Recent trends in computer applications in archaeology

Journal of Archaeological Research, VoL 6, No. 4, 1998

Recent Trends Archaeology

Julian D. Richards 1

in Computer Applications in

Publications of computer applications in archaeology are reviewed for the period between 1990 and 1996 inclusive. The influence of technological developments on research effort is noted, and particular areas of growth are described. One of the major trends during the review period has been the increase in use of geographical information systems (GIS), but these have still to fulfill their potential The increased uses of computers for education, communication, and electronic publication are also regarded as important growth areas.

KEY WORDS: computer applications; trends.

INTRODUCTION

This paper reviews recent trends in computer applications in archaeology. Despite continued interest in the links between archaeological theory and archaeological computing (e.g., Lock, 1995), current trends have been as much technology-driven as theory-led. It makes sense, therefore, to structure this overview according to classes of software applications rather than archaeological questions. This approach is inevitable but regrettable, as it maintains the idea that the means are more interesting than the end. It is suggested that only when the choice of tool is seen as incidental will archaeological computing have come of age (see Moffett, 1991). This approach also reflects the fact that although archaeologists have been quick to apply the latest technology, in most cases the technological driving force has been outside the discipline. This paper is therefore structured not by

1Department of Archaeology, University of York, King's Manor, York YO1 7EP, UK.

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1059-0161198/1200-0331515.00/0 �9 1998 Plenum Publishing Corporation

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archaeological questions, but by software groups such as databases, geographical information systems (GIS), visualization, artificial intelligence, and so on.

The chronological scope of the survey has been limited to literature appearing with a publication date of 1990 or later. This is inevitably a some- what artificial division as some trends can be seen to develop either side of 1990. Nevertheless, the preceding decade has been covered in earlier reviews by Wilcock (1989), Reilly and Rahtz (1992), and Booth (1995b), and in bibliographies by Ryan (1988), Djindjian (1990), and Arroyo-Bishop and Lantada Zarzosa (1990).

The survey is designed to be international in scope, although work in this area is inevitably dominated by archaeologists of the developed world for whom the technology is more readily accessible. There is also an explicit and unavoidable European bias in both coverage and perspective. Papers within the increasingly international annual proceedings of the Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology Conference (CAA) comprise a major component of the bibliography (Andresen et al., 1993; Huggett and Ryan, 1995; Kamermans and Fennema, 1996; Lock and Mof- fett, 1992; Lockyear and Rahtz, 1991; Wilcock and Lockyear, 1995). During the 1990s CAA has grown from a small club of British scholars to a unique international meeting and has itself been subjected to a number of retro- spective examinations (Moffett, 1992a; Reilly, 1995a, b). Although the United Kingdom's Archaeological Computing Newsletter also has attracted a number of overseas contributions, two American newsletters, the News- letter for Computer Archaeology and Advances in Archaeological Computing, are sadly both defunct. Other European countries also have developed specialist journals. The Italian journal Archeologia e Calcolatori started publication from Rome in 1990; in France there is the journal Archdologues et ordinateurs; in Germany there is Archtiologische Informationen; and in Den- mark, the University of/~rhus produces the KARK newsletter. Many sub- stantive contributions in these journals have been included in the bibliography but coverage outside Europe is admittedly more patchy. Japan is a notable omission, apart from work published in the west. For GIS a recent bibliography (Petrie et al., 1995) has proven an invaluable source of Australian material. Papers in a small number of edited works, also pre- dominantly conference proceedings (Allen et al., 1990; Higgins et al., 1996; Johnson, 1994; Larsen, 1992; Lock and Stan~i~, 1995; Maschner, 1996; Reilly and Rahtz, 1992; Ross et al., 1991), make up a significant proportion of the remainder of the bibliography.

Finally, in keeping with the editorial policy of this journal, the literature review has been restricted largely to paper publications and has not extended to soft-copy, principally web-based resources. These often are

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ephemeral and of uncertain longevity. Nevertheless, with the introduction of electronic publication (see below), a small but growing number of contributions to scholarship will never appear in traditional print. A number of papers on innovations in computer applications in archaeology published in the first and second issues of Internet Archaeology (http://intarch.ac.uk/) have been included in this survey on the basis that the editorial policy of that publication is to become a journal of permanent record.

DATABASE DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT

Historically, archaeological computing developed, mainly in western Europe and North America, from statistical approaches of the late 1950s and early 1960s. This form of inquiry still has a significant following (e.g., Koetje, 1992; Sinclair and Troy, 1992; and papers in Voorrips and Ottaway, 1990), although postprocessual criticisms of scientific testing and hypotheti- eodeductive reasoning have led some to question the relevance of classical statistics, such as the use of significance testing and multivariate analysis.

During the 1980s, however, publications on computer applications came to be dominated by discussions of database design (e.g., Burnard, 1991; Guimier-Sorbets, 1990; Smith, 1991). In the 1990s, as home-grown products gave way to commercial database management systems (DBMS), the use of a database for its own sake was no longer seen as particularly novel. Archaeological interest now focuses on how the structure of archaeological excavation data can be successfully modelled in a relational database, on the possibilities of object-oriented design, and on the creation of databases founded upon archaeological entities (Andresen and Madsen, 1992, 1996a, b; Barroca, 1990; Cheetham and Haigh, 1992; Hadzilacos and Stoumbou, 1996; Hinge, 1994; Pavlt~, 1996; Ryan, 1992). A relational database reflects and defines the relationships between the archaeological entities recorded in the structure of its tables. Thus an individual grave recorded in a "graves" table, for example, may contain several artifacts recorded in a "grave-goods" table, linked to graves by a unique burial reference number. An object-oriented analysis extends this approach by emphasizing that objects (in the broadest sense) participate in events, and so have to be defined not just in terms of what they are, but what they do. It extends the computer programming concept of defining variable types (integers, alphanumerics, etc.) by allowing the designer to define archaeological variable types that reflect the behavior of reality.

Feder (1993) and Rold (1993) each discuss an object-oriented approach in the context of museums database management systems. For Rold, artifacts in museum collections have participated in past events within a

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universe of discourse. A data model that adequately describes them within an object-oriented approach must therefore also record these events. More recent papers also have begun to consider how archaeological entities should be structured within GIS databases (e.g., Arroyo-Bishop and Lan- tada Zarzosa, 1995; Chartrand and Miller, 1994; Ruggles, 1992). Although inventories of archaeological sites and monuments have traditionally been implemented in simple flat-file databases, the advent of GIS has forced archaeologists to accept that this is an inadequate representation of archaeological landscapes and that a site is an artificial concept in a landscape containing field systems, sacred zones, and boundaries in which a site is simply a focus of human activity. GIS data models have to incorporate not just points, but also arcs and polygons.

Excavation databases of the 1990s have moved away from a simple textual record towards the integration or linkage of CAD (computer-aided design) plan data with finds and context data. Rains (1995) describes an integrated archaeological database used by the Scottish Urban Archaeologi- cal Trust; the database is one of the most complete working examples of a computerized archaeological database that integrates basic finds and context records, digitized single context plans, photographs, and matrix information. Semeraro (1993) describes a system in use in southern Italy that similarly integrates plan information with data on context and finds. Beex (1995) discusses CAD/database linkages on a number of large fieldwork projects in The Netherlands. Main et al. (1995) have explored the use of AutoCAD for the graphical modelling of finds and features at a prehistoric site at Runnymede, Berkshire. Dallas et aL (1995) have integrated Auto- CAD and dBase IV in the SLIMPAC system to record the standing building at Brodsworth Hall. These approaches lack the full analytical potential of true GIS, but by linking spatial and attribute information they permit the instantaneous generation of countless distribution maps and lead to a better understanding of the distribution of archaeological material over space.

A number of projects have continued to focus on the generation of stratigraphic or "Harris" matrices on the computer (Boast and Chapman, 1991; Desachy and Djindjian, 1991; Herzog, 1993, 1995; Herzog and Seol- lar, 1991; Madsen, 1990; Maggiolo-Schettini et al., 1995). The most imagi- native of these (e.g., Alvey, 1990) have sought to include a graphical record of contexts in plan outline, in some cases (e.g., Ryan, 1995) using the matrix as an index to the excavation database. The projects by Agresti et aL (1996), Rains (1995), and Ryan (1995) each establish an excavation archive that can be viewed as a hyperdocument, that is, a mixture of images and text that contains internal links allowing readers to follow many individual paths through the report, rather than forcing them to start at the beginning and


read through in a single linear direction until they reach the end. If such documents can be made publicly accessible, over the Internet, for example, then they begin to blur the distinction between archive and publication (see Communication below). Powlesland's (1991) Heslerton excavation provides one of the best examples of an integrated computerized field project in which both plan and basic finds and context data are recorded in the field using hand-held computers, manipulated using GIS mapping tools, and then output in a form for electronic publication.

A large proportion of the literature in the first half of the 1990s has been concerned with the establishment of databases of archaeological sites and monuments at regional and national levels for cultural resource management purposes. Much of this work has been conducted under the aus- pices of the various national statutory agencies. In the United States the National Park Service's National Archaeological Data Base (NADB) holds inventories of over 120,000 archaeological investigations and is also significant for its internet access (http://www.cast.uark.edu/other/nps/nadb/). Al- though the computing aspects are relatively straightforward, such projects raise important questions about standards, the compatibility of systems across national and regional boundaries (Wilcoek, 1992), data validation, the value of such indices for research purposes, and the recording of metadata ("data about data"). The papers in Larsen (1992) provide a valuable statement of progress toward national archaeological records among European nations, including Denmark (Christoffersen, 1992; Hansen, 1992), Norway (Mikkelsen and Larsen, 1992; also see Holmen and Uleberg, 1996), Poland (Jaskanis, 1992; Prinke, 1992), Germany (Scollar, 1992; also see Stock, 1994), The Netherlands (Roorda and Wiemer, 1992), France (Arroyo-Bishop and Lantada Zarzosa, 1992; Guillot, 1992; also see Guillot and Leroy, 1995), England (Aberg and Leech, 1992; Lang, 1992; Startin, 1992; also see Lang, 1995; Beagrie, 1996; Bell and King, 1996; Clubb, 1995; Clubb and Lang, 1996; Clubb and Startin, 1995), Scotland (Murray, 1992; also see Byrne, 1993; Murray, 1995), and Ireland (Moore, 1992); Canouts (1992) presents a view from the United States.

At a wider international level a number of papers in Reilly and Rahtz (1992) contain perspectives from eastern and southern Africa (Karega- Munene, 1992; Sinclair et al., 1992), Japan (Oikawa, 1992), Poland (Mar- ciniak and Ra~zkowski, 1992), Hungary (Suhajda, 1992; also see Suhajda, 1995), and the former USSR (Trifonov and Dolukhanov, 1992). Also of interest are reports on developments in Spain (Fern~ndez-Martinez and Fern~indez-L6pez, 1990), Italy (Garlandini and Medici, 1996; Guermandi, 1996), Greece (Bekiari et al., 1996; Zarifis, 1996), Israel (Cohen, 1996), Jordan (Palumbo, 1993), Romania (Mihailescu-B~rliba and Chirica, 1996; Oberl/inder-Tarnoveanu, 1996), and China (Guo, 1992).

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GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Of the nine countries represented in Larsen (1992), seven mention GIS but a minority were then actually at the stage of building one; in another 5 years it is likely that this picture will have been transformed. Geo- graphical information systems (GIS) have been the single largest growth area of computer applications in archaeology during the 1990s.

The early development of GIS in North American archaeology is described by Savage (1990a), although at this stage they were little used in Europe. The papers in the volume edited by Allen et al. (1990) reflect the heavy imbalance in early applications in favor of the United States; only one paper (Harris and Lock, 1990) looked at the situation in Europe. Since 1990 there has been a steady increase in publications describing the use of GIS in European archaeology. In the 1990 CAA proceedings (Lockyear and Rahtz, 1991), one paper (Lock and Harris, 1991) discussed the potential for analyzing spatial information within the United Kingdom using GIS; a second (Arroyo-Bishop, 1991) mentioned their possible future use in France. By 1991, 8 of the 30 published CAA papers (Lock and Moffett, 1992) were GIS oriented. An influential GIS analysis of the island of Hvar was published in the same year (Gaffney and Stani, 1991). This volume was an important illustration of the analytical potential of GIS, particularly in ways in which they had not been applied in North America, and awak- ened many European archaeologists to the potential of GIS. Over sub- sequent years GIS gained bandwagon popularity and came to dominate the proceedings of the annual CAA conferences. In the 1992 proceedings (Andresen et al., 1993) there were 11 GIS papers; in the 1993 proceedings (Wilcoek and Lockyear, 1995) there were 4 GIS papers; and in the 1994 proceedings (Huggett and Ryan, 1995), a further seven papers. The 1995 Leiden CAA proceedings (Kamermans and Fennema, 1996) reached a peak, with eighteen papers concerned with GIS. Outside the computer applications fraternity, however, there was as yet little coverage of GIS applications. An issue of Worm Archaeology dedicated to analytical survey contained two explicitly GIS papers (Brandt et al., 1992; Hunt, 1992) and a third (Cox, 1992) that discussed the use of Landsat images within wetland archaeology.

In 1993 a European conference on GIS in archaeology was held in RaveUo. The volume that developed from the conference (Lock and Stani, 1995) provides an explicitly European response to Allen et al. (1990). A number of the authors refer to the differences between GIS applications in Europe and North America (Harris and Lock, 1995; Kvamme, 1995; van Leusen, 1995). Whereas in the United States there is an emphasis on technology and large-scale data integration and administration, in Europe there


is more concern with the relationships between sites and territories. There- fore most GIS applications in North America have been in the context of heritage management, either in monitoring known sites or trying to identify the location of new ones. In Europe there has been a tendency to explicitly link GIS with archaeological theory and to employ the tool within an ex- planatory framework, such as site catchment or viewshed analysis.

Site predictive techniques have been widely applied within North American archaeology (e.g., Kvamme, 1990, 1992; Peterman, 1992). Mod- ern GIS are eminently capable of combining and manipulating the multiple variables necessary to generate so-called "red flag models," which try to predict the likely locations of archaeological sites (Altschul, 1990; Car- michael, 1990; Hasenstab and Resnick, 1990; Marozas and Zack, 1990; Warren, 1990a, b; Zubrow, 1990). The complexity of modern computer- based models far exceeds the earlier manual techniques:

The importance of predictive models of archaeological location to the growth of GIS in North American archaeology cannot be overemphasized. (Kvamme, 1995, p. 3)

Nevertheless, with rare exceptions (e.g., Brandt et al., 1992; van Leusen, 1993; Wheatley, 1996a), predictive modeling has not been widely taken up within Europe, even 5 years later (Lock and Stani, 1995). This difference may reflect the environmentally deterministic nature of so many models (Wheatley, 1993; Gaffney and van Leusen, 1995), it being argued that it is far easier to map environmental variables and to take the environment as a given, rather than to treat it as a culturally perceived world, dependent on the cognition of members of past societies. A predictive model will fre- quently combine information from soils, climate, availability of water, and terrain, all variables that can easily be measured today, but it is more dif- ficult to incorporate information about liminal space or areas haunted by ancestor spirits.

Because of the greater density of known archaeological sites in Europe, both horizontally and vertically, there is greater emphasis on social, political, and economic interactions, and upon the human perception of the landscape. Therefore European writers have been less concerned with predictive site modelling and more influenced by thiessen polygons, cost surfaces and viewshed analysis (e.g., Boaz and Uleberg, 1995; Ruggles and Medckyj-Scott, 1996; Ruggles et al., 1993). Viewshed analysis offers one means of "getting inside the heads" of past populations by investigating the visibility of archaeological sites on the assumption that many prehistoric ritual monuments may have been located in order to be intervisible. Wheatley (1995) presents cumulative viewshed analysis as applied to the Avebury region and Salisbury Plain in England. Gaffney et al. (1995a, b)

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conduct a cognitive analysis of the location of rock art in Kilmartin Glen (Scotland). Smith (1995) studies a Greek conception of the landscape by providing a spatial index to the ancient literature and the sites mentioned in it, including a reconstruction of Pausanias' visit to ancient Athens. A number of other recent papers have also attempted to examine the social landscape (Llobera, 1996; Wheatley, 1996b). These approaches represent a particularly European approach to the integration of social theory and GIS, although there have been attempts to integrate cognition into GIS in the USA as well (Haas and Creamer, 1993; Zubrow, 1994). Zubrow, for example, looks at the development of ideal models of settlement patterns that may have existed in the mind of the prehistoric native and uses GIS to compare idealized and observed Iroquois longhouse settlement patterns. Interestingly, as Harris and Lock (1995, p. 355) point out, predictive modeling in Europe has been concentrated in The Netherlands (e.g., Brandt et al., 1992; van Leusen, 1993), where there has been the greatest contact with North American GIS users, and where landscape archaeology has focused on single-period sites.

By far the greatest number of GIS projects to date have been landscape applications; many have been driven by the needs of cultural resource management (cf. van Leusen, 1995). Their goals have been determined by the need to discharge their statutory functions in the planning process, in- eluding assessing the likely environmental impact of commercial developments on the archaeological resource (e.g., Boaz and Uleberg, 1993; Guillot and Leroy, 1995; Lang, 1993; Middleton and Winstanley, 1993; Palumbo, 1993; Robinson, 1993). Projects that have attempted to interpret the distributions of sites at a landscape level have inevitably run into difficulties with the visibility of sites, as affected by postdepositional and recovery factors (e.g., Chartrand, 1996; Chartrand et al., 1993; Wansleeben and Verhart, 1995). Some projects, such as the Wroxeter Hinterland project (Gaffney and van Leusen 1996; Gaffney et al., 1996), have now begun to apply GIS to particular issues of Old World archaeology, such as the relationship between towns and their hinterlands.

There has been a lack of projects that have made effective use of GIS at the intra-site level; the projects on an Iberian cemetery (Quesada et aL, 1995), Roman Iron Age sites in the Assendelvers Polders (Meffert, 1995), and the Romano-British settlement at Shepton Mallet (Biswell et al., 1995) are rare exceptions. Quesada et al. employed ARC/INFO to examine the relationships among burials within a cemetery, and Meffert investigated de- postional processes and the distribution of finds, including graphical representations of fragmentation and both relative and absolute numbers of pottery wares. In the Shepton Mallet project, clear benefits were demonstrated with GIS, by looking at artifact distributions, discard behavior, ac-


tivity areas, and relationships between sites and structures. Richards (1996a) found GIS valuable in integrating excavation finds with a variety of remote-sensing and field-walking data for a single site. Biswell et al. (1995) conclude that the quality of site data collected plus funding restric- tions are the main constraints on further use of GIS for excavation data. The lack of a well-developed theoretical framework in which to undertake spatial analysis at the site level also is a contributory factor (Barcel6 and PaUarEs, 1996); although archaeologists have become quite good at explain- ing settlement patterns at the landscape level, our understanding of how people use space within individual settlements is relatively underdeveloped. Nevertheless, Harris and Lock (1995) predict that GIS are likely to become mainstream in Europe and become embedded within the archaeological discipline.

The limitations of GIS in modelling the time dimension has been a further constraint on the adoption of GIS within Europe (Castleford, 1992; Claxton, 1995), although techniques are now being developed to deal with time surfaces (Harris and Lock, 1996; Stead, 1995). In the City of York, Richards (1990) and subsequently Miller (1995a, 1996) have attempted to employ GIS in an urban environment and have used terrain modeling to study the development of urban archaeological deposits through time. Given the relatively high density of archaeological interventions in an historic city, they demonstrate that it is possible to use data from urban excavations to model past land surfaces and to simulate the buildup of deeply stratified deposits through time. Forte (1995) also stresses the role of digital terrain models in the visualization of earlier land surfaces at a broader landscape level. Temporal modeling of a different kind is employed by Steele et al. (1996) who use the GIS IDRISI to simulate the peopling of the Americas. Their approach allows the user to select and modify appropriate variables and to observe the effect on the rate of advance of the human populations across the American continent.

VISUALIZATION

One of the most exciting ways in which computer technology can be employed in archaeology is in providing visualizations of archaeological data. The term "visualization" has now been extended to include almost any exploration of data by graphical means. It also has a specific meaning that describes those techniques that allow visual interpretation of data through the representation, modeling, and display of solids, surfaces, prop- erties, and animations. Such techniques are constantly evolving, but in the early 1990s visualization meant three-dimensional modeling. Such visuali-

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zations are rarely amenable to traditional paper publication, so the number of citations does not reflect their true significance. Most were developed as part of museum presentations; some are available on-line over the In- ternet.

Reilly (1992) provides an excellent historical overview of three-dimensional modeling in archaeology. All techniques of solid modeling make in- tensive use of computer processor time and so have developed rapidly in line with hardware developments. Daniels (1997) reviews some of the modeling techniques that have been applied. The earliest solid-model reconstructions now appear crude but were very influential at the time. They allowed archaeologists to visualize the aboveground appearance of sites that they knew only from their foundations. Woodwark (1991) describes the application of a set-theoretic solid-modeling system called DORA (di- vided object-space ray-casting algorithm) to the reconstruction of the temple precinct of Roman Bath. Set-theoretic reconstructions are based on primitive solids such as the wooden building blocks in a child's play set that the computer programmer is then able to develop by employing alge- braic set theory to look at the intersections and unions of these shapes. A round-arched entrance could then, perhaps, be produced by removing an arc from a rectangular solid. The excavator of the Roman Bath temple complex, Barry Cunliffe, provided the initial data comprising plans and ele- vations. This information was integrated into a computer model using a text input system that laboriously defined each of the shapes making up the model; about 2300 primitive solids were required for the full reconstruction.

The Bath Temple Precinct project was followed by a second project to build a computerized reconstruction of the civic baths of the Roman town (Lavender et al., 1990). The solid model, built using the DODO (Daughter of DOra) program, was intended to illustrate how a Roman citi- zen would have used the baths, showing the progression of rooms as they may have looked around A.D. 300. In computing terms the model used about 12,000 primitives to generate the complex shapes involved.

Roman and Romanesque buildings have provided popular subject matter for solid modelers. The buildings are relatively well understood and are amenable to the "building blocks" approach adopted by set-theoretic methods. In Britain, a team from the Lancaster University Archaeological Unit and North Cheshire College used a commercial plant design system (PDMS) to model the Cistercian foundation of Furness Abbey (Delooze and Wood, 1991; Wood et al., 1992). The software had been developed to help the engineers responsible for the construction of the nuclear reproc- essing plant at Sellafield. The computer modelers found that programs that had been devised to cope with the intricate mass of pipes in the reproc-


essing plant could easily handle the rounded profiles and arches of Cister- cian architecture. However, these systems often demand a high level of training and expertise. A second team, from Leeds University, has developed a computer model of KirkstaU Abbey (Dew et al., 1990) and has attempted to design a modeling tool kit that might be provided to archaeologists.

More recently, surface models also have been applied in archaeology. In contrast to solid models these techniques incorporate no information regarding the solid geometry of a building and simply present it as a series of two-dimensional flat surfaces that can be rendered or lit in a variety of ways; a surface model would not allow the modeler to cut a cross section through a building or to calculate its internal volume (Chapman, 1991). The Lancaster University Archaeological Unit used a surface modeler, CGAL, to produce a model of the 19th-century Hoffman lime kiln (Chap- man, 1992). Kemp (1995) describes the use of AutoCAD and 3D Studio to reconstruct the chapter house at Rievaulx Abbey on a 386-based personal computer. The enhancement of desktop CAD systems for three-dimensional modeling has put visualization techniques within the reach of the professional archaeologist. Kotsakis et al. (1995) discuss the recording and reconstruction of a Bronze Age site from Thessaloniki using AutoCAD and 3D Studio. Main et al. (1995a) describe the use of CAD in conjunction with a three-dimensional digitizer, or "3SPACE Tracker," to record and reconstruct a Bronze Age fissure burial. CAD systems also have become widely used to model, record, and conserve historic buildings (Batchelor, 1995; Binney et al., 1995; Dallas et aL, 1995), usually in a heritage management context. Cs~ki and Red6 (1996), on the other hand, have employed three-dimensional modeling to answer specific questions about the nature of construction of a Roman villa.

Computer scientists have emphasized the importance of achieving pho- torealism in their three-dimensional models. Many examples of computer visualization of ancient monuments serve primarily as vehicles for demon- strating advanced graphical techniques. Ray tracing has been one of the more popular rendering methods, allowing the computation of shadows. Cornforth et al. (1992) place emphasis on photorealistic graphics in their computer simulation of the Sacred Way, the main road to Athens in Clas- sical times. Ozawa (1993, 1996) demonstrates the use of ray tracing to produce rendered images of reconstructed Japanese Keyhole tombs and of wooden buildings in ancient villages. Morimoto and Motonaka (1993) have built a reconstruction of an eighth-century imperial palace in its topographical setting. The effects of dust and smoke within subterranean Maltese tombs (Chalmers and Stoddart, 1996; Chalmers et al., 1995) provide one of the most recent applications of parallel processing to provide photore-

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alistic reconstructions of historical monuments. Collins et al. (1995) discuss the computer reconstruction of a photorealistic three-dimensional model of the Dresden Frauenkirche using CATIA.

It is generally impossible to do justice to three-dimensional visualizations on the printed page. Most are intended for heritage center and museum displays (e.g., Boland and Johnson, 1996; Wilcock, 1996), where computer visualization can be used to great effect in raising awareness in the general public. An impressive and popular publication of visualizations of sites of international importance has been edited by Forte and Siliotti (1997). Virtual reality in its fully immersive form has great potential as a medium for interpretation, but its use in museum displays may be prob- lematic given that so far it is essentially an individual rather than a group activity. Forte and Guidazzoli (1996a) and Forte (1996) discuss the use of GIS with virtual-reality modeling to develop an interactive three-dimensional visualization of an archaeological landscape. Web-based visualizations have begun to make use of virtual reality modeling language (VRML), in one example to allow the viewer to explore the archaeological landscape around Hadrian's wall (Gillings and Goodrick, 1996).

Although such reconstructions doubtless fulfill a valuable role in ena- bling archaeologists and the public alike to visualize past monuments and landscapes, there are dangers inherent in their adoption. Miller and Richards (1995) raise the problems of portraying the past as a knowable reality. Ryan (1996) discusses some of the issues of using computer models in museum displays and suggests that most factors work toward the omission of archaeological complexity. Some recent computer visualizations, such as Gottarelli's (1996) reconstruction of the tomb of General Horem- heb at Saqqara, have now begun to explore mechanisms for indicating un- certainty, such as hazy shading of walls.

Fletcher and Spicer (1992) have promoted the analytical potential of visualization and image processing. Their paper employs a number of methods of surface modeling to investigate ridge-and-furrow plowing at a Bronze Age ring cairn at Stapeley Hill, Shropshire. It is particularly interesting for the inclusion of confidence values as a fourth dimension.

The application of ground-penetrating radar and other methods of geophysical survey have provided numerous examples of the need to visualize complex and noisy data (Blake, 1995a; Bradley and Fletcher, 1996a, b; Fletcher and Spicer, 1995; MiUigan and Atkin, 1993). The particular problems of remote sensing underwater also have stimulated a number of visualization projects (Blake, 1995b; Stewart, 1991). There have been wide- spread applications of image processing and imaging technology in many areas of archaeology, such as artifact classification (Durham et aL, 1995, 1996a, b), conservation (Clogg and Caple, 1996), palaeopathology (Lieber-


man et al., 1990), geophysics (Booth et al., 1992), aerial photography (Forte, 1992b, 1993a, b, c, 1995; Booth et al., 1993; Mathias Lemmens et al., 1993; Perkins, 1996), and satellite imaging (Cooper et al., 1991; Fowler, 1994; Gaffney et aL, 1996a). One of the most practical tools in this area is the continued use of computers for the rectification of oblique aerial photographs. This is now practiced routinely in a number of countries (e.g., Gan- don and Langouet, 1992). In the United Kingdom, John Haigh's AERIAL program is now widely used (Haigh, 1991a, b; Haigh and Ipson, 1994; Pal- mer, 1993); thereby also permitting the consideration of surface topography (Haigh, 1993).

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

One area that has seen little development since 1990 is the application of techniques of artificial intelligence (AI) to archaeology. The initial flurry of papers speculating on the applications of rule-based expert systems in the 1980s failed to live up to the earlier promise (e.g., Francfort, 1991; Vitali, 1991; Voorrips, 1990). Rule-based systems were dependent on being able to define the knowledge of a human expert within a given domain in terms of a number of probabalistic assertions. By the 1990s it appeared that archaeological knowledge was not amenable to precise formulation in terms of rules, although in areas with very limited knowledge domains, there has been some limited continued development of applications, for example, for ceramic characterization (Lagrange and Vitali, 1992), flint microwear analysis (van den Dries, 1994), and the determination of an appropriate conservation technique for damaged frescoes at Pompeii (Quattrin, 1990). Lagrange's expert system VANDAL, for example, "knows" about the fabrics of pottery and, given information about the content of a thin section, can assign a vessel to an existing fabric group.

One solution offered by Stutt and Shennan (1992) was to develop a system that, rather than offering simple answers, would present the reasoning behind an interpretation, and was also capable of offering alternative hypotheses. Lagrange and Concei~ao Rodrigues (1994) and Barcel6 (1992, 1993a, b) also have tried to model the process of archaeological reasoning on a computer, recalling work by Doran (1992a, b) and Gardin. De Guio (1991) also saw the interface between archaeological theory and AI as particularly important for the next decade. Biskowski (1992) has applied expert systems in an attempt to take account of postprocessual criticisms of computer modeling by examining the decision-making processes of individuals within computer simulations. A similar approach is adopted by Palmer and Doran in modeling Upper Palaeolithic social dynamics (Pal-

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mer and Doran, 1993). They apply concepts from "Distributed AI," including the idea of multiple agents making decisions and interacting with each other, to theories advanced by Paul Mellars for the emergence of social complexity in the Upper Palaeolithic period in southwestern France.

Another approach has been to apply more recent developments in AI, such as genetic algorithms and neural networks. These techniques are thought to relate more closely to the way in which the human brain oper- ates, including its capacity for learning. Gibson (1992, 1993, 1996) has developed a hybrid neural network for the aging and interpretation of archaeofaunal data. From a case study based on sheep mandibles he has demonstrated that the computer can be taught to almost match the results of the human expert, although because of practical problems with the enhancement of the images the application did not lead to any actual saving in time. Barcel6 (1995) also has taken up neural networks to further his earlier work on modeling archaeological reasoning and to examine social processes (Barcel6 et al., 1994).

EDUCATION

One of the major developments of the last decade has been the expansion in the use of computers in all fields of education. Archaeology often has been in the vanguard of this trend, and archaeology and anthropology students have generally been instilled with an above average level of computer literacy, developing skills, for example, in database and CAD usage (e.g., Dobson, 1992; Howard, 1992; Ruggio, 1991). More recently, however, there also has been a growing trend to use computers in teaching the subject matter of archaeology itself, at both secondary and tertiary levels (Martlew, 1995; Wilcock, 1993).

In the United States the early use of multimedia hypertext tutorials on various archaeological topics is described by Fagan and Michaels (1992). The imaginary archaeological landscape, Fugawiland, developed by Price and Gebauer (1990) has continued to evolve through new editions and has had a tremendous impact on the teaching of landscape sampling and methods of interpretation on both sides of the Atlantic. In the United Kingdom there have been a number of state-sponsored projects to develop the use of computers in teaching; these should be seen in the context of increased student numbers. The development of an excavation simulation system (SYGRAF) under the Computers in Teaching Initiative (CTI) is described by Rahtz et al. (1990) and Wheatley (1991), and its use in the classroom is discussed by Molyneaux (1992). The SYGRAF program was partially developed in reaction to the lack of coverage of excavation technique in


Fugawiland and the need to allow students to experiment with excavation strategy in a laboratory environment where they could not damage primary evidence. A second archaeology CTI project led to the development of archaeological courseware using interactive video (Ruggles et al., 1991). Ar- chaeology was again successful in gaining government support for the development of a large number of multimedia tutorials under the United Kingdom's Teaching and Learning Technology Programme (TLTP), (Campbell, 1995, 1996; Huggett, 1995a; Martlew and Cheetham, 1995; Til- bury et al., 1995; Wolle, 1994; Wolle and Gamble, 1995). These tutorials were designed to cover a broad range of the basic undergraduate curricu- lum, including dating methods, remote sensing, geophysics, fieldwork strategy, animal and human bones, and statistics. Such topics should be of relevance in a number of degree courses. The Virtual Teaching Collection (Boast and Lucy, 1996) was also funded under the TLTP program but is a more open-ended system, allowing the lecturer to create and link collections of images. A more focused approach is reported by Perkins in a multimedia guide to the buildings of Rome (Perkins, 1995). There is also a recent Italian project to produce multimedia handbooks in prehistoric archaeology and archaeozoology (Arias et al., 1996). Irrespective of the quality of the software, the ultimate success of all such tutorials depends on the extent to which they are put to use in the classroom. SYGRAF was not widely used outside the departments involved in its development; the early signs with the TLTP modules are more hopeful. One of the most encouraging aspects of these programs has been that they have involved a broad spectrum of university staff, not just those with a specialist role in the computing field.

COMMUNICATION

The last significant development in the last 5 years has been experimentation with new forms of electronic publication. Probably one of the safest predictions for the next millennium is that new forms of computer- based publication will continue to revolutionize the dissemination of information; for some aspects of archaeological publication the book is now dead. It would be foolhardy at this stage, however, to predict exactly what will replace it.

The advantages of hypertext for the structuring of archaeological archives have been well rehearsed (Rahtz et al., 1992), and there are published experiments from sites such as Wadi Ziqlab (Banning, 1991, 1993) and St. Veit Klinglberg (Wolle and Shennan, 1996). Many have emphasized that electronic publication allows the distinction between a traditional at-

346 Richards

chive and hard copy report to blurred, with supporting data made accessible for the first time (e.g., Ryan, 1995). Others have stressed the advantages made possible through multimedia and accessibility of new forms of data, particularly drawings, plans, video, and photographs (Rahtz and Sinclair, 1994; Smith, 1992). There also has been experimentation with specific multimedia authoring tools, such as Microcosm (Wolle, 1996) and SPANS (Pa- pailiopoulos and Baxevani, 1996).

Some commentators currently believe that CD-ROM publication rep- resents the way forward (Arcelin, 1996; Thomas, 1995), perhaps because it offers a model most similar to traditional publication. Others (e.g., McAdam, 1995) note that doubts have been expressed about the likely speed of adoption because of resistance from traditional publishers. There also are worries about the future proofing of reports presented solely on current laserdisc media should the technology continue to develop over the next 10 years, as it undoubtedly will do. These issues, of course, apply to all forms of electronic media (e.g., Gordon, 1991), and Ackerly (1995) has presented a salutary tale of the difficulties of accessing data from one of the most vaunted total computer projects, the All American Pipeline Pro- ject. There are now a number of projects whose aim is to preserve a con- tinually updated archive of computer-readable material. In the United States, the Archaeological Data Archive Project (Eiteljorg, 1995) seeks to house and care for data sets of value to archaeological research. In the United Kingdom, the Arts and Humanities Data Service has established an Archaeology Data Service to take responsibility for the long-term preservation and distribution of data to the archaeological communi ty (Richards, 1996b).

Multimedia approaches are now used widely in museum displays (e.g., Economou, 1996a, b), and many multimedia publishing ventures began life as new ways of providing contextual information in exhibitions, such as the World of the lrtkings project (Maytom and Torevell, 1991, 1993), or the project to record Tibetan Thangka painting (Makkuni, 1992). Others were funded as teaching projects, such as the Archaeology Disc of images of Brit- ish stone circles (Martlew, 1991, 1992). There are not yet, at the time of writing, any major excavation reports that have used CD-ROM as the primary form of publication, but this is surely only a matter of time.

An alternative model might be offered by on-line publication, possibly in journal format such as Internet Archaeology, a new international electronic journal project set up with funding from the United Kingdom's Higher Education and Further Funding Council (HEFCE) as part of their eLib (Electronic Libraries) program (Heyworth et al., 1995, 1996a, b). Un- like many on-line offerings, this project seeks to follow established publication practice by providing a peer-reviewed journal of record. [nternet


Archaeology raises interesting issues of copyright, charging, and the long- term survival of academic papers, but once more we see information-technology applications in archaeology being supported because the discipline is thought to represent a good test area with a rich variety of data types. There is still a need for considerable culture change within archaeology before electronic publication gains wide acceptance, but it is significant that within the United Kingdom one of the major obstacles, that of tenure and promotion in higher education, has been removed since the 1996 Research Assessment Exercise decreed that electronic publication would count the same as paper publication.

Undoubtedly the major growth area of the second half of the 1990s has been that of archaeology on the Internet, particularly on the World Wide Web. As Huggett (1995b) has pointed out, this development raises particular issues of access to knowledge and its ownership. A review of archaeological resources on the Net is beyond the scope of this review ar- ticle. Nevertheless, there are now a number of sites, such as the ArchNet Virtual Library maintained by Thomas Plunkett and Jonathan Lizee at the University of Connecticut (Champion and van Leusen, 1995; van Leusen et al., 1996) and Amberweb at the University of Milan (Catacchio et al., 1996), that do provide updated indices to Web-based resources. The Web provides a tremendous opportunity to link distributed resources and to make hitherto unpublished material, particularly detailed fieldwork data, including plans and photographs, widely available, thereby removing the traditional divide between publication and archive. A number of projects such as the East Mediterranean Pottery Project (Louhivuori, 1996) are developing mechanisms for searching multiple databases, connected via the Internet, to share research data. However, the uncontrolled way in which use of the Internet has developed makes the discovery and quality control of archaeological resources a major challenge. Systems of metadata, or data about data, are now being developed to enable resource discovery across a wide range of disciplines, including archaeology (Wise and Miller, 1997). One such system that identifies a small number of common key index elements that can be incorporated in the header information in web documents and thereby indexed by search engines is the Dublin Core. The name stems from the international meeting of information scientists at Dublin, Ohio, where the search engine was first defined. Once an effective means has been developed for indexing and therefore locating web-based publications, then the way will be opened for a major expansion of archaeological electronic publication. It is suggested that were this review to be conducted again in 10 years' time, the majority of references would be to Universal Resource Locators (URLs) or Universal Resource Names (URNs) rather than to paper publications.

348 Richards

SUMMARY

In conclusion, it is likely that the cont inued global expansion and com- mercialism o f the In ternet will dominate archaeological applications for the foreseeable future. Quality control and survival of pr imary digital data will become key issues. In this, as in all areas of compute r applications in archaeology, the discipline has been technology driven and software con- strained. Rare ly has the use of compute r s in a rchaeo logy b e e n led by archaeological theory, al though in specific fields, such as GIS, it can be demons t ra ted that computers have advanced archaeological knowledge.

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Documents

Recent trends in computer applications in archaeology