REGULAR JOURNAL SECTION

Organisations as emergentnormative personalities: part 2,predicting the unpredictable

Maurice YollesSchool of Business Information, Liverpool John Moores University,

Liverpool, UK

Gerhard FinkVienna University of Economics and Business, Vienna, Austria, and

B. Roy FriedenUniversity of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA

Abstract

Purpose – In part 1 of this paper the organisation was modelled as a socio-cognitive agency with anormative personality, where patterns of behaviour occur through underlying trait control processes,and from which specific behaviours can be predicted. However, prediction is dependent on a stableagency orientation which occurs in normal conditions of homeostatic equilibrium. In post-normalconditions the immanent dynamics of the agency have the potential to change its orientation leading toa lesser likelihood of predicting behaviour. Using information theory, this paper aims to furtherdevelop the model to show how it is possible to predict behaviour in post-normal conditions. It alsoaims to consider the nature of agency pathologies.

Design/methodology/approach – The information theory approach of Frieden is harnessed toexplain the immanent dynamics of the agency, and explore the likelihood of predicting its behaviour.

Findings – The outcomes of the research formulate the cognitive processes of normative personalitysuch that its potential behaviour in given situations can be predicted, even potentially where theagency has pathologies.

Originality/value – There are no comparative approaches to explore organisational behaviour andtheir potential pathologies.

Keywords Socio-cognitive agency, Information theory, Normative personality, Pathology,Immanent dynamics

Paper type Research paper

IntroductionTheory tells us that, knowing the stable type orientation of an agency that can beassociated with patterns of behaviour, it is possible to predict agency behaviour undernormal conditions. Such normality is defined in terms of homeostatic equilibrium whereany environmental perturbations that an agency experiences can be dealt with throughexistent control processes to stimulate appropriate responses. However, in post-normal(Ravetz, 1999; Yolles, 2010b) conditions where homeostatic equilibrium becomesdisengaged, the stability of the agency type orientation is lost and the likelihood ofsuccessful prediction is reduced. In this paper the intention is to build on the conceptualwork of part 1 of a previous paper with the same name. Central to the study is the nature

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KybernetesVol. 41 No. 7/8, 2012pp. 1014-1049q Emerald Group Publishing Limited0368-492XDOI 10.1108/03684921211257856

of the controlling traits. These are variables that take values that determine the typeorientation that the agency has, and normally, under stable conditions, it is this thatdetermines its patterns of behaviour and provides opportunities to predict itsbehaviour. Traits are not just passive indicators of an agency’s type orientation, buthave epistemic properties that determine the type values that they take and hence thetype orientation of an agency, and they are core to its immanent dynamics. Duringpost-normal conditions the immanent dynamics become more volatile, whenexceptional approaches are needed to enable behaviour to be predicted. It may benoted that often one refers in such circumstances to “anticipation” rather thanprediction, where the very structures of the system under investigation are deemed to beresponsible for its future behaviour for which one then attempts to create expectations(Yolles and Dubois, 2001). We shall examine the nature of the immanent dynamics of anagency, and using a form of information theory we show that it is possible to makepredictions about behaviour in post-normal situations.

In part 1 of this paper, a model was developed for the agency with its normativepersonality that is central to our interest here. This operates through bothsocio-cognitive processes and variable traits the values of which determine theagency type orientation. Agencies have traits (t) that can be defined in terms of theirorientations within an external environment and their internal personality traits. Theorientations are cultural (Ct) and social (St), and the traits include viability (Vt),appreciativeness (At) and integrativity (Gt). While the names of the traits are not toosignificant and can be replaced with other names and other values that take differenttype values leading to alternative models (Yolles, 2009b), their control characteristicsare central to the modelling process. The type values that the traits can adopt areindicated by an operative (I) and a figurative ( J) orientation represented, respectively, bytI and tJ.

Agency cultural orientation (Ct) can take a sensate value (CtI) that allows realities tobe deemed to exist only if they can be sensorially perceived. Sensate type members of aculture do not seek or believe in a super-sensory reality, and are agnostic towards theworld beyond any current sensory capacity of perception. Needs and aims are mainlyphysical, that is, that which primarily satisfies the sense organs. The epistemicattributes include appreciating the nature of the needs and ends that are to be satisfiedthe degree of strength in pursuit of those needs, and the methods of satisfaction. Themeans of satisfaction occur not through adaptation or modification of human beings,but through the exploitation of the external world. It is thus practically orientated, withemphasis on human external needs. With reality as perceived from senses, its operativenature is highlighted in that it views reality through what can be measured andobserved rather than reasoned. Cultural orientation may also assume ideationality (CtJ),which sees reality as non-sensate and nonmaterial. Epistemological needs and ends aremainly spiritual, rather than practicable, and internal rather than external. The methodof fulfilment or realization is self imposed minimization or elimination of most physicalneeds, to promote the greater development of the human being as a Being. Spiritualneeds are thus at the forefront of this disposition’s aims rather than human physicalneeds. These enantiomer types act as yin-yang (Du et al., 2011) forces that togethercreate what Sorokin (1962, Vol. 4, p. 590) has termed the principle of immanent change.In this, autonomous agencies with coherent cultures experience pass through culturalchange by virtue of their own internal forces and properties. Such an agency cannot help

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changing even if all external conditions are constant. Sorokin (1962, Vol. 4, pp. 600-601)tells us that any functional sociocultural system incessantly generates consequencesthat are not the results of the external factors to the system, but the consequences of theexistence of the system and of its activities. As such they are necessarily imputed to it,and this occurs without the benefit of conscious decision. One of the specific forms ofthis immanent generation of consequences is an incessant change of the system itself,due to its existence and activity. The dynamics of change thus occur naturally as aninternal process to the culture. Due the intimate relationship between culture andpersonality, cultural orientation changes must necessarily be reflected through attitudechange in the normative personality. This where there is a distinction between thepersonality of the non-migrant individual[1] who may have little exposure to culturalorientation shifts, and that of the durable agency that will, through immanence, willexperience its own cultural shifts that may be exacerbated by ambient cultural shifts.While cultural orientation refers to agency culture, this is in itself influenced by theambient host culture in which the agency is embedded. Social orientation (St) is anextension of the agency personality that orientates it within the social environment thathosts it. It might be seen to exist in a social operative system directed towards action,interaction, and reaction that (re)constitutes the cultural environment in terms of(desired, welcome, undesired, not welcome) activities. So, an agency might put emphasison action (StI – where its membership is convinced that it will get positive feedback,their product will sell, etc.), or have a more observation orientation (StJ) and collect (lotsof) information before engaging in action. Essentially, therefore, action oriented StIarises from an optimistic tendency, while observation oriented VtJ arises from apessimistic tendency.

Both cultural and social traits are therefore part of the agency’s personalityenvironment, and both are able to represent changing contexts that influence personality.The personality orientation is defined by a set of three traits. Viability Vt relates to thecapacity of an operative system to be able to respond to recognised processes of cognitiveself-organisation. Through this variable an agent may be high on “autonomy” (VtI) whenit might react to the lessons drawn from (or opportunities offered by) environmentalimpulses, and will follow less the guidance by the cultural metasystem at the societallevel. An alternative value for the variable might be “embeddedness” (VtJ). Through thisthe “viability” trait can represent a durable and distinct personality orientation that isable to cope with unpredictable futures. It structures appreciative information enablingadaptation, and enables the personality to facilitate responses to its social environmentand predefine its behavioural penchant towards its operations.

Agency pathologies can develop that may result in the development of specificdysfunctions and impact on its viability. While these may occur within the traitsystems, of more interest to us here are those that occur in the trait system semanticchannels, referred to as Pi, j. Combinations of these pathologies fall into patterns calleddysfunctions. Pathologies may occur in at least one of three ways. One is through a lowefficacy rather than high status: efficacy status constitutes a measure on the controlcapacity of efficacy on emotive impulses, and inefficacy may alter the capacity of theintelligences to manifest information between trait systems away from some preferredcapacity. Another is intelligence limitation which occurs when the selection ofinformation to be manifested by the intelligences may become uncoupled from thepreferences and unrepresentative of the intended perspectives. Another is where the

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networks of first or second order semantic processes that constitute the intelligences arenot well selected, or where some of the processes are semantically blocked. Yet anothercause may be Pi, j semantic blocks that inhibit the manifestation of information betweentrait systems, and this may be related to the development of cognitive dissonance thatdiminishes the coherence of the agency. At this stage it might be of interest to considerthe intelligences, efficacy and other personality attributes are that relate to the Pi, js.

“Intelligence” may best be seen as the agential capability to appreciate its own andnew knowledge in the light of manifested information, and to combine this knowledgeappropriately with new knowledge to allow the manifestation of appreciations andgoals in a way that is consistent with intentions. In part intelligences embraceadjustment imperatives that enable the agency to consider the interests and influencesof the external environment (stakeholders, institutions, counterparts in the taskenvironment), consideration of the agency’s own appreciations and goals and those ofothers as far as they are perceived, and to develop ideas about possible reactions ofothers to the action taken by the agency. More technically, intelligence is constituted asa network of first and second order rational processes that couple two ontologicallydistinct trait systems. This network of processes manifests information throughsemantic channels thereby allowing local meaning to arise from the manifested contentin the receiving trait system.

“Operative intelligence” manifests actual behaviour in interaction with the outsideenvironment. It constitutes the observable form of personality. Operative intelligencecollects information about states of reality in the feedback processes from theenvironment. More technically, operative intelligence is a first order form of autopoiesisthat creates an “operative couple” between the figurative and operative systems. Itconsists of a network of personality processes that manifests significant figurativeinformation operatively, but also it creates improvement imperatives to adjust thefigurative system. This network of processes is itself defined by its appreciativeschemas and decision imperatives in the figurative system and the improvementadjustment imperatives that arise from the operative system.

“Figurative intelligence” projects knowledge and beliefs so that a set of figurativeimages (including mental models and abstractions) are manifested into figurativestructures that include agentic strategy, ideology and ethics, that should solidify andform personality. More technically figurative intelligence decides what kind ofinformation assembled through operative intelligence will be considered as important,significant or relevant, and will be used to either re-emphasize available figurativeimages (including mental models and abstractions) or will be used to reformulate them.Technically, figurative intelligence is a second order form of autopoiesis (calledautogenesis) that projects conceptual information into the operative couple. However,this couple also creates improvement imperatives to adjust the cognitive metasystem,from which figurative intelligence emanates in the first place. This metasystem iscomposed of attitudes, feelings and conceptual information that are harnessed toidentify the network of meta-processes that define it, permitting significant conceptualinformation to be manifested in the operative couple. Intelligences are structuredthrough personality perspectives and preferences.

“Traits” are closely related to the intelligences and indicate the preference betweenforward linkage knowledge flows (application of own knowledge, mental models andfigurative images) and feedback that is constituted as adjustment imperatives that

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become manifested as knowledge flows (consideration of information collected in thesocial environment and related adjustment imperatives). Manifested preferencesdetermine the set of trait orientations of the personality that together create apersonality orientation. Preferences are thus responsible for the nature of a personality.

“Personality orientation” arises through personality preferences. Preferences occurin the agency cultural/knowledge metasystem through espoused values, which aremanifested in:

(1) the cognitive metasystem of the personality as significant attitudes, preferencesand connected feelings;

(2) the figurative system as appreciative schemas; and

(3) the operative systems as structural/behavioural imperatives.

“Personality perspectives” arise in the personality meta-system from attitudes, feelingsand conceptual information, and are influenced by the adjustment imperatives carriedby figurative intelligence from the operative couple. The perspectives are manifestedacross the personality through perspectivistic information carried by its intelligences,to be integrated into schemas in the figurative system, and structured into theoperative system.

“Personality preferences” define a personality’s intended trait orientations, and as avariable this is determined by the type-value that the trait takes. The trait selection oftype-value may itself be conditioned in some way by the information carried by theintelligences. The selection of information to be manifested by the intelligences may beconsistent with agency preferences and representative of appreciations and theirperspectives. Requisite intelligence occurs with this, and when the selection ofinformation moderates the capability of an agency towards operative performanceprogression and hence achievement together with any imperatives that indicate thecapability of this progression. Practically we refer to “capability intelligence” whenmoderation of the capability of an agency towards achievement indicates the capabilityof this progression. However, they may become uncoupled from the preferences andunrepresentative of the appreciated perspectives. This causes an “intelligence limitation”that can result in the development of “pathologies” (Figure 3) that affect the ability oftrait systems to function. The distinction between requisite and capability intelligence iscalled an “intelligence deficit”. The lack of representation by the intelligences occursbecause not all of the perspectivistic information is represented. Under such a conditionthe personality may:

(1) have its capacity to conceptualise, schematise or apply perspectivisticinformation reduced;

(2) have the orientation of its traits perturbed; and

(3) be drawn towards un-preferred or unintended conduct that may even “corrupt”its proprietary strategic ideological or ethical orientations.

Perspectives too may become adjusted through pathologic shifts in trait orientations.“Pathologies” may emerge when preferences restrain or exclude important

knowledge flows or/and when the efficacy of knowledge flows is impeded. In bothcases the agency is not in a position to achieve its own goals. Desired efficacy may serve

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as a guideline for the agency. If desired efficacy deviates from effective efficacy then theagency might consider some change in its behaviour.

“Efficacy” refers to the controls of emotionality processes that condition what theintelligences do by operating on the manifestations of information between two traitsystems, modifying the semantic channelling processes of the intelligences. Efficacystatus occurs on a strong/weak scale that indicates the degree of efficacy that anagency has. Low efficacy status can influence the agency’s ability to communicate, todevelop appreciations, and to set goals and cite tasks. It happens because of the wayefficacy conditions the manifestation process and hence drives both local developmentand the adjustment imperatives for improvement. As such it can affect an agency’sfeeling, thinking, motivation, behaviour, and performance – including how itperseveres under adversity. Practically it is the “capability efficacy” that moderates theagency towards operative performance progression and hence achievement, and theadjustment imperatives that indicate the capability of this progression. The notion ofcapability efficacy assumes that every organization maintains some level of emotiveimpulse control, which might either dampen or enhance on the emotive impulses.“Requisite efficacy” occurs when the ability develops to achieve a level of performancethrough the control of emotive imperatives that are best suited to create “preferred”achievements. When these preferences are perturbed, then a difference arises betweenrequisite and capability efficacy, resulting in an “efficacy distinction” (ED) thatcontribute to the formation of “pathologies” indicate the limited capacity of the agencyto generate requisite responses to its perceived needs for achievement under perceivedenvironmental circumstances. The EDs of the intelligences shown in Figure 3 mayresult in pathologies. Given combinations of these across the personality may wellgenerate distinct personality dysfunctions. If one considers that dysfunctions arisefrom standards of diagnosis, then one has to try to find out what pathologies result inwhich dysfunctions.

Where requisite efficacy and intelligence occur together, we refer to themanifestation of information between trait systems as requisite manifestation. Whererequisite manifestation does not occur, then pathologies arise through either inefficacyor intelligence limitation. A related definition also applies to capability manifestation.Efficacy and intelligence in relation to the social orientation trait may contribute to therealising of its full social orientation potential, to engage with the environmentalpredictions that it controls, and adjust its own operative processes. In contrastpathology may result in an agency inadequacy that will impact on its operativeintelligence and the recognition of agency adjustment imperatives. Appreciativeness(At) can be connected with “harmony” (AtJ) or “achievement” (AtI) of appreciations orgoals that create agency orientation. We could also relate this to appreciations drivinggoal formulation as a process that derives from data collection and involving the carefulweighing of arguments (AtI) as opposed to spontaneous decisions following from thespontaneous desires (AtJ) of the decision makers. This trait maintains an interconnectedset of more or less tacit standards which order and value experience, determines the wayan agent sees and values different situations, and how instrumental judgements aremade and action is taken. The trait facilitates how an agent as a decision makerobserves and interprets reality, and establishes decision imperatives about it. As suchthe trait regulates the appreciations and resulting goals of the organisation with respectto its intended operations, the potential for social interaction, and the ethical positioning

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that may occur as a response to opportunities provided or indicated by the socialenvironment. Requisite manifestation in this trait in relation to the viability trait canlead to self-principled agencies with aesthetical, intuitive or ethical/ideologicalpositioning. It can provide ideological images that may facilitate action. It orientates theagent towards a view of stages of historical development, with respect to interactionwith the external environment. Pathology can lead to corrupt and sociopathicorganisations (Yolles, 2009a), or more broadly agency misconduct (Palmer and Pozner,2010). Integrativity (Gt) can involve the effective realising of potential recognising thenature of agency social and political processes and of the constraints imposed social andpolitical structures. This may occur through self-regulation and either thesubordination to hierarchy (GtJ) or liberation away from power and bureaucraticregulations (GtI) allowing normative rule obedience to be defined at a sub-agency level.This trait affects the operative couple between the apreciativeness and viability traitsthrough its network of processes, but it can also be seen in terms of directly affectingthe viability trait (Figure 1) thereby contributing to cognitive coherence. This isconnected with a move towards homeostasis – the human capacity to maintain orrestore some physiological or psychological constants despite outside environmentalvariations (Pasquier et al., 2006). Pathology can similarly lead to lack of coherenceand cognitive dissidence (Fraser-Mackenzie and Dror, 2009), and this can act as adriver for cognitive state/dispositional[2] dysfunctions (Endler and Summerfield,1995, p. 255). So, the trait involves attitudes, and is affected by emotive impulses thatmay orientate the agency towards cognitive coherence or dissidence. Integrativity hasimpact on unitary and plural fugitive perspectives like strategies, ideology andmorality. It also creates imperative for the regulation of the patterns of behaviour

Figure 1.Socio-cognitive trait modelconnecting the formativepersonality trait modelwith social and culturalsystems

Personality OperativeSystem

Normative self-organisationOperative orientation trait:

Viability

Figurative intelligence

Operative Intelligence

Personality FigurativeSystem

Normative self-regulationFigurative orientation trait:

Appreciativeness

PersonalityOperative

Environment

Environmentalorientation trait

Operative social intelligence

Imperative foroperative intelligence

adjustment

PersonalityMetasystem

Normative self-referenceCognitive orientation trait:

Integrativity

Cultural EnvironmentCultural

orientation trait

Figurative culturalintelligence

Impulses for cultural adjustment

P1,1

P1,2

P2,1

P2,2

P4,2

P4,1

P3,2

P3,1

Figurative Normative Agency Personality

Note: Pi,j(where pathology type i = 1,3 and order j = 1,2) refers to type pathologies that canarise through both intelligence limitation and efficacy distinction, or where semanticblocks develop; here, t is a trait variable with type values tI or tJ

Operative Intelligenceadjustment imperativesFigurative Intelligence

adjustment imperatives

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through intention. Here, then, when we talk of a normative personality we are alsoreferring to personality traits with type orientations.

The set of traits have been set within Figure 1 which adopts the same trait controllogic offered by Yolles (2009b) in his exploration of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicatormodel. In this figure we note that the integrativity trait acts to constrain personalitythrough normative self-reference and identity. More, the appreciative trait is concernedwith normative self-regulation, and the viability trait is concerned with normativeself-organisation – and the two together constitute a first order operative couple. Thisdefines for the agency its own boundaries relative to its environment, produces its ownnetwork of processes that are themselves part of the processes, obeys its own laws ofmotion, and defines for itself a set of boundaries that satisfy its intentions. There is alsoa second order figurative couple that links the operative couple with its culturalenvironment and involves identity and self-reference.

The social/environmental orientation trait, like the other traits, is taken as a variable,for which we might distinguish agents who are “action” oriented (being convinced thatthey will get positive feedback, their product will sell, etc.), as opposed to others that aremore “observation” oriented and collect (lots of) information before they set action. Ifthis trait does not suffer from pathologies, then the agency will be more able to manifestbehaviour that is tied to value preferences which result in desired performance.

Here, we call the type-values (that traits of the personality and the cultural and socialorientations take) “agency orientation”. Where an agency has trait preferences andhence an intended orientation, these are maintained by the manifestation of valuepreferences from which arise type preferences. In principle, where these trait preferencesare stable and empirically identifiable, there is a significant possibility of predictingagency behaviour in given thematic contexts. There is a caveat to this however asillustrated by Yolles et al. (2011), who has adopted the notions of Schwarz (2003) andintegrated the ideas of Kuhn (1970), Funtowicz and Ravetz (1993) and Ravetz (1999),adapted for agency orientation to produce Table I, and shown in Figure 2 (from Yolleset al., 2011). This explains under what conditions an agency’s stable type orientationmay shift as it moves from normal conditions/mode to a post-normal conditions/mode,when its immanent dynamics becomes more volatile. It is here that the likelihood ofstable type orientation and hence behavioural predictability becomes endangered. Theonset of the mode 3 crisis and mode 4 transformation can create new requisite valuesthat affect traits so that new types appear leading to a new agency orientation.

The epistemic nature of agency personalityFigure 1 shows the ontological distinction within the agency and its personality byconsidering the relationship between its controlling traits. Each trait system in theagency is epistemologically independent with feed-forward inputs and feedbackoutputs to the other independent but interactive trait systems. Other than this, thenature of each trait system may be taken as a black box with its own unknownimmanent dynamics. The dynamics of each trait system can therefore also beconsidered independently, and their interactive affects will come from an examination ofthe agency as a whole.

Each trait system of the agency controls its structural orientation, and as it changes sodoes the system’s nature. The trait orientation arises from the agency’s immanentdynamics, so that changes in orientation may be a function of the membership

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ple

xifi

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onT

his

isac

com

pan

ied

by

pro

cess

esof

com

ple

xifi

cati

onth

atca

noc

cur

du

rin

git

erat

ion

ofth

esp

iral

,p

erh

aps

lead

ing

toau

ton

omy

Table I.Agency modes of change

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1022

of that system, while being influenced by the interconnected intelligences. Thesedynamics are also subject to the rules indicated in Table I. Thus, for instance, in normalmode small changes in trait values are consistent with homeostatic equilibrium thatallows morphogenesis to occur in the structures of the subsystem as indicated by its trait.In transformational mode, major changes occur in the subsystem allowing metamorphosisto come into play as a trait undergoes significant change in the type-value it selects.

In the viability trait Vt, any change in the type value that it takes will be linked to thestructural nature and orientation of the action imperatives that allow decisions to be madeand set of implementation in relation to environmental impulses in the personalityoperative system. A small change in the value of Vtwill indicate small changes in the typeorientations that affect the decision making and action potential little, in the personality,This will be put down to processes of personality self-organisation, and as part of this itsorientation towards action will be affected little. However, big changes in the traittype-values are associated with metamorphosis in the orientation of decision making andaction potential, and this will create major changes in the viability of personality.

In the integrativity trait, any change in the type value that it takes will be linked tothe structural nature and orientation of the attitudes and emotive impulses that exist inthe personality metasystem. A small change in the value of the trait Gt will indicate insmall changes in the type orientations that affect the attitudes and emotive impulseslittle, that rule the personality, This will be put down to processes of personality

Figure 2.Cycle of agency change

Mode1(Normal)

Mode2(Post-normal:drift to moreuncertainty)

Mode3(Crisis)

Mode4(Transformational)

7.0 Type change:paradigmatic death or

disorganization

7.2 Type change:morphogenesis

7.1Typechange:

more of the same

1.Entry

2.Paradigmatic drift

3.Tensions

4.Tension increase &structural criticality

5.Fluctuation

6.Bifurcations

8.Complex-

ification

Predicting theunpredictable

1023

self-reference, and as part of this its identity will be adjusted little. However, big changesin trait type-value are associated with metamorphosis in the orientation of attitude andemotive impulses, and this will create major changes in the identity of the personality.

In the appreciativeness trait, any change in the type value that it takes will be linkedto the structural nature and orientation of the decision imperative and mental schemasthat allow appreciation and goal setting to occur in the personality figurative system.A small change in the value of the trait At will indicate in small changes in the typeorientations that affect the decision imperative and mental schemas little, in thepersonality. This will be put down to processes of personality self-regulation, and aspart of this its rationality will be adjusted little. However, big changes in the trait valuesare associated with metamorphosis in the orientation of decision imperative and mentalschemas, and this will create major changes in the rationality of personality.

So, ultimately, it is the type-value taken by the traits in the personality that determinehow it exists, its rationality, and how it operates. This then leads to a question about howtrait values are obtained (when not subject to pathologies), and if they are the result of adynamic process then what is the nature of the dynamics that enables personality type todevelop.

The answer to this has been explored by Yolles et al. (2008) and Yolles (2010a), wherea framework has been created capable of exploring the immanent dynamics ofpersonality traits. While this was a sociocultural study exploring only the cultural trait,its principles are as applicable to each of the traits independently. This will enableexplanations to develop for the psychosocial processes of the collective mind. UsingFrieden’s (1998) development of Fisher Information Theory, a general theory will beconstructed in which personality traits are seen to take on control roles that underliepatterns of behaviour.

The theory begins by explaining that, as in the yin-yang approach, any normativepersonality trait variable takes its type values as the result of an interaction between(enantiomer) type potentials that results in an immanent dynamic for the agency. Thebasis of this theory, which has no comparison in the type theory of the personality ofindividuals, arises from the dynamic nature of culture that feeds the attitudes of durablecognitive agencies, whose life expectancy is often greater than that of the individualsfrom which traits stem. This immanence shifts the patterns of personality orientationsthat govern a collective mind and therefore changes its behavioural penchant.

Extreme phenomenal informationThe use of Frienden theory of extreme physical information when applied to personalitytheory becomes extreme phenomenal information because of its constructivistorientation, and when we use the term EPI we shall mean this form. The aim of thetheory is to is to construct the unknown probability laws of science as perceived within asocial construct (Frieden et al., 1999; Frieden, 1998, 2004).

EPI has two forms of information, I and J, that as we shall see are indicators ofcomplexity. The premise of EPI is that data comprise information “about” an operativeobject of attention that is represented figuratively in a “noumenon”. The noumenoncontains a figurative representation of the operative object of attention, referred to as J.This is to be compared with how the noumenon is “known” through sense-basedperception, namely as inconsummate[3] “phenomenal” object of attention, which hasinformation I.

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Now J is an ideal figurative representation and hence constitutes the total amount ofinformation that is needed to describe the noumenon with perfect accuracy. It istherefore called the “bound” information, in that it is “bound to” the noumenon. It alsomay be regarded as a potential information, in the sense of being potentially the largestvalue that the acquired information I can attain. The relationship between I and J isshown in Figure 3, but expressed in terms of t. This figure can relate to anyparadigmatic situation, whether it concerns a paradigmatic agency (in which an agent isrepresented through its paradigm as explained in Yolles et al. (2011)) that pursuesmethodological inquiry in relation to some validation process about an object ofattention, or a more pragmatic satisficing in relation to modes of practice that respond toagency appreciations/goals.

To develop the basis for the EPI principle, consider that the data are formed out of aflow of information:

tJ ! tI ð1Þ

through the phenomenal domain in a cybernetic loop from the figurative structuresthat define a personality ideate to the object of attention via a measuring instrument.As such the “acquired” information I is generally some fraction of J. The interactivecouple between tI and tJ defines a distinction that offers a potential for conflict.As such, the two ideate informations tJ and tI interact through a structural couple togenerate immanent dynamics between them. This may also be regarded as enantiomicor yin-yang interaction. Even where the efficacy/intelligence manifestationinstruments represented by kJ and kI are requisite so that kJ ¼ kI, when tI – tJ itis unclear whether ideates tI and tJ constitute the actual situation, and we mustconsider that the ideate is unknown.

Consider that the figurative ideate is unknown, and that it can be sensed through itseffects upon the versions of a parameter of value a. Consider that a number ofreassessments (which for the pragmatic axiom will be constituted as measurements)of y of a are made which will randomly differ. In general the assessment y contain anamount I of Fisher information about a defined as:

Figure 3.The development of

immanent (trait) dynamicsin an autonomous system

Existential domainConceptual t and

its relatedinformation

patterns

tJPhenomenal domainOperative structures

of t

Production ofmeaningfulprinciples

Efficacious kJ(t) as anetwork of self-production

processes

Paradigmatic adjustment

Efficacious instrument kI (t) as anetwork of self-production

processes for ideate regeneration

tI

Figurativedomain

Immanentdynamic

structuralcouple

Predicting theunpredictable

1025

tI ¼d

daðlogð pð yjaÞÞÞ

� �2* +

ð2aÞ

The notation d/da means a mathematical derivative with respect to a, and brackets, . indicate an expectation, i.e. multiplication by the law p(yja) and integration overall y (not shown).

The probability law p(yja), called the “likelihood function” in statistics, defines theprobability of each possible vector y of measurements in the presence of the idealparameter value a. When the data and parameter are suitably defined within thecontext of a cognitive agency, the probability law p(yja) will take on the role of defininga statistical description of the dynamics of the agency. Our aim will then be to estimatethe probability law and, therefore, aspects of the socio-cognitive dynamics that givesrise to the re/generation process of the ideate.

Evaluations of tI for various probability laws via equation (2a) discloses that thebroader and (by a normalization requirement) lower it is as a function of the y thesmaller is tI A broad, low likelihood function indicates close to equal probability for allvalues of the y, i.e. a maximally disordered system. Thus, a “small” value of tIindicates a “high” level of disorder; similarly it can be shown that a large value of tIindicates a small level of disorder.

As an example, if the probability law is normal with variance s 2 then tI ¼ s 2.Thus, if tI is small it must be that s 2 is larger, i.e. the probability law is very broad andlow, indicating high randomness or high disorder. These effects allow us to address thefamous second law of thermodynamics within the context of Fisher information (asopposed to the usual measure called “entropy”).

As another example, in the context of the sociocultural problem below where there arediscrete probabilities pn(t), n ¼ 1, . . . ,N, the general information equation (2a) becomes:

tI ¼ tI ðtÞ ¼ I ðtÞ ¼XNn¼1

p0

nðtÞ� �2

pnðtÞ; p

0

nðtÞ ¼dpnðtÞ

dt: ð2bÞ

The latter is the slope of the probability law at a given time. Thus, equation (2b) showsthat the information at each time analytically increases with the slopes (either upward ordownward) of the probabilities at that time.

The second law of thermodynamics states that disorder must inevitably increase.Disorder can be measured in many different ways. The usual measure is “entropy”.Entropy increases when disorder increases, so the second law is usually expressed bythe statement that the rate of change of entropy with time is positive (i.e. it increases).

However, the state of disorder, as we discussed, may also be expressed in terms ofFisher information I. For PDFs in space-time that obey a Fokker-Planck (diffusion)equation, the rate of change of I is negative (Frieden, 1990; Plastino and Plastino, 1995):

DtI

Dt# 0: ð3Þ

That is, with an increase in time Dt $ 0 the change in information must be negative:

DtI # 0 ð4Þ

or, Fisher information “monotonically decreases” with time.

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On the level of the observables or data y this means that ever more randomnessmonotonically creeps into them. The system defined by the y becomes ever moredisordered.

The information transition (1) represents a change in information obeying:

DtI ¼ tI 2 tJ ð5Þ

Combining equations (4) and (5) gives the result tI 2 tJ # 0 or equivalently:

tI ¼ ktJ ; 0 # k # 1: ð6Þ

However, given that k may take values kI and kJ as shown in Figure 1, equation (6)assumes that k ¼ kI ¼ kI so that requisite manifestation occurs. In situations whereagency pathology develops, this may not be the case.

This is one of the two equations comprising the EPI principle. It shows that theconstant k is a measure of the requisite manifestation with which the information istransferred from the figurative ideate tJ to its representation tI. The manifestationparameter k is always between 0 (0 percent efficiency) and 1 (100 percent efficiency). Itsvalue depends on the efficacy through which operative objects of attention aremanifested from a figurative ideate tI and the alternative ideate tI is manifested fromthe object of attention.

An illustration of the utility of this, for example, in physics, occurs when observingquantum effects, if the detectors are perfect then k ¼ 1 and no information is lost. Or,by comparison, classical effects such as gravitation or electromagnetism are presumedto arise out of imperfect observation due to detectors that lose half the information,with k ¼ 1/2. The data are then too coarsely spaced in space-time to sense the muchfiner, quantum gravitational fluctuations. In our socio-cognitive application the valueof k will vary from one agency to another, and from one set of pathologies to another.

Equation (6) states that the acquired information tI has the “potential” to equal thevalue of tJ at most. In applications where tI ¼ tJ , all the information necessary todescribe the figurative ideate is now available. A result is that the figurative, and notmerely the operative, can be known. That is, the probability law p(yja) that is theoutput of EPI now describes the figurative as well as the operative.

In comparison with the fixed form of equation (2) defining information tI,information tJ varies in form from problem to problem. It is always found by the use ofan appropriate invariance principle, i.e. an invariance that is appropriate incharacterizing the “particular” measured effect. This invariance principle musttherefore be known. We will use a very simple invariance principle in our problembelow, that of unitarity (invariance of length).

The “phenomenal information” K is defined to be the change DtI in the informationthat is incurred during its transit (1) from source to data collector(s):

K ¼ tI 2 tJ : ð7Þ

By equation (4), K is always zero or negative, indicating that it is generally aninformation “loss”. As we saw, this means that the state of disorder of the systemincreases. When we introduce the “knowledge game”, carrying through a measurementnecessarily harnesses a “demon”, where nature always wins.

Predicting theunpredictable

1027

An inevitable perturbation of the source event by the process of measuring orobserving it causes its potential information tJ to likewise be perturbed. Then, by theconnection equation (6) between the two informations, tI is perturbed as well. Theperturbation may take place for an ideal scenario with k ¼ 1 indicating no loss ofinformation. Then the two perturbations are equal, and their difference, taken as K, iszero. This is another way of saying that K is at some extreme value:

K ¼ tI 2 tJ ¼ extremum: ð8Þ

This is a principle of EPI. The extreme value is attained through variation of thelikelihood law p(yja) and subject to the relation (6) connecting tI and tJ. In classicalproblems, such as this one, the extremum is a minimum in particular. Also, the idealparameter a is here the unknown time t at which a system of populations is randomlysampled, giving rise to some observed population type n. Hence the generic datum y ishere n, and the likelihood function p(yja) is a probability law P(njt) on n if t, which isconventionally denoted as pn(t). This represents the “growth law” for populationcomponent n. The totality of such growth laws pn(t), n ¼ 1, . . . ,N describes the overallsystem, which can be a socio-cognitive one. Hence our aim will be to compute theselaws.

Note that since the time t is “general”, we are not limited in this approach to seekingequilibrium states of these probability laws. Equilibrium states are defined at theparticular limiting time t ! 1. Instead, the EPI solutions will be expressed asfunctions pn(t) of a general time value. Thus, they represent in general“non-equilibrium” solutions. Such functions of the time are also termed “dynamical”solutions, as in problems of Newtonian mechanics. EPI is eminently suited to findingsuch non-equilibrium solutions, having already done so in problems of statisticalmechanics (Flego et al., 2003; Frieden, 1998; Frieden et al., 1999, 2001), econophysics(Hawkins and Frieden, 2003), and cancer growth (Gatenby and Frieden, 2001).

The EPI principle equation (8) has a useful interpretation. The solution pn(t) thataccomplishes the extremum can represent the payoff of mathematical game calledthe “knowledge game”. The game is played between the “observer” recipient ofthe information tI and the “constructor” of the source effect of level tJ (which can onlybe nature). This constructor is personified as an “information demon”, in analogy to thefamous “Maxwell demon” of thermodynamics. The basis for the game is supplied bythe working hypothesis of EPI, that “the aim of observation is to learn”, i.e. to gainknowledge. In this “knowledge game” then, the aim of both players is to maintain amaximum level of information to sharpen knowledge. However, the amount tI ofinformation that the observer receives is purely at the expense of the demon’sinformation level tJ (called a “zero-sum” game). As a result the observer tries to “gain”a maximum amount of information (tI) while the demon tries to “pay out” a minimumamount (tJ). Hence information measures tI and tJ act in opposition as enantiomersthrough the formation of immanent dynamics.

Immanent trait dynamicsAn agency normative personality is seen to operate through traits the values of which aredetermined by its immanent dynamics, a notion that arises from Sorokin (1962) and whichJung (1923) also ascribed to in his theory of individual personality. The immanence of anagency personality occurs because it is composed of interactive sub-agencies which having

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their own distinct personality types. Following Sorokin, there are only two major possibleorientations of sub-agency from which result normative sub-personalities with traits whosevalues are represented by the (enantiomer) types tI and tJ. In a collective agency tI and tJsub-agencies are in constant interaction over ascendancy as a personality driver anddeterminant for personality orientation in the same way as within an agency’s culturaldynamics (Yolles et al., 2008).

The structural coupling in Figure 4 has a deeper transitive basis, which we canexplore briefly in Figure 3 at a deeper level of examination. To do this let us firstdistinguish between trait t values that settle to each of the two types tI and tJ. Now tI isoperatively grounded and tends to be concerned with cognitive survival, connected withexternal relationships, and are principally interested in operative matters. In contrast tJarise from ideates that are grounded in a figurative system, and they connected withfigurative attributes that are independent of immediate needs and internal conditions.The immanence of the agency is determined by the interactions between tI and tJ, whichshould be seen to be both implicit and preconscious. Thus, the distinction between tIand tJ is that they have ontologically distinct derivations that arise from differentdriving patterns of attitudes and emotive imperatives that emanate from differentcultural value systems.

Informations tI and tJ define cognitive orientations that maintain enantiomic(yin-yang) distinctions, and enable one to differentiate between what an agency mightaspire to figuratively and what it actually achieves operatively. There is in a sense a“conflict” between the two, in that the normative condition is can be represented as adegree of conjointness, but beyond that degree there may be distinction. Also, perhaps

Figure 4.Basis of the immanent

dynamics between distinctsub-agency tI information

and tJ information in agiven agency

tJ agencycognitive

structures &implied

behaviours

MetasystemJ values.

Collective cognitivepreconscious

J attitudinal/emotivedispositions

Figurative systemPerhaps uncoordinated

/unintegratedsystem of thought

Information tJ

Figurativesystem

Perhaps unintegratedor uncoordinatedsystem of thought

Information tI

Figurative efficacy:Figurative principles

of cognitivegovernance

Operative efficacy: network of process toproduce autonomous patterns of thought; it

may involve the elaboration of contesteddifference between the agents, due to distinct

images or systems of thought

Figurative efficacy.Evolving principles ofcognitive governance

Source: The derivation of this type of figure can be found in Yolles (2006)

Operative efficacy andre/generation of networks ofrational/appreciative system

processes

tI agencycognitive

structures &implied

behaviours

Structuralcoupling withcommonconflictualbehaviourhaving past andfuture history.There may befacilitating orconstrainingeffects

MetasystemCollective cognitive

preconsciousI attitudinal/emotive

dispositions

Phenomenal domain

Traitinteraction

between TI andTJ cognitivestructures

Existential domain

Noumenal domain

Figurative efficacy:Figurative principles

of cognitivegovernance

Predicting theunpredictable

1029

more to the point, agencies “purposely” do not carry through the tI cognitions most ofthe time which might indicate the “conflict” that they seek which balances tI and tJorientations in any agency.

The natures of the tI and tJ orientations can vary absolutely or relatively. Firstly, letus consider the absolute. The yin-yang orientations change in their levels of complexity,or at least degrees of order, and the interest is to identify the nature of that order becausethis has an impact on the way the agency orientates (typifies) itself and hence behaves.Since tI and tJ are measures of these orientations, we wish to evaluate their changerelative only to themselves. A low value of tI implies a simple operative agency, and ahigh value of tJ implies a complex figurative agency. We shall refer to these conditions as“primitive”, since tJ – primitiveness suggests a low operative level and hence“an inability to cope well with complex change”; and tI – primitiveness suggests anagency that is so bound up by complexity that it dominates peoples lives, either by itsconspicuous absence or its conspicuous presence. Also, with tI ,, tJ the highorder/complexity of the tI – regulation is not being practiced on the tJ level. Here, wherethe received information tI is very low, describing a noisy, chaotic system, sensoryexperience randomly and widely diverges from the social norms of the ideational aspect.This might be manifest in a figurative reduction. As such the trait orientates the agencypersonality away from strict adherence to its own regimen, and consequently it willbe too figurative to exist. When a tJ trait is dominant in an agency it will be too orientedtowards the ideate, and will run out of figurative elements that may impoverish itscapacity to comprehend operative requirements. At the other extreme, when a tI trait isdominant in an agency it will be too orientated towards the figurative, and beunresponsive to correcting impetuses. In either case the agency will lose any robustnessit may have and become “structurally critical”, increasingly unable to cope withdemands on it. In this increasing critical state even small perturbations in the systemmay affect it in a major way.

In summary, tI and tJ “dominated” agencies will fail to meet all the needs of theirmembership. This will lead to a loss of confidence by the agency in the cognitiveorientation that it maintains. The debate and conflict will re-open, other mentalities willreassert themselves, and the chaotic state will return. This period may be described aschaotic in the sense that it appears to have no direction, and conflict has a greaterlikelihood of becoming phenomenally manifested. Since the chaos results from theinabilities of one orientation to meet that crisis, one would expect the alternativeorientation to gain adherence and ascendancy within that chaotic period. This may nothappen, and an existing dominant cognitive orientation may simply re-assert itself, butin doing so, society will still remain structurally critical. Inevitably, the agency willre-orientate its trait values and hence engage in a personality shift. There is someevidence that this actually does happen in individual migrants from one culture toanother (Rosenberg, 1990). The cognitive movement that we indicate has elsewhere beenrepresented as a paradigm cycle (Yolles, 2010a).

One of the outcomes of the innate conflict is that it can become resolved into theemergence of a balanced cognitive orientation as the sub-agencies establish an allianceresulting in a transformed and hence new cognitive agency. By this we are referring toSorokin’s (1937–1942) “integral” notion, but broaden it so that it can develop a variablecultural orientation determined not only by the tI and tJ orientations, but also by the mixthat results between them. This notion is consistent with the development of joint

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alliances in small-scale societies (Yolles, 2001; Iles and Yolles, 2002, 2003), and there is noapparent reason to argue that it cannot also be valid for all durable collective agenciesthat survive sufficiently long. The emergence of such a balance (represented asK ¼ minjtI 2 tJ j) occurs initially through operative processes that enables thecognitive types for any given trait to mutually co-exist, and which may become stable ifit develops its own figurative system and metasystem. It does not assume that the tI or tJorientation disappears, but rather that as a yin-yang interactive couple they eachmaintain their independent existence and interact with the emergent balanced form, asillustrated in Figure 5. It is supposed here that a balance is always maintained betweeninformations tI and tJ. This continuous maintenance of balance directly means that thetheory is one of general non-equilibrium.

Equation (8) is one of the two equations comprising the EPI principle. It shows that theconstant k is a measure of the “feed-forward operative manifestation of information”from the source effect to the observer. It should be realised that this feed-forwardoperative manifestation may occur as either a requisite or capability manifestation. Inpathological agencies there is a manifestation deficit between the two, with the value ofkbeing smaller that any requisite efficacy value: that is if affective k is less than requisitek, thenwe have pathology. In normal casesk should be seen as the requisite manifestationof an agency that which results from its preferences. In our socio-cognitive application

Figure 5.Relationship between tI

and tJ cognitiveorientations and abalanced cognitive

orientation

MetasystemBalanced attitudes &

emotives,Agency

unconscious

Figurative systemImages or system of

thoughtInformation tI

Figurative efficacy:individual principles of

governance

Operative efficacy: network of process toproduceautonomous patterns of behaviour; it

may involve the elaboration of contesteddifference with other agents, due to distinct

images

Figurative efficacy

Evolving principles ofgovernance

Operative efficacy and regeneration offigurative cognitive attributes

tI agencycognitivestructures/behaviours

tJ agencycognitive

structures/behaviourswith itsown fractal

Structuralcoupling withcommoninterests thatoverrideconflictbehaviour,having past andfuture history.These interestmay facilitateor constrainconflicts

MetasystemI attitudes and

emotives, Agencyunconscious

Figurative systemImages

or system of thoughtInformationK

Phenomenal domain

Interactivesuprasystem

Existential domain

Noumenal domain

Structural coupling between balanced cognitivementality and I cognitive mentality.

Predicting theunpredictable

1031

the value of k will vary from one agency’s normative personality to another. This isbecause an agency’s requisite manifestation is ultimately culturally determined, anddifferent agencies maintain distinct cultures. In the case of a social agency, the so-calledcollectors that we have referred to above might rather be seen as the perceived networkof managed intelligences that that link the information types.

This is a principle of EPI. The extreme value is attained through variation of thelikelihood law p(yja) and subject to the relation (6) connecting I and J. In classicalproblems, such as this one, the extremum is a “minimum” in particular. Also, the idealparameter a is here the unknown time t at which a system of populations is randomlysampled, giving rise to some observed population type n. Hence the generic datum y ishere n, and the likelihood function p(yja) is a probability law P(njt) on n if t, which isconventionally denoted as pn(t). This represents the “growth law” for populationcomponent n. The totality of such growth laws pn(t), n ¼ 1, . . . ,N describes the overallsystem, which can be a socio-cognitive one. Hence our aim will be to compute these laws.

Note that since the time t is “general”, we are not limited in this approach to seekingequilibrium states of these probability laws. Equilibrium states are defined at theparticular limiting time t ! 1. Instead, the EPI solutions will be expressed as functionspn(t) of a general time value. Thus, they represent in general “non-equilibrium” solutions.Such functions of the time are also termed “dynamical” solutions, as in problems ofNewtonian mechanics. EPI is eminently suited to finding such non-equilibriumsolutions, having already done so in problems of statistical mechanics (Flego et al., 2003;Frieden, 1998; Frieden et al., 1999, 2001), econophysics (Hawkins and Frieden, 2003), andcancer growth (Gatenby and Frieden, 2001).

The application of EPI principles results in a number of additional socio-cognitiveprinciples that create constraints for the immanent dynamic possibilities of normativepersonality traits. Thus, for instance:

An agency in which k is close to zero or to unity is dominated either by tJ or tI type. With a tJtype, the agency will not adequately respond to corrective feedback processes and likely willbe unable to respond requisitely to new challenges and may even have difficultyconceptualising them. At the other extreme a tI dominated agency will likely be unable torespond to operative requisites.

In either case the agency is likely to become “structurally critical”, increasingly unableto cope with problems that it needs to address. In this increasing critical state evensmall perturbations in the system may affect it in a major way.

EPI provides a “physical” description of a system. It is assumed that the agency isadequately described by the frequency of occurrence values pn(t) of its majorpopulation components n ¼ 1, . . . ,N. Components n include the various peoples of thesociety, labelled in some arbitrary way, and also its capital resources. For purposes of apractical analysis, a minimal number N of such resources is chosen, specifically, thoseresources that have a significant effect upon the populations.

The measurement problem involves establishing the occurrences pn(t) of the variouspopulation components. However, the time-dependences of the pn(t) result from changesin position (x,y) of the population members, and these changes in position depend upontheir mass values. This is qualitatively because mass is a metaphor for resistance to suchchange, and hence can be regarded as a type of “inertia”. Hence a cubic meter ofsubstance of general type n is assumed to have a known mass value mn. This ignores

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individual variations in mass among the members of type n. In a sense, each is regardedas a featureless “particle”.

Another physical concept is the “potential function”, a function V(x,y,t) of positionand time. This defines the cause of the motion or dynamics of a given system. Forexample, this source might be a spring, in which case the potential is specified as of theform V / x 2.

Modelling normative personalitySo far we have explored the epistemic relationships between tJ and tI informations thatrelate to a single arbitrary trait within the personality system, with the immanent traitdynamic that arises from the values that the trait takes.

However, because of the recursive nature of the modelling process and hence thesymmetry of the relationships, we can apply the same equations to the relationships foreach of the traits. So far we have taken t to be representative of any of the agency trait,namely viability Vt with type options ðVtJ ;V tI Þ, appreciativeness At with type optionsðAtJ ;A tI Þ, and integativity Gt with type options ðGtJ ;G tI Þ.

Now, in the normative personality each of the subsystems that are defined throughthe traits Vt, At and Gt may be considered to be in ontologically distinct spaces, eachhaving its own epistemic processes. Since EPI is epistemic in nature, we can take it thatthe same EPI principles can be established autonomously at each ontological level thatwe take to its frame of reference. The only caveat is that the cybernetic processesthat influence each of the subsystems should be considered as epistemic inputs/outputs that reflect the other trait variables. Hence the k(t) feed-forward operativemanifestation between At and Vt is a first order cybernetic relationship in which At isfigurative relative to its operative Vt. As a result we can reformulate equation (6) as:

Vt ¼A tðVtÞkA 0 # kA # 1 ð9Þ

where kA(t) is the operative efficacy that manifests the V trait to the A trait. Note alsothat A ¼ A(V) to recognise that the relationship between At and Vt involves cyberneticfeedback and feed-forward. There are also two other relationships that also need to betaken into account. These are given in equation (9a):

Gt ¼A tðGtÞkG 0 # kG # 1 ð9aÞ

where kG(t) is the second order operative manifetstation between the Gt trait and the Vttrait, and where Vt(At) exists as an operative couple with At(Vt) in a cybernetic loop. Werecall, however, that in respect of the modelling process, any feedback processesbetween At and Vt, or between Vt and Gtmay be considered to occur in a different cycleof observation.

There is another consideration that we shall make that requires us toreconsider equation (9). It requires the recognition that Vt both conditions and isconditioned by Gt and At, but it ultimately acts on behalf of the agency in relation tothe social environment. We can recognise this by reformulating equation (9) with areorganisation of equation (9b) as:

Vt ¼A tðGt; kGðtÞÞkA 0 # kAðtÞ # 1 ð9bÞWe can reaffirm that the normative personality is strategically centred, and hence theoperative function of Vt is to strategically position the agency in relation to its social

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environment – as part of this it enables decisions that facilitate social orientation todevelop in a particular way, resulting in social behaviour.

At this point it is useful to recall that the traits t take values tJ and tI that representpersonality types, but they are due to agency preferences. This means that all the k(t)are actually indicators of requisite manifestation. In other words, an agencypreconsciously selects requisite manifestations (that arise from its requisite valuepreferences) such that preferred traits can be engineered and maintained. This saysnothing about how such preferences are created or the nature of the agency immanencethat may be responsible for this preference.

The formal socio-cognitive propositionsIt is assumed that the normative cognition is adequately described by the frequency ofoccurrence values pn(t) of its major population components n ¼ 1, . . . ,N. Componentsn include the various sub-agencies and their strategic resources in the normativepersonality, labelled in some arbitrary way. An occurrence value pn(t) is defined to bethe relative amount of strategic resource of type n that is present in the society at thetime t. This can be quantified as the number of (say) cubic meters of type n divided bythe total number of cubic meters over all categories n ¼ 1, . . . ,N. The pn are then alsoprobabilities, in the sense that if a cubic meter of the plural agency (be it of a person ora strategic resource) is randomly sampled from it, it will of type n with probability pn

(the “law of large numbers”, see Frieden (2001)).Our interest lies in establishing the occurrences pn(t) of the various population

components. However, the time-dependences of the pn(t) result from changes in thelocation coordinates (x,y) of population members, and these changes in position dependupon their mass values. This is qualitatively because mass represents resistance tosuch change, and hence can be regarded as a type of “inertia”. Hence a cubic meter ofsubstance of general type n is assumed to have a known mass value mn. This ignoresindividual variations in mass among the members of type n. In a sense, each isregarded as a featureless “particle”.

Another physical concept is the “potential function”, a function V(x,y,t) of positionand time. This defines the cause of the motion or dynamics of a given system. Forexample, this source might be a spring, in which case the potential is specified as of theform V / x 2. An illustration within a socio-cognitive context would be that cognitiveinformation creates a potential that can be related to some measure of social distance.In any given problem the potential must be known, and it usually has a simple form.

An illustrative application on socio-cognitive dynamicsIn this section we shall develop a general stochastic model of system change dynamicsthat is able to explore the immanent processes of an agency. One illustration provides arepresentation of population growth. A simple application of this is to consider therelationship between ideational and sensate populations. It presupposes that cognitivetype value in an agency is determined by the relative population size of eachenantiomer group, and there is a statistical relationship between any emergentcognitive balance that may occur (and which is represented by K) and the populationsizes of each type represented by tI and tJ . In a dynamically stable agency it is thebalance, where one develops, that becomes the dominant cognitive type. Having saidthis, it may be naıve to consider that domination is a statistical process.

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Ideally, one might envisage that regulative power is allocated to those who uphold thevalues and needs of the dominant cognitive type. The naıve argument is that populationdynamics can also establish the foundation for the dynamics of “political processes”from which regulative power is assigned, especially when population is related to thecapacity to mobilise regulatory power. However, ideal such a proposition might be, theremay be more complex aspects at work than this proposition would support.

First we can note that people who normally achieve consensual regulative power ina given agency do so when they have a personal cognitive disposition (seen by thosewho support a given assignment) that is consistent with the values and attitudes thatdominate in a given agency culture. In other words attitudinal orientation creates apenchant from which traits take their type assignments, thereby satisfying a cognitiveinertia that contributes to the security for assignators. It is also likely to support stablepolitical processes that contribute to agency structural stability.

Second, it may be supposed that a balanced culture is determined statistically by typecognitive components. However, it can also occur when members of an executive class,who manage the political process, hold regulatory power independently of enantiomicpopulation densities. This executive class does not have to be maintained in theirposition by popular support that derives from processes of open meaningful/semanticcommunication. Following Habermas (1987) an agency can be steered through othermeans (like the use of motivating resource or direct or indirect regulatory power) whilesuspending the semantic communication processes. Enforced regulatory imperativescan act as a steering medium in that they encourage sub-agencies to structure theirpotential for behaviour in certain ways subject to a penalty such as structuralviolence[4]. A form of indirect regulatory power can be provided through the creation ofpowerful emotive incentives for sub-agencies to agree. Whether the use of these or othersteering media are able to enable the executive class to maintain their regulatory powerbase for extended periods of time is not a question that will be considered here.

General solution to the problem of population growth and motionLet a given agency consist of n ¼ 1, . . . ,N population components. Our aim is to findthe probabilities, or occurrence rates, pn(t) of the components n ¼ 1, . . . ,N. Note that:

pnðtÞ ; pðnjtÞ; ð10aÞ

where the vertical line means “if”. That is, by definition pn(t) is the probability ofrandomly selecting from the society a population member type n, if the time is t. Thesepn(t) thereby define the dynamical evolution of the society, and our aim is to find them.

This section has the following aims:

(1) to verify that the EPI gives the known, correct answer to this problem, which isthe well-known Lotka-Volterra equations of growth; in doing so;

(2) showing that EPI provides a framework for solving other socio-cognitiveproblems; and

(3) providing a new route to the L-V equations, i.e. showing that it arises out of theSchrodinger wave equation (ordinarily a quantum effect).

We will first work on a more general problem. This is to find the general “motion” andgrowth of each population component n. Hence, we first work with the general

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probability pn(x,t) of the two-dimensional surface “position” x ¼ (x,y) of the nthpopulation type at the time t. This by definition arises out of a generally complexprobability amplitude function cn(x,t), as the amplitude times its complex conjugate:

pnðx; tÞ ¼ cnðx; tÞc*n ðx; tÞ ð10bÞ

By elementary probability theory (Frieden, 2001), this probability relates to the ones wewant, pn(t), as:

pnðtÞ ¼

Zdx pnðxjtÞ ð10cÞ

where:

pnðxjtÞ ¼pnðx; tÞ

pTðtÞ; pTðtÞ ¼ U ð0;TÞ ð10dÞ

Equation (10c) states that the probability of finding the nth population component at atime t is its probability of being “anywhere” over space (x,y) at that time. The firstequation (10d) is by definition of pn(xjt) and the second states the a priori probability ofa time value is uniform U over the total fixed time interval (0,T).

We first establish the dynamics of the pn(x,t), and then use equations (10c) and (10d)to get the dynamics of the desired pn(t).

Agencies are very complex, containing a large numberN of interacting “populations”(in the generalized sense above). Among these interactions, some are strong and someare weak. In order to keep the calculation of the dynamics tractable, “the dynamics areassumed to be defined to a good approximation by only those populations that moststrongly interact”. This “defines a smallest number N of effectively interactingpopulations”. Thus, the derived dynamics will only describe this smallest set ofpopulations. Also, these dynamics are necessarily approximate to the extent that theeffects of other, more minor, contributors have been ignored. It may be noted that the Ninteracting populations measures the degree or scope of the interactions. In particular itmeasures the complexity[5] of interactions rather than their individual “strengths” inany sense. The strengths might perhaps be measured by gradients of the populations.

Let us suppose that the dynamics are driven by N “change coefficients”, denoted asgn and dn, n ¼ 1, . . . ,N. These describe, respectively, growth and depletion as afunction of time t. These change coefficients are assumed to be “known” functions:

gnð p1; . . . ; pN ; tÞ and dnð p1; . . . ; pN ; tÞ ð11aÞ

of the probabilities and of the time. Being a “growth” coefficient, gn is positive, andlikewise the “depletion” dn must be negative:

gn $ 0 and dn # 0: ð11bÞ

As examples of growth dependencies, the growth g4 of population n ¼ 4 could dependupon the level p5 of population 5, as in the case where p4 represents the relative numberof fishermen in a developing society and p5 represents the relative number of fish thatis currently available to them. The more fish the higher the “growth” of fishermen, sothat g4 would grow with p5. The probabilities listed in equation (10d) could dependupon t or, even, upon t at previous or future times, thereby exhibiting “memory” or“anticipation”, a concept discussed by Dubois (2001) and Yolles and Dubois (2001).

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Earlier we commented on the potential function V(x,y,t), and we shall use it here. Apotential permits the observer to input into a theory the cause or source of thedynamical changes that will accrue to the system. Here the changes are due to thepopulation change coefficients (equation (11a)). Hence, a special potential function willbe sought that mirrors their effects. The simplest form of potential that depends uponthese change coefficients is linear in them. Thus, assume that the general nthpopulation component has a “potential for population change” that is of the linear form:

Vnðx; y; tÞ ¼ 221i"ðgn þ dnÞ ð12Þ

where the symbol " denotes Planck’s constant and, i ¼ffiffiffiffiffiffiffi21

p. Thus, the potential is

artificially given units of ", i.e. “physical action”. This is arbitrary, but is done so that thegrowth phenomenon and the dynamics phenomenon can be treated by one unifiedtheory. The indicated proportionality to i in equation (12) is well known to give rise togeneral absorption (including growth) effects, whereby particle number is not preserved.This fulfils our above requirement that coefficients gn and dn correspond to the generalgrowth and death of individuals of the population. The additional proportionality to " inequation (12) indicates that the potential is a very weak one. It is present so as to latercancel from the resulting wave equation for the dynamics, thereby giving rise toclassical, and not quantum, dynamics in the ensuing Lotka-Volterra equation (14) ofgrowth.

Notice that the potential equation (12) allows the ideational “rules” of the society tobe quantitatively entered into the growth theory, in the form of their “effects upon” thegrowth (“Ecological” growth theory has a similar structure, whereby the effects of theenvironment enter the growth equations indirectly as population growth coefficients).

We could also have included in the potential (12) an added term that is “an explicitfunction” of position x,y, say a spring potential going as x 2. This is the usual potentialfunction of the physics of purely particle motion (rather than motion plus growth ashere). However, for simplicity we choose to focus attention on growth effects alone,i.e. ignore motion and positional structure, and, so, ignore the use of such a potentialterm in this analysis.

The question of the size of the information efficiency constant k must now beaddressed. This constant generally differs from one physical effect to another.Experience with EPI shows that, with ideal detection, only quantum effects alwaysincur a value of k ¼ 1. Since a socio-cognitive agency consists of people and resources,which are certainly not purely quantum objects, the appropriate value should then beless than 1. This is consistent with the discussion about the relationship between tIand tJ . Now, in past applications of EPI a value:

k ¼1

2ð13Þ

was found appropriate for describing classical, macroscopic objects. This describes 50percent of the total available information. The implication is that the remaining 50percent of the information describes the purely quantum aspect of the object, which isnot observed under macroscopic observation such as due to the unaided eye. It seemsat first intuitive that socio-cognitive agency, principally composed as they are ofmacroscopic objects, should likewise act purely classically. However, someinvestigators have hypothesized that the human brain operates on the quantum

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level[6][7], so that the human components of such systems might ultimately prove toobey a value of k closer to 1 than to 1/2. Moreover, in situations where agencypathologies occur so that the capability manifestation is not the requisite manifestation,the value for k will tend to reduce, i.e. kcapability , krequisite. For such reasons there is nouniversal value of k in this socio-cognitive application. It is intrinsically variable fromone agency to another. Serendipitously in this regard, the EPI solution we will find below“does not depend strongly upon” the size of k. We note that merely for purposes of ademonstration, it will prove convenient to assume the value in equation (13).

In general, the EPI principle equation (8) is more than a computational tool. It also hasreality, as the reaction of an observed system to a perturbing event. The perturbation isdue either to observation of the system or interaction of the system with other objectsduring the observational time interval. In our particular application the system is asocio-cognitive agency. The perturbation is due either to observation of the system orinteraction of the system with other objects during the observational time interval. In ourparticular application the system is a socio-cognitive system. If the agency is a corporation,a stark example of a perturbing event would be a hostile corporate take-over.

In our EPI application, we simply assume that at a given time t a population memberof type n is randomly sampled for its position. Information of level tI is thereby acquiredabout position. This value of tI is a sensate level of information for the society. It will beseen to mirror the structure of the society insofar as the diversities of its populations andresources. These diversities quantify the complexity of the society and therefore, byimplication, that of its ideational foundations. This is in the same indirect sense thatthe potential for change equation (12) allows the ideational rules of the society to beeffectively entered into the theory. Both allow non-quantitative rules and ideals to bemeasured by their observable effects.

Hence we identify this particular information level with the sensate level of thesociety in equation (6). The system is also perturbed by making the measurement and,as we saw, the EPI equation (8) is activated. What is its solution?

Interestingly, this EPI problem only slightly departs from that in Frieden (2004, Ch. 4)for deriving the wave equations of quantum mechanics. Hence we can be brief here.The derivations (Ibid.) are of the Klein-Gordon equation and the Schroedinger waveequation. These equations describe the dynamics of pure motion (without growth) of aparticle in a field of potential. However, here the problem is slightly broader in scope,encompassing both the motion “and growth” of a system of “particles” (populationmembers). For brevity, we emphasize in this derivation just the departures from thederivation (Frieden, 2004).

As we mentioned, the level of source information tJ remains the same as in Frieden(2004), since the same type of observation is made as indicated there. This is the randomspace and time position x,y,t of a population member of a fixed type n. As discussedearlier, this population member is regarded as a featureless “particle”, specified merelyby its mass mn.

What is new in the theory we have presented here lies in the nature of the informationefficiency constant k. In Frieden (2004) a perfect detector was assumed to be in use, sincethe aim was to describe purely the intrinsic fluctuations of the particle, i.e. those purelydue to quantum effects. By comparison, in this socio-cognitive problem we are allowingk to be any general value. Hence, here tI ¼ ktJ , as compared with tI ¼ tJ . The effectupon the derivation is that tI is here replaced by k times its value; fortunately,

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this operation and the use of the particular potential (12) are the only departures of thisderivation allowing to use well explored resolution techniques.

Repeating that derivation with these departures simply results in a multiplication ofthe squared particle mass m 2 by k. The resulting Klein-Gordon equation (which isequation (4.28) of Frieden (2004)) is then:

2c2" 2 ›2

›x 2þ

›2

›y 2

� �cn þ " 2 ›

›tþ

iVn

"

� �2

cn þ km2nc

4cn ¼ 0: ð14Þ

This is the general answer for population members that are small enough to be affectedby quantum mechanics, and, generally moving at close to relativistic speeds. Thenotion that life on the quantum level, i.e. “nano life”, exists is not just a fiction, however.It has been found that they do exist, in the 50-500 nm range of sizes, and was firstobserved in kidney stones and then in blood (Akerman et al., 1993, 1997; Kajander et al.,1994, 1997; Ciftcioglu et al., 1997a, b). The prediction is that this nano life will obeyequation (13) for the particular potential given by equation (12), an imaginary potential.How such an imaginary potential comes into existence is presently unknown, althoughit could be conferred by a special particle that is not yet known. The speculation is thatsuch a particle confers life upon an otherwise lifeless particle analogous to the way theHiggs particle confers mass upon an otherwise massless boson.

Of course the vast majority of peoples and resources on earth move atnon-relativistic speeds, and are massive enough to not be affected by quantummechanics. Hence, the non-relativistic limit of equation (14) should be taken. This limitis taken in Appendix G of Frieden (2004). The answer is equation (G8) of thatAppendix, with again m 2 replaced by km 2. Finally, taking the limit as the masses mn

become macroscopically large, substituting in the particular potential function (12),and using equations (9b)-(10d), gives the final equation of growth:

dpn

dt¼ ðgn þ dnÞpn; pn ¼ pnðtÞ: ð15Þ

This is a Lotka-Volterra growth law (or a “replicator equation”), once coefficients gn,dnare expressed in terms of the probabilities pn (see below). Planck’s constant " hascancelled out, as it should have since L-V growth is classical. The L-V law iswell-known to describe biological systems (Smith, 1974). Hence, the EPI approachpredicts that sociocultural systems obey L-V growth as well.

Mathematically, equation (15) is a simple, first-order differential equation. Such anequation can often be solved analytically, and is always soluble by numerical finitedifferences. Regardless of the chosen approach to solution, the latter must always obeya condition of normalization: XN

n¼1

pnðtÞ ¼ 1 ¼ const: ð16Þ

This can often be used as a check on a solution.The following is a well known solution to equation (14) that provides insight into a

particular socio-cognitive problem. Suppose that there are effectively only N ¼ 2populations competing. In this scenario it is simplest to express the change coefficientsgn, dn in terms of the usual “fitness” coefficients wn of genetic population theory as:

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gn ¼ wn; dn ¼ 2 , w .¼ 2ðw1p1 þ w2p2Þ; n ¼ 1; 2; wherew1 $ w2: ð17Þ

For simplicity, let w1, w2 be constants.We have arbitrarily chosen population 1 to have the larger of the two change rates.

Here the EPI solution to equation (14) is analytically known, as:

p1ðtÞ ¼p1ð0Þ

p1ð0Þ þ p2ð0Þexp½2ðw1 2 w2Þt�;

p2ðtÞ ¼p2ð0Þ

p2ð0Þ þ p1ð0Þexp½þðw1 2 w2Þt�:

ð18Þ

As a check, notice that the left and right sides of both equations balance at t ¼ 0, afternormalization equation (17) is used. Note that equation (18) is a unique solution. Hence,the minimum that is achieved by the difference tI 2 tJ ¼ K is here the absoluteminimum as well, K ¼ K. However, this does not define an alliance minimum but,rather, a domination-type minimum.

A case illustration: the failure of SaudinzationAgency normal and post-normal conditionsIn normal conditions, knowing an agency orientation (through its stable typeorientation) provides the likelihood of predicting its behavioural responses to itsenvironmental events. Empirical means can be used to estimate the type orientationthat an agency has, and then to determine its capability manifestations. It should alsobe possible to determine whether the agency has any pathology that might misdirectits purposes, by calculating its requisite manifestations from its agency orientationtypes. Given an appreciation of how patterns of pathology can lead to dysfunction, amanifestation distinction can lead to an appreciation of likely agency dysfunction. Thiscan also provide indication of likely behavioural inconsistency since it cannot beknown how capability manifestation will change in pathological agencies unless thederivation of the pathologies can be determined.

In post-normal conditions created by changing environmental events that triggercritical conditions in a personality, tensions arise leading to more volatile immanentdynamics. This results in a reduced likelihood of estimating an agency’s behaviouralresponse, even where it is devoid of pathologies. Under these conditions, then, the need isto be able to explore agency immanent dynamics to be better able to predict its responsesto given situations. Where there is a situation in which the personality is driven awayfrom the normal to the post-normal, there is a need to examine the enantiomer dynamicsby way of estimating agency type orientation. These enantiomer dynamics aredetermined by the population size of each sub-agency, its access to strategic resources,and its capacity to weald the agency’s strategic regulative power.

The changing situationConsider the following situation that drives an agency personality from a normal to apost-normal mode of being. In Saudi Arabia there are a number of Western companieswho were invited into service the processing of its environmental resource base. Innormal mode these companies operate autonomously from their environment, bringingsenior managerial staff in from the West, and locally hiring low level principally

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non-managerial staff. As a result, on the one hand local nationals have found nopotential for managerial experience, and on the other there was little economicenrichment locally since most financial returns to the agencies have found their wayabroad. The expected “trickle down” effect to the ambient populations has not provedto have worked.

The notion of Saudinization is a policy that the Saudi;s introduced to encourage Westernagencies to become more embedded in Saudi culture, thus enriching its educational andmanagerial potential. However, apparently due at least to outdated stereotypical viewsabout Saudi employees (Al-Bugami, 2004), this policy seems to have failed.

As a result, Western corporate operative orientations have failed to meet the expecteddevelopment needs of the country, and Saudi authorities are losing confidence in theagencies. Consider now the hypothetical situation where the Saudi authorities seek atough post-Saudinization policy. The agencies that do not have a 10 percent proportionof local employees in middle and more senior managerial roles will have a 20 percentincrease in the burdens of tax to the Saudi authorities to be imposed within 3 years of theintroduction of the policy. This policy shifts the agencies from normal to a post-normalmode of being.

Exploring solutionsAn agency has a normative personality and a type orientation that arises from threenormative personality traits and a social and a cultural orientation trait. At the agencylevel all three traits are connected with self-regulation of information, but in thenormative personality level where we are able to distinguish between types ofinformation the traits undertake finer forms of control, a situation we shall explain now.The personality metasystem is connected with attitudes/emotive impulses andconceptual information, and the integrative trait ðGtÞ is connected with self-reference.The personality figurative system is connected with decision imperatives and schemasand the appreciativeness trait ðAtÞ is connected with self-regulation. The personalityoperative system is connected with the potential for action and behaviouralconditioning, and the viability trait ðVtÞ is connected with self-organisation.

The social orientation ðStÞ of the personality may take values that orientate ittowards immediate action ðStI Þ or towards deliberated action after observation ðStJ Þ,and both affect the way that the agency presents itself to its environment. Given that anenvironmental change develops, the agency must either respond immediately, or centreon observation before action. Given an environmental situation that creates newimperatives for an agency, any psychological examination of its normative personalitythat tries to examine its internal processes and predict its potential decision makingbehaviour requires a full analysis of all trait levels of personality traits. We recall thatwhile the social orientation is affected by the viability trait, the viability trait is alsocontingent on the other two. Together, the social orientation ðStÞ and cultural orientationðCtÞ traits operate in a personality environment that is sensitive to changing externalcontexts for the agency. The requisite manifestation of the information processes thatconnect the traits in the normative personality is determined through a complex internalagency processes, and at each personality trait level it operates through two sets of type(yin-yang) forces, i.e. GtðGtJ ;G tI Þ;A tðAtJ ;A tI Þ and VtðVtJ ;V tI Þ.

A full analysis as might be suggested here would be too deep for this illustrativeexample, especially since it is being constructed to simply provide some indication

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of the analytical process. As such we shall restrict ourselves to a relatively superficialanalysis that considers principally the viability trait Vt and its immanent dynamicsbetween its type (yin-yang) forces ðVtJ ;V tI Þ.

So, the traits are dynamically interactive and are responsible for immanent agencychange. During this process trait types may find ascendancy one over the other, or theymay join in a balancing alliance. This applies to the relationship between VtI and VtJas it does to all the other traits. This notion of trait dynamics will be used, not to reachdefinite conclusions about how an agency will change, but to show how real events canfit within the formal framework that we are providing.

An agency viability trait is operative in that decisions are made that affect itsbehaviour in its environment. The decisions that occur are affected by the trait values(of type) that it takes. It may do so through autonomy ðVtI Þwhen the agency might reactunder its own cognition to the lessons drawn from (or opportunities offered by) its localenvironmental impulses. It might also do so through “embeddedness” ðVtJ Þwhich arisesfrom the notion of complementarity (Parker Grant, 2006). At its extreme embeddednessis seen as the blurring of agency boundaries (Smith, 2003) to the extent by which theremay be a loss of perceived accountability or even the public perception of identity. Thatwe are referring to a public perception of autonomy does not mean that the agency losesits status of autonomy which is required in this modelling process.

Let us now suppose that the agency responds to the Saudi authoritypost-Saudinization position through social action ðStÞ. It does not matter at thisstage whether it prefers to adopt a trait orientation that is longer term observation ðStJ Þor a shorter term action ðStI Þ directed. In either case it has two optional strategies. Oneis to acquiesce and become more embedded ðVtJ Þ giving opportunity access tomembers of the the local culture, and the other is to maintain its autonomy ðVtI Þ andseek alternative measures that may reduce the potential taxation burden. One suchalternative measure is the use of bribery and corruption. The possibility is that in thelonger term this option would aggravate the situation, encouraging the Saudiauthorities to find tougher means still that do not interfere and might even allow themaintenance the bribery and corruption route taken by the agency. A result of thismight be that in the longer term the more ideational Saudi faction will begin to see theagencies more as a colonial foe that requires reigning-in, while the more sensate factionwill see it as a cash cow.

As a result of the environmental change, immanent agency conflicts arise, agencyorientation stability is endangered, and each of the sub-agency types move to maketheir arguments felt. One would likely support an attempt towards post-Sudinizationbecause of its orientation towards embeddedness ðVtJ Þ, while the other wishes tomaintain agency autonomy ðVtI Þ through whatever means possible. This positioningis dependent to some extent on the appreciativeness that exists with the agency. Thistrait takes either the enatiomer values of harmony ðAtJ Þ or achievement ðAtJ Þ (or somebalance between them). Thus, perhaps there might be a connection between harmonyand embeddedness, but indeed achievement can also be related to emdeddednesswithin the context provided. Harmony and achievement appear to be types that relatedirectly to ideology and ethics because of their figurative nature within our modellingprocess, so how might these connect with the potential of creating proposals forbribery or corruption? Might these be seen in terms of the development of agencypathologies as the proposals are manifested through non-requisite manifestation from

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the appreciative trait to the viability trait, or might it be that the use of payoffs are notconsidered to be amoral pathologies in a Saudi political environment, but simplynormal practices of reciprocal generosity? In addition viability trait positioning willalso be dependent upon integrativity with its types of subordination to hierarchy ðGtJ Þor liberation away from regulatory power and bureaucracy ðGtI Þ. So, might liberationsupport autonomy, or might it be that subordination to the hierarchy being imposed bythe new Saudi regime dominate? Ultimately such questions relate to agency attitudesand emotive impulses that occur at a deep level of psychological analysis, and hence adeeper examination would be needed than is possible here to examine theseconnections. Each type plays its own role in creating arguments that can affect theaction orientation, and they each depend upon the positioning of the traits and thenature of the cognitive processes of the sub-agencies that support them. Appropriatearguments can be constructed by the sub-agencies at each trait level to support theirpositions, but these will be forged within the context of the cultural and socialenvironments of the agency. To create from this a proper study, there would be a needto create independent but cybernetically connected arguments for each of the traitsðGtðGtI ;G tJ Þ; AtðGtI ;A tJ Þ; VtðVtI ;V tJ Þ; StðStI ;S tJ Þ; CtðCtI ;C tJ ÞÞ, likely with supportfrom manifestation values. For an agency insider inquirer to formulate such ananalysis is difficult enough, but for an outsider the agency must clearly be a patent one.

For now we shall explain the hypothetical situation simply with respect to theviability trait recognising that it is contingent on the other two personality traits. Theability of the agency to establish a stable strategic option in the environment indicatedcould only be attained if the composition of its population is drawing towardsembeddedness. This is dependent on its internal cognitive dynamics. Stability is notpossible when the information difference K ¼V tI 2V tJ is not yet at its absoluteminimum value (i.e. K – K ¼ minðabsKÞ). As time progresses both informationlevels VtI and VtJ decrease, meaning, the complexities of both the autonomy andembeddedness for strategic behaviours tend to decrease. This may occur graduallythrough the process of structural changes, since structure constrains and facilitatescertain types of behaviour, or morphogenically through emergence that occurs (forinstance) either when one culture suddenly dominates, or when autonomy andembeddedness cultures establish themselves into a new balance through a “jointalliance” that enables the formation of a new frame of reference that simplifies the waythey are both seen. This joint alliance outcome might involve maintaining autonomywhile meeting the Saudi proportion rule to avoid tax penalties.

The growth equations (14) were shown to hold for populations of people (andstrategic resources). Hence, they may well describe what happened to the populationsin the environment. Can we also use the solutions (17), (18) to (14)? These requireconstant growth coefficients w1 and w2. The introduction of post-Sudinization was sorapid that the growth coefficients might well have been approximately constant overthat time interval. Also, the growth coefficient w1 undoubtedly exceeded w2, andpossibly much exceeded it, so that even if initially the two populations (relaying to VtJand VtI ) were equal, it would not take long before the embeddedness supporters muchoutnumbered the autonomy supporters. For example, if w1 2 w2 were 0.1 (10 percentgrowth advantage per year for embeddedness), by equation (16) it would only taket ¼ 10 yrs for the embeddedness supporters to achieve a population advantage of 2.72(as a convenient number) times that of the autonomy supporters.

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We discussed before using the information alliance difference K(t) as an indicator ofimpending danger for a system. In this problem there is a unique solution equation (17)so that jK(t)j ¼ K(t), the minimized alliance difference. Also, if by equation (12)k ¼ 1/2, we have VtI ¼ ð1=2ÞVtJ , so that K ¼V tI 2V tJ ¼V tI 2 2VtI ¼ 2VtI , andconsequently the absolute value jK 0j ¼ jVtI j ¼V tI since VtI is positive, and this iseven if k – 1/2 information jKj will be proportional to VtI . We show the evolution ofinformation VtI ðtÞ or jK(t)j over time.

Conclusion and commentaryTraits are independent variables, assumed to separately and independently characterizepersonality with some predictive value for patterns of behaviour of individuals, andwhich can be measured along scales. Types can be characterized through traits whichare assumed to have a specific level score or value, A viable personality system consistsof at least three types of elements, which constitute different sets of information:domains that can be expressed in terms of unconscious, subconscious and consciousknowledge; processes which are constituted as information flows between domainsthat contribute towards self-reference, self-regulation, self-organization; and traits,which regulate information flows of processes, and which through preferences that arecontrolled by requisite efficacies, determine personality types. Socio-cognitive processesexplain how the traits and other attributes work together.

Networks of processes consist of information flows between domains. Traits areregulators of the processes, i.e. determine their importance in case of conflict betweendifferent classes of information, and operate as a response to personality preferencesfor specific types of information orientation.

Immanent trait dynamics operate epistemically and are constrained to developwithin any domain, affecting the states that a trait assumes. The value that a trait settlesto is determined by a conflict between two opposing stable forces, and the dominantforce determines the value that emerges. The origin of this comes from trait orientationsthat can be reflected through forward and backward loops, so that the type values thatarise are either figuratively or operatively oriented. Thus, for instance in the viabilitytrait there is either “embeddedness” or “autonomy” dominate. However, under certainconditions an “ideal” balance can occur between the two forces. When pathologiesdevelop in the personality, manifestation (which in part determines the relationshipbetween the types) could be blocked for a given trait either individually (for afeed-forward or feedback) or simultaneously (for feed-forward and feedback).

We have been interested in agencies that in normal homeostatic equilibrium mode areable to maintain a stable agency orientation, thus providing access to the possibility ofbehavioural prediction. However, such agencies also possess an immanent dynamicsthrough which personality change may occur under sufficient stimulus. Environmentalexigencies may become an imperative for a reformulation of the immanence resulting ina post-normal mode of agency orientation as defined by its traits. This leads to a newbalance between type interaction shifts in each trait and the possibility of change inagency orientation. Such situations do not usually provide access to the possibility ofbehavioural prediction. The need then, has been to find a way to explore the immanentagency dynamics towards an identification of a new stable orientation, and hence thelikelihood of behavioural predication. This has been approached using informationtheory.

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Within the personality the viability trait is contingent on the other two personalitytraits, and any immanent dynamic that evolves in respect of the personality able togenerate strategic decisions centres on the viability trait. The recognition that normativepersonality traits are influenced by an agency’s cultural orientation provides access tothe development of theory that argues that for trait immanence. In other words,collective agency traits change over time through their internal dynamics in a way thatis not normally perceived for the individual agency. To observe that this may occur inindividual agencies, one would need to examine changes in the cultural traits thatconstitute their environment. Another attribute of trait theory for the normativepersonality is that agencies may find that the traits take balanced values that typifythem. This is not a usually represented feature of individual personality theory, and thedistinction likely arises because of the extreme durability potential that a collectiveagency has beyond that of the individual.

We have applied Frieden’s information theory to the socio-cognitive situation andthis has resulted in a clear illustration of the immanent processes at work in relation tothe development of agency type orientations. We initially argued that personality traitvalues are influenced by attitudes which are tied to culture, and referred to earlier workthat shows that cultures shift between type (ideational and sensate) values itself. It is thisimmanent dynamic that the agency maintains over its durable existence that shifts, inone way or another, the trait values that the normative personality settles to. Inparticular we have shown that it is possible, given personality measures for the traits, tomake predictions about personality outcomes – that is in respect of decisions that apersonality is likely to make. Even though predictions are possible, the issue ofmeasuring pathologies is still not completely resolved.

Notes

1. The case of the migrant individual may be different from that of the non-migrant. Is wouldappear to be the case that cross cultural migrants experience personality changes where thecultures to which they shift take on distinct orientations (Rosenberg, 1990). Similaly, socialrevolutions also create culture shifts, which likely affects the personality orientations ofindividuals.

2. Wollheim (1999) defined cognitive state in terms of impulses, perceptions and instincts,imaginings, and cognitive dispositional drives in terms of beliefs, knowledge, memories,abilities, phobias and obsessions. Mental disposition consists of beliefs, knowledge, memories,abilities, phobias and obsessions, and has duration and history. Both mental states anddispositions are causally related, mental state being able to instantiate, terminate, reinforceand attenuate mental disposition. Mental dispositions can also facilitate mental states.

3. The dictionary definition of the word consummate is unqualified, perfect or complete. Wetherefore use the word inconsummate as its constructivist opposite, to mean that theperception by the creative observer of noumena is qualified so that phenomena are perceivedpartially or incompletely, and in some circumstances even “imperfectly”.

4. By structural violence we mean the constraints imposed by ones social structure, a conceptoriginally proposed by Galtung (1972). This operates by limiting the development of thepotential of an individual by not enabling access to the necessary resources throughprejudicial or biased social structures.

5. While we can talk of the number N indicating the complexity of a situation, we should notethat according to Yolles (1999) at least five types of complexity can be identified. These are:(1) computational complexity is defined in terms of the (large) number of interactive parts;

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(2) technical complexity (also referred to as cybernetic complexity) occurs when a situationhas a “tangle” of control processes that are difficult to discern because they are numerousand highly interactive. It also involves the notion of future and thus predictability, andtechnically complex situations have limited predictability; (3) organisational complexity isdefined by the rules that guide the interactions between a set of identifiable parts, orspecifying the attributes; (4) personal complexity is defined by the subjective view of asituation; and (5) emotional complexity occurs with a “tangle” of emotional vectors areprojected into a situation by its participants (and can be seen as emotional involvement).

6. At least one argument for the mind having a quantum dimension centres on the nature ofconsciousness, seen as a universal field with local manifestations (Nunn, 1994). This ideaderives from the notion that the brain consists of vibrating molecules (dipoles) in nerve cellmembranes that centre on microtubules, an important part of the structure of every cellincluding nerve cells. Nunn notes Hamerhoff’s (1994) perception that single-cell organismslike paramecium can have behaviours normally thought to need a brain, suggesting thattheir “brain” is in their microtubules. Shape changes in the constituent proteins couldsubserve computational functions and would involve quantum phenomena.

7. We emphasize that the monotonic behaviour is only in the stated case of a Fokker-Planck(diffusion) process. A counter-example is a quantum process, which can instead be periodicin time. Note also that the monotonic behaviour in the F-P case requires the correctevaluation of I at each time t. In particular a point at which the slope of the PDF is infinitemust be included within the domain of integration (or summation) if and only if the point isphysically attainable. For example, each position in a system undergoing diffusion is soattainable, and so is included within the integral; a counterexample is provided by the kineticenergy E-values of a system. These cannot go negative, so that the points E ¼ 0 or less areavoided in the integration.

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Further reading

Bandura, A. (1986), Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory,Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

Yolles, M.I. (1998), “Changing paradigms in operational research”, Cybernetics and Systems,Vol. 29 No. 2, pp. 91-112, available at: http://ssrn.com/author¼1211894

Yolles, M.I. (2007), “From sociohistory to psychohistory”, Kybernetes, Vol. 36 Nos 3/4, pp. 378-405,invited paper for special issue on management.

About the authorsMaurice Yolles is an Emeritus Professor in Management Systems at Liverpool John MooresUniversity. His doctorate, completed about three decades ago, was in mathematical social theory,in particular the formal dynamics of peace and conflict. Since then he has published two researchbooks in the field of management systems/cybernetics (with a third in process), and well over 200academic papers some of which he has received awards for. He was research director for theInternational Society for Systems Science for a number of years, and he now heads the Centre forthe Creation of Coherent Change and Knowledge, which runs courses and does research intotransformational change. Within this context he has also been involved in a number ofinternational research and development projects for the EU and in Asia. He is the Editorof Journal of Organisational Transformation and Social Change. Maurice Yolles is thecorresponding author and can be contacted at: prof.m.yolles@gmail.com

Professor Gerhard Fink is retired Jean Monnet Professor. During 2002-2009 he was Director ofthe doctoral programs at WU (Vienna University of Economics and Business), Austria. He wasthe Director of the Research Institute for European Affairs during 1997-2003. He can refer toabout 220 publications in learned journals and authored or (co-) edited about 15 books, in 2005 hewas a Guest Editor of the Academy of Management Executive. Since 2007, he has been AssociateEditor of the European Journal of International Management. His research interests are inorganisational change and business strategies in the European market(s), international business,and intercultural management. In 2009 he received an award (with Yolles) from Emerald for ahighly commended paper on personality theory.

B. Roy Frieden is a Professor Emeritus of Optical Sciences at the University of Arizona.He received his PhD from the University of Rochester, New York. He is known as the father oflaser-beam shaping techniques, which is extensively used nowadays in microlithography,stray-light suppression, and nuclear fusion-based energy research. He also invented the use ofthe digital maximum entropy principle for purposes of restoring images, and published the firstdigitally restored picture of a planetary moon (Ganymede) other than our own. This showed,contrary to expectations, that such moons are largely composed of huge, ice-encrusted craters.Over the past 15 years or so he has been demonstrating that a variational principle, that ofEPI, is at the root of all known laws of physics. This has resulted in over 20 publicationsin journals such as Physical Review and Physics Letters, and in two books, Physics fromFisher Information (1998) and Science from Fisher Information (2004), both published byCambridge University Press.

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