematic area. There has been a massive increase

in participation in the Plymouth area over the last 4 years. Again there is a play off

between participation and competition. The main problem though like many area is

the lack of coaches who all work on a voluntary basis. There is a good supporting

network for the clubs and links with the schools sports partnership. Unfortunately, a

combination of costs, lack of time and no compensation is a barrier to increasing

such support.

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The relative success of local sport is more a result of political or commercial

patronage than development of the talent pool. Fencing and Pentathlon have a

relatively safe bubble, diving has relative success especially at major

championships. Other minority sports still hang onto their traditional charitable

foundations. The Olympics might well provide extra provision but it is more likely to

be led from national incentives than local ones. As the Wembley research indicates

greater interest will be afforded those directly involved. After that it is more a drip

effect.

3.8.3 Perceived Sporting Legacies

The main sporting legacies were the creation of new facilities. Nationally it would

allow governing bodies to secure locations for elite performance pathways for major

future events. There were tourism opportunities that could be developed from

provinces hosting events outside of London e.g. Cities hosting football in the

Olympic, or Portland for the sailing, Plymouth’s Life Centre for the diving.

At a policy level the promise of increased Physical Education in the curriculum was

seen in a positive light. The only criticism was that it only plugged a gap that

appeared 25-30 years ago when competitive sport was diluted in state schools

towards non-competitive activities, as related in 3.7.2.1. This was also an era when

compulsory after school activities were trying to be written into teachers contracts.

There was a wholesale mutiny in that goodwill was withdrawn and most teachers

refused any involvement with extra-curricular activities

3.8.4 Other Legacies

The non-sporting legacies appeared to be seen as more specific to East London.

The bid was won on the back of regeneration promises that would transform the

Olympic Park into a new community. New housing was planned in a mix of houses

and flats with a promise of affordable housing included. The area would include

shops, leisure and entertainment facilities along with the creation of jobs and a utopic

vision of community cohesion.

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The difficulty is how is this new community going to be created. The lesson from

Docklands was that the majority of the locals moved out when the regeneration

commenced. The area was replaced by corporate office blocks and is also now

home to the 2012 main organising agencies LOCOG and the ODA. Housing was re-

designated in the form of luxury flats and the area became gentrified. A similar story

is reflected in the removal of aborigines from their homes for the 2000 Sydney

Olympics. This is a theme also lamented in Atlanta where police were given

sweeping powers to remove the homeless from the city.

The creation of the new community needs careful planning and could take longer

than envisaged to occur. It is not just a case of creating buildings and facilities then

suddenly throwing people together especially where there is ethnic, socio-economic

and cultural diversity. It was more watch this space for both the London regeneration

and any benefits devolved nationally to the regions.

3.9 Fieldwork Critique

The methodology for the investigation here related to the use of narrative due to the

social, cultural and education/development perspectives of the study. Being a mature

student I looked at an alternative that would incorporate my life skills and career

experience. I felt that a more scientific method could be negated not necessarily by

Lieblich’s rejection of sterile research tools but more to embrace the subject’s

qualitative feel. The history of Olympic legacy has been emotive and as such

facilitates a post-paradigm approach.

The field research has been as transparent as possible. The identities of the

interviewees has been hidden to preserve anonymity. The process is a test of what

Moss (2004) describes trustworthiness in that personal bias can influence objectivity

especially if the researcher has some personal contact or agenda with the subjects

or study area.

The weakness of the research is linked to its timing it is too pre-Olympics. Some

form of perceived changes in participation could have been performed but that is

also subjective and the only way of measuring the promised provision is to study

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changes after the event to see whether it delivered those promises. The merit of the

project is to provide a basis for further investigation to the effects of 2012 on legacy

provisions. Ideally this would support further background work for a longitudinal

study.

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4 Conclusion

The Olympic Games present a development opportunity at a variety of levels for the

Host nation. The sporting spectacle is the jewel in the crown. It is an opportunity for

the nation to parade not only sporting stars but also to display both a range of high

level facilities tailored to Olympic standards. Supporting the pageant is the plethora

of tourist provision both hotels and linked entertainment and recreational facilities.

Infrastructural reforms for the event will include new roads, parking, public transport

interfaces and retail outlets.

Although prima-face success and the economic and political kudos of victories and

medals are reflective of internal preparation it is more icing on the cake. The

aftermath of Montreal related a more commercial profit orientated design, which was

realised in Los Angeles. Subsequently, the London Games is designed to mirror

such a result. Furthermore, the greater benefit to society is the total investment both

to the event and the legacies to be left. London 2012 has planned legacies

surrounding the capital costs in the form of future provision. If like Manchester 2002

partnerships between commerce, government and sports governing bodies is co-

ordinated then facilities will be flexible in future use.

To the more critical the Olympics is the perpetuation of the IOC which owns,

regulates and lends the spectacle every four years to a new incumbent. The real

winners in this capital intense game are the IOC and the large companies that

provide the various structural and infrastructural products for the pageant and then

any proposed regeneration. The competitors are mere marketing vehicles to

reproduce this perceived Leviathan.

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