RETARDED CHILDREN - ERIC

A GUIDE TO CURRICULUM

ADJUSTMENT FOR NIENTALLY

RETARDED CHILDREN

By

FLORENCE N. BEAMANCHARLES SCOTT BERRYMAY E. BRYNEVIRGIL E. DICKSONRANSOM A. GREENELILLIAN M. HOFF

LETA S. HOLLINGWORTHEDNA M. KUGLERTHOMAS V. MOOREMETA ANDERSON POSTHENRIETTA V. RACEBERTHA E. SCHLOTTER

ALICE W. WYGANT

Bulletin 1936, No. 11

Compiled and edited by

ELISE II. MARTENSSenior Specialist in the Edon:Ilion of Exceptional Children

Office of Education

UNITED STATES DEVARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR - Harold L. Ickes, SecretaryOnus or Ernmsnorr - - - - - - - J. W. Studebaker, CommissionerUNIT= STATUS GOVERNMENT PRINTING orrics WASHINUTON : 1038

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CONTE N TS

PageFOREWORD_ _

VkTRODUCTION_ 1I

CHAPTER:

WhO are mentally retarded children?_ _ _ _ 72: Philosophy and objectives_s_ 153: Differentiation of curriculum according to age and

ability levels_ _ 21

4: Experience as a basis for curriculum construction_ 295: Physical and mental health_ _ 396: Social experiences_ _ _ _ 477: Academic experiences__ 618: Experiences in science__ _ _ _ _ 739: Experiences in the arts____ _ _ 8110: Manual and prevocational experiences_-_ _ 9111: Special problems of the residential school_ 10912: The State in relation to the curriculum_ _ _ 117

APPENDIX:

A: Suggested activities for unit on the home, outlined forchildren of preprimary mental development_ _ _ _ _ 127

13: An example of junior high school provisions for re-tarded pupils _ _ _ 131

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FOREWORD

Special administrative provisions for the education ofmentally retarded children have become an estaiblished ele-ment of the public-school program. Special classes havebeen organized in abundance. but the improvement of thecurriculum has not kept pace with the developme,nt of ad-minitrative facilities. In too many instances curricularAlities for retarded children have lacked purpose or in-tegration. The procedure has been either one of too closeconformity to regular academic standards or a poorly con-ceived program of uncoordinated activities that at timesapproached mere "busy work."

Yet leaders in the field havo-long realized the need forpurposeful planning of curriculum content in the light ofthe capacities, interests, and ultimate social destinies of thechildren to be served. Through the. use of a special fundwhich was made available for the purpose of conferences,the Office of Education was able to call a few of theseleaders to Washington to consider the entire problem ofcurriculum adjustment for mentally retarded children.This bulletin represents the careful thinking of the mem-bers of the conference. While specifically prepared .withthe needs of seriously retarded children in mind, the prin-ciples and the materials it presents are applicable also tothe education of those whose intellectual level is onlyslightly below normal. Hence it should be helpful to allwho are concerned with the teaching of children whoseneeds are not met by the academic content of a standardcurriculum.

The members of the conference were as follows :

FLORENCE N. 13EAMAN, teacher, the Little Red Schoolhouse, NewYork, N. N.

CHARLES Scorr BERRY, dire'ctor, bureau vf special education, theOhio State University, Cplumbus, Ohio.

VI FOREWORD

MAY E. BRYNE, director of special education, public schook, Min-neapolis, Minn.

VIRGIL E..DICKBON, assistant superintendent of schools, Bcrki.11..\Calif.

RANSOM A.. GREENE, superintendent, Walter E. Fernald skitSchool, Waver ley, Mass.

LILLIAN M. HOFF, instructor, special education, State Tearilf.r.:College, Salem, Mass.

LETA S. IIOLLINGWORTH, professor of education, Teachers (9,1-

lege, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.EDNA M. KUGLER, advisor, special education division, State pc-

partment of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.THOMAS V. MOORE, professor of psychology, the Cathitic Uni-

versity of America, Washington, D. C.META ANDERSCir PORT, director Of Binet schools and el a `.1".

public schools, Newark, N. J.HENRIETTA V. RACE, supervisor of schools for exceptional chil-

dren, Sttie Department of Public Instruction, Madison.Wis.

BERTN.A E. SCHLOTTER, teacher, Lincoln State School, Lincoln, Ill.Amin W. WYGANT, teacher, public schools, Baltimore, Aid.ELISE . MARTENS, specialist in the education of exceptional

children, United States Office of Education, acted as chair-man of the conference. KATHERINE M. COOK, chief of thedivision of special problems, United States Office of Educa-

e%tion, served in an advisory capacity.

The Office of Education is deeply appreciative of the timeand service givn by busy persons to the ccIrwletion of thisproject. To each of those who. have contributed to thesuccess of the meetipgs held and to the content of the bul-letin which has resulted, we express our sincere gratituile.

BESS GOODTKOONTZI

f Assistant Commi.4Rioner.

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A GUIDE TO CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENTFOR MENTALLY RETARDED

CHILDREN

INTRODUCNON

THIS HANDBOOK is a cooperative project, the Out-come of a conference called by the United StatesOffice of Education to consider the problems of cur-

riculum adjustment for mentally retarded children. Themembers of the conference are the joint authors of thebulletin.

Plan of work.In October 1934, 13 leaders in the educa-tion of retarded children, working in various parts of themuntry, were invited by the United States Commissioner ofEducation to come to Washington for a 3-day conference.No detailed agenda were planned and no papers were sched-uled. It was essentially a thinking conference, at whicheach member nlade his contribution in in.formal discussioncentered about certain major topics. The result of the 3days' work was a general outline of procedure, lookingtoward the publication of a handbook that might be helpfulto all who are concerned with the adaptation of the curricu-lum to the needs of mentally retarded children. Each mem-ber of the conference accepted responsibility for the tenta-tive development of one topic into a section which mightultimately be used as a chapter or -part of a chapter. Copiesof the manuscripts resulting"from this plan of procedurewere sent to every conference member for review andcriticism.

In May 1935 the group gathered again in Washingtonand for 2 days discussed the.ir own production. Numerousrecommendations for revision were made, and editorial re-sponsibility was assigned to the specialist in the educationof exceptional children in the Office of Education. This

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2 MENTALLY RETARDED CHILDREN

bulletin represents, therefore, the best thinking of selectededucators, 'psychologists, and Psychiatrists *ho are deqlvconcerned for the welfare of children seriouOy below nor-mal in intellectual capacity.

Children servtd.Obviously, the first thing to be doneat a conference of the type described was to delimit theproblem and define its scope in the clearest possible terni.In the first place, "mentally retarded Children" were desi!r-nated as thoise who because of poor intellectual endowmentare unable to cope with the standard requirements of rvgu-lar grades and are therefore considered fit subjects for en-rollinent in a .so-called special school or class for intellec-tually subnormal children. These include approximatelythe lowest. 2 to 5 percent of the school population. The term"mentally retarded" is thus used to include both lower andhigher grades of subnormality. Some children, of couNe.are so seripusly retarded in both social and intellectual de-velopment that they are more accurately termed "feeble-minded." Others are much closer to the border line of intel-

4 lectual normality. Both of these types, as well as the inter-vening groups, are found in special schools and clase,.and all of them were included for consideration at the con-ference as representing the seriously deficient but educablechildren in our schools and institutions.

In the second place, recognitign was 'given to the need ofcuriiculum adjustment for mentally retarded children.wherever they are found. Whether in a regular or in a

special elementary class, in a city school, or in a ruraLschool.in a regular secondary school or in a special prevocationalor vocational school, in a day school or in a residentialschool, their curriculum needs are the same, and the adjust-.

ment should be made in accordance with the limited capaci-ties which they present. Hence, it was the purpose of theconference to cowe to some definite conclusions regardingthe desirable curriculum adjustment to be made for them,in whatever segment of the school system they may be.

These two specifications should be kept in mind as suc-gessive chapters of the bulletin are read. They are givendue consideration in appropriate contexts, but attention is

called to them here for pürpose of emphasis.

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CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT 3

Function of the buiblin.The function of a traveler'sguide is to lead the,way, to point out the dangers of theroad, to call attention'to the beauties of the lantiscape. Buthe takes not. one step for his companion. The traveler mustuse his own feet, his own éars, his own eyes, if heis to ful-fill the purpose of his expedition. It is this function ofguidance vhich it \is hoped the present publication willperform. It does not offer a curriculum ready-made, noreven part of a curriculum. Rather its purpose is to presentthe fundament rinciples involved, to point out desirablebases for the lection of curriculum content, to suggest avariety of acti 'ties in keeping with' these bases of selection,and to Must': e. low such activities can be coordinated intoa unit of experience. No person or group of persons, how-ever skilled, can superimpose a curriculum upon classroomteachers working in a thousand different situations.Specialists can only point out the way in which a curriculumcan be developed locally. They must leave to the Stateand to the community the task of applying the principlesevolved to the situation at hand. This fact should be recog-nized by all those who would flake use of the corrtents ofthe bulletin. I. of experience need local coloring. Com-munity conditions must be recognized, geographic factorsconsidered, and social interests observed. All of this canbe done only by persons who are familiar with State andcommunity situations. Hence, such a handbook as this pur-ports to be cannot be exhaustive, but can only sketch theoutlines, of a picture the details of which must. be filled inlocally.

Plan. of bulletin,In the preparation of this material,. members of the conference attempted to visualize the re-

tarded boy and girl as they are ready to leave school tocope with the problems of everyday existence. This wasthe point of departure in determining which school activi-ties should receive major emphasis. Moreover, it was agreedthat all activities, to be most effective fo? instructional pur-poses, should arise out of the-experiences of the childrenthemselves. Hence, the unit of experience is given a promi-nent place in the plan of the bulletin.

For the sake of convenience, units of experience are classi-fied in the successive chapters according to major content.


Such an arrangement, however, does not obviate the needfor coordinating experiences that are concerned with severaltypes of content or subject matter. A "unit" of experiencepresupposes ari integration that recognizes the child as aunitary being with a totality of life experience to whichevery activity of the day contributes. It is the business ofthe school to-arnake real to him the relationship among theseseveral activities and to make them function in a vital wayin his everyday life.

Considerable emphasis is given to this concept of integra-tion, even to the point of repetition in connection with suc-cessive chapters. So also, certain other principles come tothe fomground repeatedly in relation to various types ofexperiences. Such repetition is inevitable when one is at-tempting to show how each activity of the school shouldcontribute to established objectives. It is hoped that theemphasis thus gained will be conducive to deeper under-standing and realization of the progressive practicesadvocated.

No attempt is made to assign particular activities to par-ticular grades. In the education of seriously retarded chil-dren, grades as such have no placeif indeed they haveanywhere. Age and physical and social maturity are theimportant determinants in the selection of content, whichmust then be adapted to the mental capicity of the child.Any unit of experience on primary or intermediate levelcan be so handled that the oldest and the youngest, thebrightest and dullest, will have work to do in keeping withhis ability and interest. r advanced adolescent studentsthe occupational point tiew gains in importance alongwith ideals of homemaking and civic responsibility. Manyunits of work can be planned on such a basis. Even theteacher who has only 1 or 2 seriously retarded pupils ina class of 40 children can, through the technique of the unitof experience, make a place for every child in the room inkeeping with his capacity. With such an arrangement theintellectually deficient pupil has far greater chance for in-dividual participation.and development than he can havein a class of 40 children in which the old-type recitationtechnique is used.

CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT

It is hoped that every person who carries responsibilityfor the education of mentally retarded children, whetherthe number be 1 or 100 or 1,000 will be able to secure samesuggestive help from these pages. Since the task of cur-riculum adjustment in a given State will not be completeduntil the State itself participates in the project, a chapteris included in the handbook on "The State in Relation tothe Curriculum." But in anticipation of that time teachersin rural centers and in many urban communities face theproblem of making their own adjustments. City and countysupervisors, where such exist, are continuously planningimprovements in curricular procedure. To these the chap-ters that follow may offer nothing that is startlingly new ineducational philosophy. Their functiQn is rather to makeclear the application of that philosophy to the education ofa group a children who too long have been either subjectedto demands which they cannot meet or permitted to marktime without accomplishing anything of social value. Ifthe bulletin brings assistance in this respect to those whoare eager to make the curriculum count for constructivesocial achievement in the lives of retarded children it willhave served its purpose.E. H. M.

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CHAPTER 1: WHO ARE MENTALLY 4ETARDEDCHILDREN?

IN PROPOSING any curriculum adjustment, we musthave clearly in mind the group of pupils for whomadjustment is being made. We must know something as

to their number (or frequency), their mental equipment,their possibilitie's of development, and their relation to thetotal populatioti of school children.

FREQUENCY

In terms of frequency "mentally retarded" children arehere define.d as those who con4itute the least able 2 to 5 per-cent of the juvenile population. This statement leads usto consider the great variability of human beings and theform of pattern which this variability takes. "All menare created .free and equal" in a political sense, but it haslong been an established fact of biology and psychology thatfrom a physical and a mental point of view there is greatinequality among them. The problems of education, whichwe are here considering, arise from the facts of intellectualinequality.

Individual differences among school children have beenstudied by scientific methods for many years. Begun in1904, with the development of mental tests by Binet, the in-vestigations made have established numerous facts. One ofthe most important of these concerns the frequency withwhich various degrees of intelligence occur among schoolchildren. Most children are about. normal (average) inrespect to intelligence, for in a statistical sense the -word"normal" means "what the majority can do." A few fallso low on the continuous sale of ability that they seemquite. incapable of learning. Just above these are thosemuch more numerous ones who are somewhat less retarded,

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and who in turn merge by imperceptible degrees into thenormal group. At the extreme opposite to that representedby the mentally deficient are the children so bright thatthey learn much more and much more rapidly than theaverage and are ultimately capable of mastering much morecomplex ideas. These form a minority of approximatelythe same size as that included among the retarded, but it isnot our. purpose to deal with these children here. Theyare mentioned merely to complete the picture of the pat-tern resulting from the variability of .human nature.

, Human beings are far more variable in mental traits thanthey are in physical traits. Among some thousands ofpupils, all at the same age, the tallest will probably notbe more than:\ twice as tall as the shortest in stature; I;it theamount or complexity of the work performed by the mostintelligent one may be a hundred times as great as that per-formed by the least intelligent.e The curriculum of the public schools is based primarilyupon the abilities of the great number of intellectuallyaverage children. Educators have been rather slow to Per-ceive the presence among pupils of what we might call thedeviating minorities. Formerly the slow pupils were sup-posed to differ from the others in will power or in disposi-tion, rather than in respect 40 the fundamentals of abilityto learn.

We have found that incapacity for academic achievement.which to some extent characterizes about 25 percent of els-mentary-school children, becomes more and more pronouncedas degrees of intelligence become less. The least intelligentchildren (those having intelligence quotients below 50 onthe Stanford-Binet scale1) are incapable of attaining anyeffective control over words and numbers. Even those whotest as high as 75 IQ are capable of only a limited degree ofliteracy. About 2 percent of an unselected school popula-tion have an intelligence quotient of 73 or less, apd ,about5 percent have an intelligence quotient of 78 or less.

As already stated, it is this group of from 2 to 5 percentof the school population which is being given special con-

All references made in this bulletin to the intelligence quotient (IQ) areIn terms of results on the Stanford-Binet scale.

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CURRICULUM ADJUSTMRT 9

sideration in these pages, but many of the principles setforth and the suggestions made !ire applicable also to thatlarger group immediately above it in intellectual ability,namely, those rating from about 78 to 90 IQ. These lessretarded but still intellectually subnormal children havenot as yet received much explicit attention in the organiza-tion of the public schools. Yet their needs are just asimportant as those of the least capable group and shouldbe met through adjustment of the curriculum in keepingwith the general policies outlined in this bulletin.

MENTAL EQUIPMENT

It is emphasized that the wide individual differences inintelligence that are revealed among school children throughmental tests are of degree only. This fact is very signifi-cant for education. It follows that all pupils can deal withthings, persons, and abstract symbols, but in vastly differentdegrees of complexity. Theoretically, a retarded child ofany chronological age can acquire the information relatedto school subjects which normal 7-year-olds acquire, whenhis "mental age" is 7, as determined by standardized mentaltests. Generally speaking, it is possible by meanss of avail-able methods of mental measurement to tell when a givenchild is "ready" to learn abstract symbols (numbers, letters,words, maps) and to what extent he will be capable of mas-tering these. Actually, however, it mu§t be rememberedthat the principles just stated apply to groups rather thanto individuals, and that here, as elsewhere, exceptions occurthat must be treated in keeping with the needs of the indi-vidual case. It must be remembered, too, that faf4ors ofphysical health, personality, and environment are some-times responsible for a seeming deficiency in intellect thatdisappears when the causal factor is removed.

Because a deficient child can by the time he is 16 yearsold learn a little of a given school subject, it by no meansfollows that such learning should become the goal of hiseducation. It might perhaps be a wiser investment of timeto center his education about the processes which mentallyretarded boys and girls can best piaster. This idea has ledto the : Are the retarded equally deficient in all di-


rections? Through research studies it hirs' been found that,most mentally retarded children can learn to work withconcrete materiais and objects better than they can learn towork with symbols or abstract ideas.

In pursuit of these findings, experiments have been nydeto determine what sorts of handwork are acceptably carriedon by boys and girls of less than 75 IQ. A great manydifferent kinds of useful work can, in fact, be masteredby them. This is increasingly true of those testing higlwrtoward 80, 85, and 90 IQ. The world would certainly bea different, and perhaps a .much less comfortable place,if all citizens below 90 IQ were to be eliminated front it.Many of the unskilled .and semiskilled occupations wouldthen have to be folfowed by persons too much occupiedwith ideas to feel satisfied with their endeavors. Thiswould probably produce an undesirable state of affairs.Education should, therefore, take Account of these fa0s:(a) That mentally retarded pupils canywork !mire suc-cessfully with objects and materials than they can withthe tools of literacy (wchocN, numbers) ; and (b) that dinthe realm of symbols they can, 'as a group, learn. about asmuch as their "mental age" may indicate, in terms of whataverage children of that age accomplish..

As for emotional experiences, the mentally retarded sharethe ordinary human emotions. They "have feelings", andtheir feelings are much more like those of ordinary per-sons, apparently, than their intellectual abilities are. Theyhunger and thirst just as others do; Pare made glad or sad,as their desires are gratified or not; are capable of affection,discouragement, find all the other emotional experiences

1 common to mftn. These observations apply to all abovethe extreme of idiocy, where mental life is at a low in-fantile level.

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POSSIBILITIES OF DEVELOPMENT

Previously, before studies of development had been madeby quantitative methods, backward children were often de-scribed in terms of "arrested development." As a resultof the work of Kuhlmann, in which the mental develop-ment of more than 600 institutional children was followed


over a period of 10 years, it now seems that the conditionof most of such children is one of simple and continuousmental inferiority. Mental development has thus beenplaced upon a Imisis of predictability. 'For instance, apupil of the mental level represented by an IQ of 50will probably when mature have approximately the mentalability of an average 8-year-o1d child. No sudden and un-predictable "improvement", or "spurt of growth", can beexpected.

The researches of the past 20 years have thus made itpossible át, least tentatively to select retarded children forsOecial education when they enter school, at 6 or 7 yearsof age, instead of waiting for them to prove their incapacitythrough several years of wasted effort. The imperfectionsof mental tests are recognized, but they are as yet the bestexisting measure of intellectual capacity. The smallamount of uncertainty árising from the "probable error"of scores from available tests can be fully and justly.caredfor by making reexaminations whenever doubt may ariseand by taking intoconsideration the influences of extraneousfactors, such as health, personality, and environmental situ-ations. If this is done, the mistakes of assignment forspecial education should be negligible.

Under the system of progress by grade, retarded childrenare frequently subjected to tasks which they cannot possiblyunderstand or perform. To escape the sense of inadequacy

I and blameworthiness they may become truants or engage inmischief. Studies of undesirable behavior among pupilsshow that there is a tendency for disciplinary problemsto be concentrated .among retarded children who are notgiven the special educational help that they need. Theknown facts about development, combined with the avail-ability of reliable mental tests, give educators the powerto exempt backward children from the suffering incidentto tasks that are beyond their ability. Failure and wastedeffort can .now be avoided.

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12 MENTALLY RETAIIDED CHILDREN

RELATION TO THE TOTAL POPULATION OF SCHOOLCHILDREN

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The educational problems présented by retarded chil-dren are not, however, to be considered entirely by them,selves. Their relation to the total task of the school mustbe kept in mind. Where no special curriculum or specialorganization is set up for the neecis of these pupils, theydrift in the regular grades and take much more than theirshare of the time and energx of a conscientious teacher.The undesirable forms of behavior into which they falloccupy his attention to the exclusion of work which wouldbe to the profit of the normal pupils. Sometimes the pres-ence of adolescent boys and girls among the children ofthe elementary school creates socially undesirable situa-tions among the pupils themselves.

Thus various reasons are provided, from the data of edu-cational psychology, for setting up a special curriculum forretarded pupils both through childhood and through adoles-cent years, apart °from the much younger pupils who aretheir equals intellectually but not physically or in social in-

Aerests. Adolescents, maturing physically and developingattitudes that lead up to adult life, ard not well placedamong children of the third, fourth, and fifth grades, whereunder conditions of present organization in many schoolsystems, they are likely to accumulate.

SUMMARY

We may summarize briefly our knoWledge of the retardedchild by saying that we know the approximate frequencyof occurrence of such children; we know how to identifythem; we know that they can work much more successfullywith concrete objects and materials than with symbols andabstract ideas; we know that as a group they cannot bemade normal by any system of -education, because devel-, opment is a function of innatik forces which are relatively 4,t

stable throughout the developmental career; and we knowthat their presence in the same classes with normal pupilsfrequently creates difficult problems for all concerned.Basing our considerations on these established facts, wemay proceed to formulate rational suggestions for the specialeducation of retarded children.

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SUGGESTIONS FOR READING

BERRY, RICHARD J. A., and GORDON, R. G. The mental defective: aproblem in social inefficiency. New York, McGraw-Hill book com-pany, 1931. 146 p.

A general introduction to the problem of mental deficiency in its physiologi-cal and social aspects. Deals with t he general nature of the problem, theneurological basis of mental deficiency, the social implications involved,and recommended treatment.

BURT, CYRIL The subnormal mind. New York, Oxford universitypress, 1935. 368 p.

An extensive treatise devoted in part to the psychology and treatment of14ubnorrnal children. Consideration is given also to juvenile delinquencyand children's personnlity difficulties. Written by an English author ofnote in the psychological field.o

HOLLINGwOHTH, LETA S. The psvhology of subnormal children.New York, Macmillan company, 1920. 288 p.

This book is addressed primarily to the large gr9up of teachers who areworking kith mentally deficient children. Providis a baolc knowledge ofthe psychology, physical traits, and general nature of the mentally deficient.TERMAN, LEWIS M. The Intelligence of school children. New York,

Houghton Mifflin company, 1919. 317 p.One of the earlier publications on the problem of individual differencesin intelligence, with attention to the use of psychological tests in discover-ing such differences.

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CHAPTER 2 : PHILOSOPHY XND OBJECTIVES

EDUCATION FOR the mentally retarded is not dif-ferent in its aim from education for any group ofchildren. &This, aim is to teach the individual how

to live better; to teach him to use all of his capacities; toteach him to become a useful member of the social groupWhether he is in a day school or in a residential school, ffegeneral purpose is the sanie. The soci41 group,of which heis a member may be the community at large or it may in-volve the more circumscribed life of the institution. Yetthe aim is always to make him a better and more efficientmember of the group in which be lives. This is the basicphilosophy underlying every curriculum adjustment.

If one analyzes the concept of social efficiency, two traitsstand out as of paramount importanceself-expressionand self-control. To be able to express one's self in workand play, in individual and. in group action in terms of per-sonal abilities,and interests is a primary reqiiisite for hap-piness and efficiency. But to be able to control one's self inkeeping with socially accepted standards of behavior iseven more important. Self-expression without self-controlleads to chaos and ruin. Criminals and ruthless war lordsexpress themselves and strike terror to the hearts of thecommunity and the Nation. With all the erhphasis that hasbeen placed in recent years upon the eed of permittin¡ thechild to "express himself", it skouti not be f6rwitten: Malunless at the same time he 16airns to "control himsdf" for ,the good of others, his life will be marked by failure:.

GONERILL OBJECTIVESIn accordance with this basic philosophy, there are cer-

tain general 'bent to the education pf, re-&vied children which should help to determine what bur- ;

Wri adjustment should be made for them. These con-

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cern primarily their education for achievement in the worldof knowledge, in oqcupational life, in social relations, and inleisure time.

C onsiderati9n of capacitieS, limitation8, and interests.The need of educating each child in keeping with hiscapadities, limitations, and interests is almost axiomatic.While this philosophy applies to all children; itt becomesmore imperative in dealing with mentally retarded pupilsbecause their limitations are greater and their interests areless varied and less extensive than those of normal children.It is tragic to see the mehtally retarded child drilled by ateacher hour after hour on matters in which he has 40interest, on matters which are beyond his capacity to under-stand, and on matters with which he has little if any pros-pect of ever associating in ordinary life.,., If a child is considered mentally retarded he has alreadydemonstrated' a certain lack of capacity to learn. It isfutile for the ordinary classroom teacher to attempt to forcesuch a child to master academic goals that are beyond his._.....)mental reach. The curriculum 4iould be so organized that

4 units of instruction may be provided to fit varying abilities.Public education should help each child to advance as faras his capacity permits him to go with a reasonable amountof t6aching effort but, lacking the capacity to do standardschool work, he should be offered something different whichwill better suit his needs rather than merely less of the gen-erally prescribed curriculum. LimitatiO of his school pro-. gram to the mastery of mere rninimuk essentials of aca-demic knowledge will never prepare him to live a usefulsocial li . -

Part' 'pation in the world'8 work.Eacrichild should beeducated for some pakicipation in the world's work pro-

.è vided his handicaps are not. so great that he is completely

barred from proactive emplbyment. It may be found withproper training that the child is able to.do certain kinds ofwork which are helpful. Whatever his capacities are, theyshould be discovered and should be utilized. As adults,seriously retarded children will ordinarily work undersupervisi-on in the occupational world. Curriculum offer-ings should therefore be presented always with the thoughtthat supervision and direction of the child must .fill .those

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gaps caused by his deficiencies. Each retarded child isalmost sure to show weakness of attainment along severallines which,. even with the best instructional effort, stillleaVes him below par as an independent member of thesocial order in which he will live. One must think of hiseducation, then, as giving him help for partial if not. com-plete self-support. Supervision provided by the home orby society must do the rest.

Participation in social and recreation& life.Each childshould be educated to appreciate social, civic, and culturalvalues and should be led to participate in those within hisreach. Helpfulness and cooperation in civic responsibilities,wholesome fellowship with others in group activity, andthe ability to enjoy leisure time are all essential to the well-being of the individual as well as of the community. Evenaccomplishments in music or dancing or games of physicalskill are not uncommon among mentally retarded children.Those who have ability in such ffelds obtain much enjoy-ment out of life in society with others, and at times con-tribute much to the enjoyment of others. It is just as im-portant to educate the mentally retarded child to be happyand efficient in his social relationships as it is to try tomake him able to earn a livelihood. His life, Jike that ofall others, is composed of living as well as earning.

Consideration, of interests of all children.Finally, in theeducation of the mentally retarded child, one must everkeep in mind the interests of all children. Through longand painstaking training some of them may succeed in do-ing acceptable work of a type ordinarily expected of normalchildren. They may even make a product approaching inquality that which is produced by the world at large. Butthe efficiency thus attained and the product made may rep-resent false notions of social or industrial efficiency. Theobjectives of education for such children are complicated bythe necessity of considering their' 'and their product in thelight of their relation to the entire social unit either inthe school or in the community. As already emphasized,they must not bè permitted to usurp too much of the tiine-whi9h should ordinarily be given to the instruction of nor-mal children in regular classes. Neither should they be


permitted to spend an undue amount of time in learningskills that they will never use. In the present social orderthere are many more competent people ready and anxiousto work than there are jobs to fill. If, therefore, mereindustrial efficiency in the abstract were the goal, manymentally retarded children would receive no attention what-ever. Yet they are and ¡probably always will be with usas a part of the social order. Hence, they must be educatedto contribute their part to life and to participate in indus-trial activities that are on their own level ; ór else theymust be given custodial care as dependent and perhaps anti-social individuals, kept at the expense of the rest of thesocial order. Obviously, education and partial supervisionare less expensive than complete institutional care.

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

Let us visualize the 16-year-old mentally retarded. childabout to leave the special class. Let us assume that the spe-cial class has equipped him with the simple tools of learn-ing, in order that he may not be at a loss in the simple lifewhich he is to lead. He may be able to solve arithmeticalcomputations with a reasonable accuracy comparable to thatof a 9- or 10-year-old. He reads rather haltingly the simpleIndian stories in fourth- or fifth-grade readers. His handis equipped to do simple weaving, to make baskets and raffianapkin rings, to produce a suitable tie rack and a pair ofbook ends.

Excellent as this education may be, visualization of theproblems he must meet in the community proves it is notenough. He must have an education whose experiences,first of all, have fostered day by day :

1. An ease and a joy in social relationships that enablehim to find friends and to participate in socialexperiences.

2. The knowledge and disposition to keep physicallywell in order to enjoy life to its maximum.

3. An ability to plan and to choose his leisure activitieswisely.

4. An ability to cook Ms own food, care for his ownclothes, and to make his dwelling habitable.

CURRICULUM ADJ USTMENT 19

5. The ability to earn as much of the necessities of lifeas possible.

6. Enough general knowledge of specific skills to spendhis earned salary wisely ; and enough generalknowledge of the products necessary in sustaininglife to give meaning to their use.

These are the specific objectives which must be kept inmind if the retarded child is to go out from the schoolequipped to carry on successfully in terms of his own ability.Life for him will be largely a day-by-day experience ofwork and play, in home and shop ,and community. It isto take his place and to make his contribution in this situa-tion that the school should prepare him. Every activity,every field of experience introduced into the curriculummust be justified on the basis of its contribution to the ob-jectives named.

SUMMARY

111. The basic philosophy underlying the education of re- °tarded children is no different from that recognized for allchildren. The fundamental aim of all education is to teachchildren to live wisely and well in the environment in whichthey find themselves.

2. The realization of this fundamental aim of educationas applied to retarded children requires that in any curricu-lum adjustment made for them emphasis be placed upon :

(a) Education in keeping with the capacities, limita-tions, and interests of each child.

(b) Education for some participation in the world'swork.

(c) Education for wholesome social experiences.(d) Education in keeping with the interests of all

children.3. The application of these principles demands that for

mentally retarded children specific objectives be formulatedof a much simpler and more practical nature than thosewhich can be utilized with normal children. Happy iocialrelationships, physical efficiency, wise use of leisure time,earning capacity, and acceptance of home responsibilities


are of major importance. These should all be interpretedin the light. of the limited sphere of activities which re-tarded children will experience in adult life.


FEATHERSTONE, WM. B. The curriculum of the special class. NewYork, Bureau of publications, Teachers college, Columbia univer-sity, 1932. 157 p. (Contributions to education, no. 544.)

The author condemns "the subject matter-set-out-to-be-learned policy" andurges that teachers of special classes use their "opportunity to make possiblea truly significant educational experience for pupils" through first-handcontacts with life values.

INGRAM, CHRISTINE P. Education of the slow-learning child. Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York, World book company, -1935. 419 p.

On the basis of extensive supervisory experience in a city school system,the author discusses physical, psychological, and educational phases of theproblem of mentally retarded children. Much practical information is givenregarding instructional content and methods.

INSKEEP, ANNIE D. Teaching dull and retarded children. New York,Macmillan company, 1926. 455 p.

The author is an experienced teacher of mentally retarded children. Shegives numerous concrete suggestions as to the type of instruction which hasbeen most effective in her own classroom. Includes discussions of reading,language, spelling, arithmetic, and other usual subjects of the curriculum,with some attention also to games and the "education of the hand."

WHIPPLE, HELEN DAVIS. Making citizens of the mentally limited.Bloomington, Ill., Public school publishing company, 1927. 374 p.

Discusses the subject matter to be taught in segregated special classes ofpublic schools. Places emphasis upon those materials which meet a presentneed of the pupil and appeal strongly to his interests. Adds to the workin the three R's practical application of the manual arts, citizenship,character, and health education.

CHAPTER 3: DIFFERENTIATION OF CURRICU-LUM ACCORDING TO AGE AND ABILITYLEVELS

UNDER THE laws of compulsory school attendanceas commonly administered, it is possible for thechild who progresses regularly ,at the rate of a

grade each year to complete at least the junior highschool (or the hinth grade) by the time he reaches theage when he san legally leave school. *Flowever, it is asignificant fact that although the junior high school courseof study has been planned to meet the needs of the earlyadolescent period, a very large percentage of school childrenreach the end of the period of compulsory school attendanceand leave school before they have completed the juniorhigh school course of study.

Imagine a well-balanced meal consisting of six courses.The courses are served in a fixed order and each coursemust be completed before the next one is* served. Wouldanyone say that the slow eaters who could consume onlythe first three or four courses had a well-balanced meal?What is frequently lost sight of is the fact that the sloweaters of little capacity for food, surfeited with soup andfish, are the first to leave the table, not the fast eaters ofgreater capacity. In school it is the slow child with littleappetite for the mental food provided who is soon sur-feited and leaves school at the earliest possible moment.under traditional requirements, he may have completedonly the third or fourth grade, but when he reaches theage of release from school he goes out with little learnedand none of it of practical value to him in meeting the lifesituations of an adolescent or adult.

In considering, then, the curriculum adjustinent neededfor mentally retarded children, the emphasis must be placedupon planning the best education that can be given over

21

ii


a period of 9 or 10 years rather than upon the completionof grade requirements. The information, habits, and atti-k

tudes necessary for wholesome participation in communitylife must be acquired i at all during the period of com-pulsory school attendance, since few seriously retardedchildren remain in school beyond that time. Manifestly,then, chronological age, as well as mental age ahd intelli-gence quotient, should be a guiding factor. in determiningcurriculum content.

It is proposed, therefore, that any curriculum for retardedchildren be organized in the light of the needs of twogroups, namely, the preadolescent group (from approxi-mately G to 12 years in chronological age) and the adolescentgroup (from approximately 13 to 16 or 18 in chronologicalage) . It is further proposed that each of *these groups bedivided into two classes according to approximate mentalo

age, as follows:1. Preadolescent group

(a) Children having a mental age under 6 years.(b) Children having a mental age from 6 to 9

years.2. Adolescent group

(a) Children having a mental age below 9 years.(b) Children having a mental age of 9 or more

years.The above classification takes its point of departure from

the consideration of the chronological age of the child andthose interests and abilities which are determined by physi-cal maturity. It also takes into consideration the mentalage and intelligence quotient of the child in that.the instruc-tion within the chronological age groups should be adjustedto meet the varying capacities of children of the respectivemental age groups. It is, of course, rare that any givenclass will include only children of a particular chronologicalor mental age group. In all but the largest cities and resi-dential schools the teacher is much more likely to have inhis class children of varying ages and varying abilities,some of them with a mental age below 6 and some with amental age considerably higher thAn this. In such cases


it is his responsibility to help each child to fit into the gen-eral program of the day according to his age and ability.'

THE PRE-ADOLESCENT GROUP

Mental age below 6 years.It is a genèrally accepted fact,that a child is not intellectually ready for instruction inreading until he has attained a mental age of at least 6years. It is logical to conclude from this fact that, forchildren who have a mental age below 6 years, regardlessof their chronological age, that part of the curriculum deal-ing with reading, writing, and arithmetic should be whollyomitted, and that emphasis should be placed upon motorand sensory training, personal hygiene and habit training,improvement of speech, emotional control, rhythm, drawing,and performance of simple activities at school and in thehome. Young mentally deficient children are extremelyrestless, often agitated, noisy, untidy, and sometimes de-structive. A program should be arranged that will' bringbodily fatigue through constructive activity that leads tohabit formation. Frequently there are physical defectswhich must as far as possible be coirected. Deficiency insight, in hearing, in touch, and in the muscular sense alltoo often accompany mental deficiency. The teacher should,therefore, provide social and mental activities that will in-crease the power of perception as well as promote a bettersocial adjustment. Regular exercise, proper muscular coor-dination, cleanljness in personal habits, hygienic habits ofeating, should all be emphasized in the instruction given.

To teach these children to live in a social environment isfar more important than to attempt to teach them to read.During this process of social adjustment the child willhimself be getting ready to read. As he reaches a mentalage of 6 he will approach the task with not only an ade-quate mental development but also an enriched backgroundof meaningful experiences, an enlarged speaking vocabu-lary, a lengthened and more stable span of attention, andsome degree of muscular coordinatiop.

While this bulletin is not concerned with problems of organization, it isemphasised that the practice of placing young subnormal children with thoseof adolescent age is exceedingly unwise.

I


The following are suggestive of the types of experienceswhich can be used to advantage with children belongingin this group: 2

1. Habit training.Emphasis upon personal cleanli-ness and neatness; proper toilet habits; care ofproperty (such as crayons, paste, coat, rubbers,etc.) safety ; food habits; health habits.

2. Social experience8.Discussion and presentation ofcommon home, school, and community relation-ships, such as those involving father, mother, baby,sister, brother schoolmates, school safety officers;policeman, fireman, visiting nurse, street cleaner.

3. Sense training.Recognition of name when called ;

matching shapes, colors, sizes, and positions ofobjects; picture-completion puzzles; observationof natural phenomena (sky, clouds, trees, sunlight,shadow) ; recognition of objects by sound, bysmell, by touch; recognition of food elements bytaste ; recognition of primary colors.

4. Speech training.Emphasis upon clear enunciation ;

correction of baby talk, broken English, lisping,stammering, and qther speech defects.

5. Muscular coordination.---Rhythm exercises, march-ing, dancing; outdoor games; use of large musclesto accompaniment of musical instrument or sing-ing; exercises such as walking a balanced rail,stepping through the rungs of a slightly elevatedhorizontal ladder, walking over a stile of three orfour steps.

6. Nature study.--Acquaintance with common pets,flowers, trees; seasonal weather changes.

7. Manual training.Hammering nails into a block ofwood; carrying household articles as neededstringing spools, beads, and buttons; coarse needle-work on materials that carry a design; cuttingpaper and cloth according to pattern with a pairof scissors; Carrying blocks, pieces of wood orstone, sand or gravel, from one place to another,

°Eke also the consecutive chapters of thus bulletin dealing with specifictypes of experiences.

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CURRICULUM ApUSTMENT 25

or gathering them into a pile in the center of theroom or yard.

All of the foregoing activities and experiences of similartype can be used as the foundation for trailing in orallanguage. Moreover, they can be made more effective ifthey are integrated into a unified program of work, plannedabout a center of interest, and forming a teaching unitsIn other chapters of this bulletin are described numerousexperiences which can with adaptation beused with thispreadolescent group of very low mental age.

Practice in muscular and manual activities leads to in-creasing physical coordination and ability to perform tasksof successively higher level. Usefulness about the schooltr institution should be encouraged. Boys can learn tohandle skoyel, hoe, and wheelbarrow ; to help in digginggardens or in slearing land of stones. Girls can assist inhousehold duties. The objective of the whole programshould be to make the individual happier and more com-fortable as well as useful by helping him to contribute some-thing to the social life of which he is a part.

Mental age above 6 year8.--The children of this groupare usually from about 8 to 12 years old, and constitutewhat are ordinarily called the "primary" and sometimesthe "intermediate" special groups. They are ready foracademic experiences in reading, writing, and numbers, andshould be given an opportunity to make progress in thesefields in keeping with their ability to advance without thesacrifice of much more important social values. The prin-ciples developed in the successive chapters of this bulletinapply directly to their education.

THE ADOLESCENT GROUP

For all adolescents of retarded mentality who are capableat all of profiting by such instruction, it is urged thatemphasis be placed upon :

1. Appreciation of social and civic valtes and partic-ipation in social and civic activities, either in thecommunity or in the institution.

Special consideration is given to the unit of experience in .ch. 4. Beealso appendix A for "Suggested Activities for Unit on the Home, Outlined forChildren of Preprimary Mental Development,"

o

a


2. Manual activities in the shop, the kitchen, the laun-dry, the sewing room, and in various types ofhandicraft of a prevocational type.

3. Health and physical training; sports and games.4. Preparation for homemaking (for both boys and

girls) through experiences in the usual house-keeping responsibilities, household budgeting,child care, home beautification, and the generalrepair work so often needed in the home.

Whatever in readings arithmetic, music, art, literature,science, and other content subjects contributes to the abovegoals is justifiable, provided it is planned on the level ofthe child's ability to comprehend, and also provided it doesnot usurp tIN time that should be given to the major ob-jectives of a very practical nature. Children in the ado-lescent group having a mental age below 9 years will ob-viously work on primary levels of academic experiences,while those having a mental age above 9 years will be ableto achieve on a higher level. Both groups, however, shouldhave the same opportunity to give the greater part of theirtime and energy to those activities that are definitely re-lated to the situations they will face when they leave schoolor when they take their places as adults in institutional life.Hence work of the so-called academic type should be re-duced to a minimum.4

SUMMARY

The education of retarded children should be so plannedthat by the time they leave school at the age of 16 or 18they will have had the types of practical experiences neededto help them to live better lives as citizens, workers, andparents, or (if in a residential school) as adult membersof an institutional community. In preadolescent yearssensory training, academic experiences, and other phasesof curricular activity should be planned for each child inthe light of his mental level and ability to progress. Whentie reaches the adolescent period, regardless of his previouseducational achievement, emphasis should be placed uponcivic, social, manual, and prevocational activities having adirect bearing upon the life situations to follow.

I See appendix B for statement of program recently organised in a largecity for retarded boys and girls of junior-high-school age.

Akk,


SUGGESTIONS -FOR READING

ANDERSON, META. Education of defectives in the public schools.Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y. World book company, 1917. 104 p.

Discusses selection of children, the curriculum of the special school. andits place in the public-school system and In the community. Special atten-tion is here called to chapter 4 of the book, which deals with curricularactivities for young children of retarded mental development.

DM's:WI:DM, ALICE. The education of mentally defective children.. (Translated from the French by Ernest F. Row.) New York,

27

D. C. Heath and company, n. d. 313 p.Describes the general organization of special achools and classes for the

mentally deficient in Europe. Discusses school programs and methods tobe used in teaching various subjects of the curriculum In special classes.Also gives suggestions for games and for projects in hand work and other

GESELL, ARNOLD. The retarded child : how to help him. Blooming-ton, Ill. Public school publishing company, 1925. 100 p.

A manual of_ practical suggestions for planning an individual programinvolving a variety of activities, handicraft, and vocational work for thedeficient pupil.

HOLLINGWORTH, LurA S. The psychology of the adojescent. Nework, D. Appleton and company, 1928. 259 p.Gives basic material for understanding the nature and needs of adoles-

boys and. girls. Principles are discussed which are common to thegrowth of all children, regardless of intellectual capacity. Bibliography.JOHNSON, HARRIET M. The art of block building. New York, The

John Day company, 1933. 47 p.The author presents the use of blocks with young children as a medium

of expression, and develops the sequence of experiences common to childrenin playing with them. Illustrated.

WRIGHT, LULA E. A first grade at work : a nonreading curriculum.New York, Lincoln school of Teachers college, Columbia university,1932. 247 p.

Contains suggestive material for curricular activities for children whoare not yet ready to attempt the mechanics of reading. Bibliography.

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CHAPTER 4: EXPERIENCE AS À BASIS FORCURRICULUM CONSTRUCTION

CONCLUSIVE EVIDENCE that mentally retardedchildren are all too frequently expected to absorba "diet" prepared for normal children may be

found in the examination of courses of study prepared foru.,11 in Tecial classes.1 These contain much which mentallyretarded children Cannot assimilate. They lack many ofthe practical values needed for later adjustment to com-munity_ life. Little emphasis is placed upon the integra-tion of 'academic experiences with life situations. Practi-cally no course affords adequate experience in socialadjustment.

The selection of content for special courses of study issomething more than an arm-chair probleni. The pri-mary consideration should be the children and what is known'about them. The daily observation of subnormal children within and without the classroom; the careful studyof their inclinations:ail(' abilities to deal with present piob-lems; the interests which for them color life .and make itcompletethese are the bases upon which curriculum ad-justment must be made. In a word, the experience of thechild is the teacher's cue. He 'must reach out- and tiringthat experience into classroom situations in such a Niray that, 4

vtlie child will in turn be able to go from the ciasroòm.prepared to meet the same type of experience outside wiiha better understanding of its _meaning, a greater ability to. ,

handle himself in relation to- it, and .with more Satisfying \results. There is, therefore, no ,bette,r way 0 achieve thespecific objectives of instruction listed in chapter 2 thanby permitting the child fo exPerience day by day the grow-\

I Such studies have been made, as, for exaniple, by Florence N. Beaman, in"An Experimental Curriculum for Special Classes." Unpublished Master's»Thesis, Northwestern University, 1932. (pp. 7-14.)

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ing ability to work and to play with companions; actuallyto prepare food and clothing for use; to spend money fobr

necessities; and to master the skills that are needed forcarrying out in reality the needs of his daily life.

THE UNIT OF EXPERIENCE

,Experience in daily living in a spcial classroom cannotproceed at random, nor can all experiences in living withtheir varying degrees of complexity be utilized at once. Theteacher who has previously merely asked himself, 'Whenmust I teach this child to borrow in subtraction?" may nowponder upon the child's ability "to make bread for the nextday's meal" or the ability to execute over ,the telephone thenext day's order to the grocer. As in other programs, thereis a time in the child's diy-to-day life when certain aspecthave moye color and meaning than at other times. Hencethe "unit of experience" is introduced in order to facilitatethe organization of experiences at levels at which they aremost efficacious in the child's living. The unit of experiencemay be defined as an actual experience in living related tothe child's immediate interests and erivironment, which in

turwrelated to his total experience makes for richer andmore vital living..1:nits of éxperience will necessarily differ with every

group of children, but there are three basic attributes whichgive to the well-developed unit of experience its value. Inthe first place, the experience or activity should be real andnot make-believe. There are enough real experiences inevery environment to eliminate the need of resorting to

experiences .from foreign environments or of setting an

artificial stage. For example, the experience of mailingletters and packages can in many situations assume thenaturák activity of going-to the post office and actually mail-ing the desired material. A child's experience with flourshould be the actual preparation of foods involving the use

of flour rilther than the construction of a cardboard flourmill from which the product coil'es.

In the second place, the experience should provide forcooperative living. It should contribute to the child's un-

derstanding or experience of the feeling of working together.

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Even if the experience itself is so arranged that the childdoes some of his work alone, the results should be a partof the whole related scheme.

In the third place, the results, whether tangible or not,should be emotionally, physically, and mentally satisfyingto the child. Within every experience there should be levelsof growth, so that each child is accomplishing what is actu-ally most necessary to his own satisfaction of needs. Inother words, the experience ma'y have something to con-tribute to the social needs of an 8-year-old child and yetinvolve such simplicity of operations that it satisfies alsothe motor facility and mental development of children 2or more years younger.

EXAMPLES OF A UNIT OF EXPERIENCE

Experiences basic in helping the child to live fully hispresent life differ in different localities. Experiences com-mon to life in a large metropolis of the size of Nest Yorkwould be foreign and artificial to a southern rural com-munity. No one set of experiences or the units thereofcan serve all groups adequately. All children, however,live in a world where daily food, clothing, shelter, andplay life havgiE! meaning for them. Therefore, two unitsof experience gased upon home and community life are usedhere for illustrative purposes.

Unit on foods.In one classroom a large unit on homelife was divided into activities related to foods, clothing,and shelter. The experiences with foods are presentedin the accompanying chart to illustrate the type of or-ganizatin used. The experiences of the classroom werereal in that the children prepared their daily lunch atschool. The tasks which needed to be accomplished wereseen first as a whole. The following activities wereincluded :

Om.


1. Preparation of menus.2. Preparation of personal shop-

ping lists.3. Preparation of telephone

shopping lists.4. Preparation of vegetables.5. Preparation of meat.6. Preparation of desserts.7. Preparation of baked foods

and jellies.8. Setting of tables.91 Correct eating.

10. Clearing of tables.11. Stacking of dishes.

12. Correct disposal of garbage.13. Washing of dishes.14. Replacement of dishes in cup-

board.15. Preservation of left-over

foods.16. Cleaning of kitchen.17. Washing and ironing of lunch

cloths.18. Collection of lunch funds.19. Computation of lunchroom

bills.20. Payment of bills.

These tasks were graded upon the twofold basis of (1)spontaneous selection by children for social satisfactionnecessary to their own age, and (2) Manual dexterity andmental comprehension necessary to complete the task prop-erly. At lower levels the simplest experiences in them-selves were sufficient for complete satisfaction to the child.Older children needed wider contacts in the community.Some of the activities demanded motor and mental skillsfor satisfactory completion. Such skills were taught andused as they supplied the needs of the activities, with suffi-cient drill to make the instruction function effectively.Careful check was made of the skills needed to completesatisfactorily each experience.

The accompanying chart represents only one type of expe-rience which was a part of the larger unit on "home life."The organization of work provides for four levels of abilityas determined by chronological and mental ages of thepupils concerned. The four groups are those specified inchapter 3, namely (1) preadolescents with mental age below6 years; (2) preadolescents with mental age from 6 to 9years; (3) adolescents with mental age below 9 years; (4)adolescents with mental age of 9 or more years. On thechart the social characteristics of each group are noted,suitable experiences are indicated, with specific referencesto the trips made, and examples of activities in the variousfields are listed that can be used with each group. It is tobe hoped that no teacher, will have all of these ageg adability levels represented in the same elms, but the chart

I.

A

ti'

Mental age

Below 6

6 to 9 -- am.

Below

Social characteristics

1. Preschool and kinder-garten characteris-tics.

2. Individualistic play.3. Individualistic desires.4. Random and seeming-

ly unpurposeful ac-tivity.

5. Manipulistic playwith objects.

6. Unfinished productsin work.

1. Primary or intermedi-ate characteristics.

2. Desire for companion-ship in play.

3. Purposeful activity inthat the proauctsatisfies own desires.

4. Beginning of forma-tion of small groups.

1. Adolescent character-istics.

2. Ability to combine insmall groups f o rgroup work.

tipe of tools of learningto facilitate activity.

tirCOmpletion of work foruse.

5. Response to repetitionand drill.

Experienoes

1. Daily trip to marketor store with oldergroup to do buying.

2. Carrying basket homeand arranging pur-chases on shelves.

3. Washing vegetablesand fruits.

4. Dramatic playy--parties, home andstore situations.

1. Setting tables.2. Pouring

breadfor tables.

3. Makingmuffins.

4. Making butter.5. Cooking simple des-

serts.6. Clearing tables and

stacking dishes.

milk, cuttingand butter

bread and

1. Buying food.

2. Preparation of vege-tables.

3. Assistance in cooking.4. Washing and care of

dishes.

Chronologicalage

6 to 12 OP M.

6-to 12._

13 to 16_

I _

,i .,

.. .

a

01

- _

.''

To twit

Ta

2. FiE

To:

b)

cc4

4=1 OD 9_

4

L

(a)

UNIT ON HOME LIFE. P

Topic: pods as a Part of Dail

Tripe

stores in companywith older groups:

(a) Bakery.(b) Dairy:(c) Market.(d) Grocery.(e) Farm.

To-(a) Stores.(b) Warehouse

where foodcomes in.

(c) Vegetable andfish markets.

(d) Dairy plant.(e) Bakery.(f) Freight cars, re-

f ri ger at io ncars.

(g) Farm.Fishing trip.

2) Meat market.» Fruit ship.;) Sugar factory.0 Bottling plant.

do

aml/IMIm

Social science concepts

1. Articles of food as partof own meals.

2. Immediate source offood: Farmer orstore.

3. Mother's part in prep-aration of foods.

4. Health values of food.5. Table habits.6. Identification of foods

by name.

1. Experiences on playlevel:

(a) Growing offood onfarm.

(b) Selling off ood atmarket.

2 Kinds of food.3 Uses of food.

1. Organized plan forpermanent projecton: Store, garden,farm.

2. Buying and selling asactual activity.

3. Conditions necessaryto produce food.

4. Classes and names offood.

5. Cooking of foods.aly*

dia

Reading activities

7

Prereading in nature.)1. Representation of foodobjects seen at

store-m ode 1 ing,drawing (s i z e,shape, and color).

2. Stories and games.3. Development of vo-

cabulary throughoral conversation.

4. Identification by nameand classification offood, as fruit.

5. Dramatic play: Par-ties and horn.e situa-tions.

6. Oral directions.

1. Experience read i ngabout excursions tofarm and store.

2. Oral conversafion.3. Poetry, stories, games.4. Chart reading of

child's originalstories.

5. Free painting to illus-trate stories.

1. Enrichment of exper-ience through excur-sions.

2. Continued oral discuE-sion and chart read-ing.

3. Picture books of food(labels).

4. Printed directions forproject activity.

5. Labels for articles instore Rind farm.

6. Illustration of stories.7. Visual education slides

of meat, bread, milk.8. Introduction to simple

stories of foods inbooks.

9. Signs on can.

Arithmet

1 .

2.3.

4.

5.

a.

1 .

2.

3.

5.

6.

7.

Buyings

CountiLiquid

Glass(milk

BuildinicalNearlightfew;roun

Playhalf-ed b

Sense oof bseal

Identifito 2

Makincent

Weighone-

Liquid

CountDozdoze

Contiing.

Contimet

1. Activiselli

2. Concilkis

tal

3. Measu4. Makin5. Simple6. Lune7. Food

4.

at

u

Qua

(a_

(b

(Os

(I

p

-.."""

p.

44.

activities

in nature.)tation of foodc t s seen atmodeling,g (size,and color).nd games.ment of vo-ry through

onversation.ation by name

lassificition ofS8 fruit.c play: Par-d home situa-

tions.

ce readingexcursions to

and store.versation.stories, games.eading oforiginal

nting tostories.

nt of exper-hrough excur-

oral discus-chart read-

books of food)directions for

activity.or articles in

farm.of stories.tion slides

bread, milk.n to simple

of foods in

OW.

Arithmetical situations

1.

2.3.

4.

5.

6.

Buying articles of foodat store.

Counting objects.Liquid measure:

Glass, pint, quart(milk).

Building of arithmet-ical langu a'g e:Near, far; heavy,light; some, many,few; hard, soft;round, long, short.

Play with pound andhalf-pound weight-ed bean bags.

Sense of balance: Useof balance bar,scales.

1. Identification of coinsto 25 cents.

2. Making change to 10cents.

3. Weights: Pound andone-half pound.

4. Liquid measure:Quart and pint.

5. Counting measure:Dozen and one-halfdozen.

6. Continuation of count-ing.

7. Continuation of arith-metical language.

1. Activity of buying andselling.

2. Concrete problems toillustrate fundamen-tal process of:

(a) Addition to20.

(b) Subtractionto 20.

(c) Multiplicationto 20.

(d) Division to 10.3. Measures of length.4. Making change for $1.5. Simple grocery lists.6. Lunchroom prices.7. Food prices in store.

Spelling needs

None.

None.

pennydimenickelquarterdollarsellbuystorefarmmarketcowhorseRifchickeneggsflourbuttermeatmilkcreamcarmilkmanfoodvegetablepotatocarrots

quartpintpeasbeansonionsorangebananacakebreadcookiegardenplantfarmercutwentapplewatervoundAprilsun

pulloutnearunder

blowrain

money (1 to10)

cabbagegrocerywagontruck

Nature study and mien+

i.

Informal aceiusance with grolthings in enviment:

(a) Helping t4ter piar

(b) Helpingweedden, eti

2. Informal experiwith elementstalked aboutdaily living: SI

clouds, rain, sibugs, pets.

3. identification of f

Discussion of howments make I

grow.2. Classroom garden,3. Picnics: Outdoor cl

ing; building fire

1. Classification of fc2. Types of cooking

values.3. Use of oven therm

eter.4. Lighting and us4

gas, kerosene,wood stoves.

5. Evaporation of win vegetable cool

"elm

7

.

.

,:

t:

s

J.

0

illus-

I:

c1

id'WI

1

`-P-;

f

--

1.

1.

e

s

I

:lance

quaint-Towingnviron-

gtewa-)lants.ng tod gar-etc.

erienceIts asut in

Stars,snow,

)f food.

ow ele-: food

len.or cook-fires.

f foods.ng and

:rmom-

use ofe, and

water:ooking.

Health

11

1.

2.

3.

4.5.

6.

7.

Establishment of hab-its of cleanliness bypractice.

Handling of food uten-sils.

Slow eating with cor-rect mastication.

Washing foods: Fruits.Establishment of regu-

lar eating habits-no eating betweenmeals.

Brushing teeth aftermeals.

Establishment of cor-rect habits of elimi-nation.

1. Continuation of habitestablishment.

2. Cleanliness of dishes.3. Attractiveness of

served food.4. Scrubbing of food be-

fore cooking.5. Care of burns and cuts

obtained in kitchen*.6. Correct posture at

table.-

1. Habits raised to levelof why they aredone.

2. Simple explanation ofhow food is chosen:body-building foods,bone-bialding foods,roughage, heat food&

Manual experiences

13

1. Free play with largesaw, hammer, nails.

2. Crude toys needed iryown play.

1. Making:(a) Large boxes for

111 vegetable bin.(b) Holders.(c) Mats for table.(d) Garden mark-

ers.2. Activity in cooking

and Washing dishes.3. Painting stimulated

by trips.

1.

2.

3.

Making:(a) Shelves for

kitchen.(b) Baskets to use in

shoppirig.(c) Benches for seats.

Painting tables andchairs.

Sewing: napkins, tablecove% ,towels, etc.

Physical activitiel and recrea-tion-not necessarily related

18

1. Individual play to pro-mote acquaintancewith en vironment,exploration.

2. Toys: Wagon, laddersapparatus.

3. Sand play.4. Large blocks.5. Free rhythmic response

to music.6. Rest periods.

1. Singing and simple disccle games.

2. Free rhythms.3. Dramatif play: House

trains.4. Block play developed

in groups.5. Active games of simple

type.6. Story playing.7. Sensory games.8. Relaxation.

1. Group games.2. Pattern rhythm in folk

dance types.3. Apparatus play.4. Dramatics.5. Parties.6. Relaxation.

I

'

I

I

1

4P

,

QIb

'

13 to 16____

GP

6 to 9__

Below 9_ _

9 or above__ _

1. Primary or intermedi-ate characteristics.

2. Desire for companion-ship in play.

3. Purposeful aCtivity inthat the proauctsatisfies own desirei.

4. Beginning of forma-tion of small groups.

o


2. Ability to combine insmall groups f o rgroup work.

3. Use of tools of learningto facilitate activity.

4. Completion of work foruse.

5. Response to repetitionand drill.

4.)


2. Group control withrecognized leaders.

3. Acceptance of routine.4. Increased responsibil-

ity for conduct andtasks.

5. Initiative in settingown tasks.

6. More effective utiliza-tion of practice.

7. Development of motorcontrol.

8. Wider social interests.

1. Setting tables.. 2. Pouring milk, cutting

bread and butterfor tables.

3. Making bread andmuffins.

4. Making butter.5. Cooking simple -des-

serts.6. Clearing tables and

stacking dishes.

1. Buying food.

-2. Preparation of vege-tables.

3. Assistance in cooking.4. Washing and care of

dishes.

1.2.3.4.5.6.

7.8.9.

Telephone ordering.Planning menus.Budgeting.Paying bills.Daily serving of food.Preservation of food

refrigeration.Canning.Cooking for parties.Supervision of garbage

disposal.

1 . Ta

2. Fif

To:(a)(b)(e)

(d)

1. Int

2. Tr1

3. Im

4. Bu

1

I. 6 to i2.1

13 to

Mo OM 400 MOP

_ _ _

4.

eft.

To--(a) Stores.(b) Warehouse

where foodcomes in.

(c) Vegetable andfish markets.

(d) Dairy plant.(e) Bakery.(f) Freight cars, re-

f r i gerationCars.

(g) Farm.Fishing trip.

(a) Meat. market.(b) Fruit ship.(c) Sugar factory.(d) Bottling plaiit.

Inspection of hotel orcafeteria kitchen.

Trip to cold-storageplant.

Inspection of commun-ity garbage diaposal.

Buying trips in com-munity designedto compare valuesoffered.

1. Experiences on playlevel:

(a) Growing offood onfarm.

(b) Selling off ood atmarket.

2. Kinds of food.3 Uses of food.

1. Organized plan forpermanent projecton: Store, garden,farm.

2. Buying and selling asactual activity.

3. Conditions necessaryto product food.

4. Classes and names offood.

5. Cooking of foods.

1. Sources of food:(a) Market.(b) Farmer.(c) Wheat farmer.(d) Flour mill.(e) Sugar farmer.(f) Meat farmer.(g) Fruit farmer.

2. Seasonings and bev-erages.

3. Manufacture of food:(a) Meving of man-

ufacturing.(b) Canning of foods.

4. Health in relation tofood.

5. Preparation of foodsin home.

_

1. Experience readingabout excursions tofarm and store.

2. Oral conversation.3. Poetry, stories, games.4. Chart: reading of

child's originalstories.

5. Free painting to illus-trate stories.

1. Enrichment of exper-ience through excur-sions.

2. Continued oral discus-sion and chart read-ing.

3. Picture book& of food(labels).

4. Pribted directions forproject activity.

5. Labels for articles instore End farm.

6. Illustration of stories.7. Visual education slides

of meat, bread, milk.8. Introduction to simple

stories of foods inhooks.

9. Signs on can.

scats

1. Identito 2

2. Makicen

3. Weighon

4. Li

5. CountDodoz

6. Contiing.

7. Contimet

1. Activiselli

2. Coneillutal

3. Mewl4. Maki5. Simp6. Lune7. Food

1. Informational reading 1. Auof reference for social nscience. th

2. Newspaper advertise- . Marments. 3. Bud

3. Recreational reading. 4. Fam4. Notebook. 5. Size5. Stories of excursions.

C.

,

.11 - ' %JP 16...

.

.

4.

I.

Qua

o

(I

(i

(

(s

Í Cal

reaAingrsion8 totore.tion.

ing ofiginalto into-

exper

read-

of food

ons fority.cles in

stories.n slides

milk.simpleds in

ingr social

ertise-

mg.

ions.

, -scales.

-

1. Identification of coinsto 25 9ents.

2. Making change to 10cents.

3. Weights: Pound.' andorig.-half pound.

4. Liquid mess r e :Quart arid pint.

5. Counting measure:Dozen and one-halfdozen.

6. Continuation of count-ing.

7. Continuation of arith-metical language.

1. Activity of buying andselling.

Concrete problems toillustrate fundamen-tal process of:

(a) Addition to20.

(b) Subtractionto 20.

(c) Multiplicationto 20.

(d) Division to 10.3. Measures of length.4. Making change for $17.5. Simple grocery lists.6. Lunchroom prices.7. Food prices in store.

e

1. Automatization ofnumber factsthrough drill.

2. Marketing.3. Budgeting for foods.4. Family grocery bills.5'. Sizes and numbers of

canned goods.

None.

pennydimenickelquarterdollarsellbuystorefarmmarketCOWhorsepigchickeneggsflourbuttermeatmilkcreamcarmilkmanfood'vegetablepotatocarrotspound

quartpintpeasbeansonionsorangebananacakebreadcookiegardenplantfarmercutwentapplewatergroundAprilsunmoney

10)cabbagegrocerywagoutruck

pulloutnearunder

blowrain(1 to

V-

List in level 3, above;additional words usedill notebook work; also:

manufacturefactorycancondensedcheeseice creamcerealbreakfastfoodwheatryesalmon

, sardines

fishbeetspickelspeachesspinachsoupjamjellycornpearspineapplesugar

Discussion of how ele-ments make foodgrow.

2. Classroom garden.3. Picnics: Outdoor cook-

ing; building fires.

1. Classification of foods.2. Types of cooking and

values.3. Use of oven thermom-

eter.4. Lighting and use of

gas, kerosene, andr.

wood stoves.5. Evaporation of water

in vegetable cooking.

1. Preservation of foods:cold, heat.

2. Effect of soda on sourmilk; effect of yeaston bread, etc.

3. Opening bottles underrunning hot water.

4. Action of cleaningagents.

5. Purification of water.6. Pasteurization of milk.7. Fire extinguishing

nilethgds.1

ir4..r.

s, gAmes.

excur-

discus-rt

.

a .

d,

e

,*

. .

:=*.il4.#,I,yiJet:;

.9.

s,

s

. r

.

r"' .

a

r

.

:

.

s.

A.

-ewe

1. Continuation of habit_establishment.

2. Cleanliness of dishes.3. Attractiveness of

served food.4. Scrubbing of food be-

fore cooking.5. Care of burns and cuts

obtained in kitchen.6. Correct posture at

table.

1. Habits raised to levelof why they aredone.

2. Simple explanation ofhow food is chosen:body-building foods,boe-building foods,roughage, heat foods.

as.

1. Preservation of foods:from harmful bac-teria.

2, Buying unadulteratedfoods.

$., Healthful methods ofCooking vegetables.

4. Pasteurization of milk.4. Milk delivery and con-

tagious diseases.6. Disease and steriliza-

tion of food.7. Preparation of bal-

anced menus..8. Preparation of food

for babies and smallchildren.

1. Making:(a) Large boxes for

vegetable bin.(b) Holders. .

(c) Mats for table.(d) Garden mark-

ers.2. Activity in cooking

and washing dishes.Painting stimulated

by trips.

1. Making:(a) Shelves for

kitchen.(b) Baskets to use in

shopping.(c) Benches for seats.

2. Painting tables and'chairs.

3. Sewing: napkins, tablecovers, towels, etc.

1. Carving of fruit bowls.2. Repair of toasters.3. 'Replacing fuses.4. Replacing water fau-

cets.5. Tin works cookie cut-

ter.6. Making tables.7. Caning chairs.g. Advanced. sewipg.

A

1. Singing and simple cir-cle games.

2. Free rhythms.3. Dramatic play: House,

trains.4. Block play developed

in groups.5. Active games of simple

type.6. Story playing.7. Sensory games.8. Relaxation.

1.2.

3.4.5.6.

Group games.Pattern rhythm in folk

dance types.Apparatus play.Dramatics.Parties.Relaxation.

1. Social games of moresedentary type.

2. Parties. '7

3. Social dancing.4. Clubs. .5. Hobbies.6. Trips.7. Dramatics.8. Relaxation.

80063--36 (Face p. 32)

-

-..

4

-

3.

./


gives an idea of how a unit of experience on foods can beadapted to any one or more of the groups included.

Unit on, child care.In somewhat different form is giventhe description of part of a unit on child care, as adaptedfrom the report of several teachers who storked togetherfor the instruction of a group of adolescent girls, rangingin chronological age from 14 to 16 years. and in mentalage from about 8 to 10 years. The objedive of the unitw'as to prepare the girls for better service when caringfor. children either in their own homes or as a means ofearning a livelihood. It was divided into three parts, asfollows: (1) Entertainment of the child from 1 to 6; (2)Food for the preschool child; (3) Care and hygiene of thepreschool child. The content of the first of these is brieflyoutlined below.'

Entertainment of the child from 1 to 6

A. Story telling:_1. Selection of material':

a. Class discussion of types of material suitable for youngchildren: Nursery rhymes, animal stories, fairystories.

b. Illustrations of various types of stories, as told byteacher.

C. Search for material by girls in library and at home.d. Listing of stories for future reference.

2. Learning to tell stotesa. Development in class of outline for story: Introduction,

events, conclusion.b. Discussion of outlines as made by individual girls.C. Writing in detail the stories to be told.d. Practice in telling stories in class.

3. Telling stories to:a. Preprimary children in the same school.b. Brothers and sisters at home.C. Children at baby party.

B. Games:1. Discussion of various types of play activity and games; their

relation to health and recreation.2. Observation of and report on children at play in kinder-

garten, in nursery school, on playground, at home.3. Construction of cut-out puzzles, toys, and scrapbooks for use

of children.

For details of this and other units of experience, see Office of Educationbulletin, 1983, no. 7, "Group Activities for Mentally Retarded Children."

(o

. I

"..:.- . 1 t 0, .'414Ntsv4p-,- ---*

----R. 1:1* -u,-&,..i.,_ .j.--- .- - ,; 04__.-.7 .. .-,----. .-=-..,-. --.-- - ,--,-- ,

e

I


4. Practice in playing with the children at school and at howe,with reports and discussion of progress.

C. Planning and conducting a baby party for 20 children under G

years of age, with entertainment through games, toys, andstories, and with refreshments made and served by the girls.

The place of reading, language, and spelling in a unitof this kind is evident. Stories were read, written, andtold. Reports were made on observations and work done.Lists of stories, games, and other types of entertainmentwere kept. Health and physical education entered thepicture in the choice of recreational activities, and evenmore so in the other two parts of the unit not describedhere, dealing with food and child hygiene. Art, music,and hand work were used in the preparation of material.The plans for the baby party and the budgeting of ex-penses met in other parts of the unit necessitated the useof numbers. Social concepts were of course emphasizedthroughout. The entire unit was an- excellent example ofhow many of the vitally functioning elements of real educa-tion can be coordinated on the basis of an experience ofimmense practical value and interest to adolescent girls.

TIME ALLOTMENTS AND DAILY SCHEDULES

The daily division of time among the several activitiesincluded in a unit of work may seem to some a difficultproblem. Obviously, if the experience is functioningsocially in a vital way, tight corripartments cannot be as-signed to subjects as such. Nor can any division of time besuggested that will fit all situations at all periods of theye.ar. This does not mean that the amount of time givento a particular activity may be left to take care of itself,determined only by the inspiration or fancy of the hour.Careful judgment must be exerc. ed, based on purposkiulplanning in the light of thè childre s needs and the contentof the unit of experience under way.

In general, it seems safe to say that a carefully plannedschedule for childrenlof primary and intermediate ages willshow approximately one half of the day (or of the week)used for the teaching of various skills (both academic andmanual) needed in the unit of experience, and the other halffor the pursuit of socializing group activities which are in.


volved in the unit and which give opportunities for theapplication of learned skills. Needed variation made foradolescents will be in the direction of increasing manualand group work of a socializing type and minimizing thetime spent on academic drill. In order to keep the divisionof time flexible, many class programs are made on a weeklyrather than a daily basis. This insures a certain amount offreedom from daPir to day and yet furnishes a definite stand-ard of procedure.

The following are specific suggestions relative to thedaily program, as given by the State Department of PublicInstruction to teachers of special classes for retarded chil-dren in Pennsylvania : 2

In the organization and administration of an effective daily pro-gram for the orthogenic backward, the incorporation of the followingpractices will lessen learning difficulties and provide, as nearly aspossible, an optimum educational opportunity for each pupil:

1. The unification or correlation of all instruction insofaras feasible and practical in the development of projects or in-tegrated units of study, directly related to the daily socialexperiences of the pupils.

2. The apportionment of relatively long periods or blocks oftime to related subject materials and activities, resulting ineconomy of time and more effective teaching.

3. The sectioning of the class into groups of approximateachievement levels for daily instruction in oral and writtenexpression, spelling, and number tests.

4. The teaching of the class as a unit in other literary sub-jects, the necessary adaptations being made by the teacher tocompensate for individual differences.

5. The profitable occupation of each pupil with correlatedseatwork or manual activities throughout the day when workingindependently.

6. The use of the most effective learning periods of the dayfor the most difficult subjects.

7. The arrangement of subsists so that a difficult subject willbe followed by a relatively eali one.

8. Limiting academic instruction to brief teaching periods.O. Providing short relief periods between academic teaching

periods.

I Pennsylvania. Organisation and Administration of Special EducationClasses for the Orthogenic Backward, Harrisburg, Pa., State Department ofPublic Instruction. Bulletin 85, 1935, pp. 32-33.


StMMARY

1. The only adequate basis for realizing the objectivesset forth for the education of mentally retarded childrenis a curriculum planned in terms of the day-by-day experi-ences of the child in life situations.

2. The "unit of experience" provides the means for in-tegrating classroom work with real lifé. It provides alsothe means for giving vital meaning to the use of academicskills within the ability of the child.

3. Units of experience should be adapted to the char-acteristics of the community in which the children live aswell as to the age and ability levels of the children forwhom they are planned.

4. Unit& of experience dealing with home and communitylife afford rich opportunity in every community for thedevelopment of habits, attitudes, and skills essential to suc-cessful living for mentally retarded children.

5. The division of time among the various activities of theday or we'ek must be kept flexible and yet meet the condi-tions of careful planning in the light of the children'sneeds.


CALIFORNIA. CURRICAJLUM COMMISSION. Teachers guide to childdevelopment. Sacramento, Calif., California state printing office,1930. 658 p.

Published in abbreviated form by Government printing office, Washington,D. C., as Office of education bulletin, 1930, no. 26.

A manual for kindergarten and primary teachers, giving the essentials ofan activity program and descriptions of numerous activities developed inthe schools of California. Suggestions for planning and evaluating similaractivities are included. Illustrated. Bibliography for teachers and forchildren.

CLOUSER, LUOY W., ROBINSON, WILMA J., and NELLY, DENA L Educa-tive experiences through activity units. New York, Lyons andCarnahan, 1932. 352 p.

A "record of some of the activities carried on durkng 1 year in two roomsof the Kansas City public schools." Describes specific activity units andfurnishes abundant bibliographical material on the subjects represented.

GITSTIN, MARGARET, and HAYES, MARGARET L. Activities in the publicschool. Chapel Hill, N. C., University of North Carolina press,1934. 290 p.

A compilation of units,of activity for various grade levels, with descrip-tions of classroom experiences and bibliographical material to be used witheach one. Illustrated. Bibliography.


INGRAM, CHRISTINE P. (See chapter 2.)MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA. Minneapolis public schools, Curriculum

committee. Course of study in special education for retarded chil-dren. Minneapolis, Public schools, 1933. 262 p.

An outline of curriculum activities developed by the special-class teachersof the Minnesota public schools under the supervision of the Direc.tor ofspecial education. Based on the principle of integration of classroom ex-periences, with emphasis upon their meaning in the daily lives of thechildren.

Purr, CAROLINE. Experimental practice in the city and country dayschool. New York, E. P. Dutton and company, 1924. 302 p.

An organized record of the activities of a progressive school in develop-ing its program about the experiences of the children and on the basis oftheir interests and abilities, looking toward their orientation in and con-tribution to a social world. Lists materials used in the classroom.

rNITED STATES. OFFICE OF EDUCATION. Group activities for mentallyretarded children. Washington, Government printing office, 1933.146 p. (Bulletin, 1933, no. 7.)

A compilation of activity units and projects contributed by successfulteachers of special classes in various parts of the country. The activitiesdescribed represent various fields, including the home and the community,social science, nature study, music, and literature.

ze"

CHAPTER 5: PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH

M-ORE AND MORE are physical health and mentalhealth coming to be considered not as distinct en-tities but as two different phases of the same gen-

eral problem. Narrowly conceived, physical health relatesto bodily or organic condition, while mental health refersto emotional response, mental attitudes, and social reactions.In the treatment of children's behavior problems these twocannot be separated, for each is reflected in the other. Inthe diagnosis of adult ills, also, they are found to be closelyinter-related. Hence it seems fitting that any discussionof their significance in the lives of mentally retarded ail-dren should recognize this fact of intimate relationship.Each represents one aspect of the total health situation inwhich the indis:idual finds himself. As they are furtherdiscussed in this chapter, the reader should constantly keepin mind the influence that each exerts upon the other.

4

PHYSICAL HEALTH

The maintenance of good bdclily health is a major goalfor every child. To help him to achieve this aim is theresponsibility of the school through its program of lwaltheducation. In such a program both specific instruction andthe éncouragement of good habits are essential. Mere ialk-mg about health does not suffice. All children must havedaily practical experiences in the care of the body that willserve to inculcate proper health habits and attitudes. If thisis true of the average child, it is of much greater impor-tance for the seriously retarded, who does not grasp abstractprinciples readily nor see the relation between the act andits consequences, either for good or bad.

Content of health edueation.There is no reason whythe general content of health education should be differentfor retarded children than fin° the intellectually normal.

39

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Good health is the aim for all. The difference lies ratherin the insistent emphasis upon simplification of health prin-ciples and their application in keeping with the limitedintellectual ability of retarded children. For the youn:.!child primary emphasis should be placed 'upon establishin(rsimple habits of personal hygiene, bodily coordination, andprotection against accident and disease. As the child growsolder, he should be assisted in making applications of healthprinciples in home and community situations, as well as inthe maintenance and the further development of his ownphysical efficiency.

In "Education of the Slow-Learning Child", ChristineIngram summarizes the health habits and attitudes thatshould be taught as follows:1

The slow-learning child should learn to practice personal habits ofcleanliness, of good posture, and of healthful dresshabits that ex-perience has shown are also directly related to the development alself-respect. The child sh9uld 1:T taught to care for his eyes, ears, anilthroat; to appreciate Ohe value of well-ventilated and well-lightedrooms, of exercise in the open, and of regularity in exercise andrest ; to choose and prepare healthful foods; and to observe safetyrules.

Habits and attitudes of hygienic living that will aid in the main-tenance and promotion of the health of others are also necessary.The child should be guided to consider the effect of his health habitson the health and comfort of those around him 4as well as theireffect on himself. He should learn about communicable diseases antihow to use community health facilities and to administer some ofthe steps in first aid.

Coordinated activitie8.--Such health experiences as arereferred to by Ingram can becoriie an integral part of manyunits of experience that superficially may seem unrelated tothe subject. A unit on shelter, for example, provides op-portunities for emphasis upon proper lighting, adequateventilation, the use of bath tubs and wash basins (muchneeded in some commuziities), and myriad other items ofimportance to health. Similarly, a unit of experience onclothing gives rise to abuhdant possibilities for teachinghealthful dress and cleanliness. The health implicationsof a unit on foods are recognized perhaps most readily of

I Ingram, Christine. Education of the Slow-Learning Child. Yonken-on-Hudson, New York, World book companyN985. p. 64.

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all, for this opens up all the avenues of approach to teach-ing' nutritive values, the need of balanced meals, care andcleanliness in preparing and preserving food, eating habits,and the essentials of dietary knowledge. Health andscience can be coordinated in the study of water, drainage,and communicable disease.2 Ilealth and the arts can becoordinated through 'rhythmical activities that emphasizegood posture, proper exercise, and muscular coordination.3Social studies bring into the picture community facilitiesfor healthful living,. healthful working habits, and safetyregulations.* There is not a field of the curriculum thatdoes not offer an opportunity for stressing some aspects ofhealth education.

The teacher's responzibility.--There are certain elementsof a health-education program which, if met at all, mustbe met by the teacher's personal attention, first, to class-room conditions, and, second, to individual children. Tem-perature, ventilation, lighting, and desk adjustment areamong the problems that demand daily consideration.Unless the child wOrks under healthful -conditions he cannotbe expected to maintain either physicaror mental heálth.Moreover, cdreful observation and periodic check of eachchild's physical status are essential to his well-being, espe-cially if he comes from a home in which healthful livingconditions are lacking. The. daily wash and daily useof a tooth brush, the periodic bath, even the laundering ofclothes are frequently responsibilities which the school mustmeet. Sensory handicaps, malnutrition, nasal obstructions,and other physical impairments would for some childrennever be discovered unless the school undertook to do so.To give the personal attentiim demanded by each child inthe light of his physical condition and environment is asmuch a part of the health-education program as the teach-ing of proper breathing. Constant vigilance on the partof the teacher is necessary if he would remove unnecessaryhindrances to the child's use of all the ability which hepossesses.

2 See also chapter 9, on "Experiences in Science."'See also ,chapter 9, on "Experiences in the Arts."6 See also chapter 6, on "Social Experiences."


Source material.--Any good text in health education willyield an abundance of suggestive material which theteacher can use and adapt to.the needs of his group. Con-sideration of the topic in these pages is brief, not becaueexperiences in health and physical development are lack-ing in importance, but because the teacher is urged tolook upon the problem as one that is common to all chil-dren and to utilize to the maximum the excellent guides

. that have been developed for al1.5

MENTAL HEALTH

Physical welhbeing contributes substantially to mentalhealth. Important as the former is, the latter is evenmore essential for the welfare of any person. It connotesan inner personal adjustment, an emotional stability, anability to get along with other people. It presupposeshappiness in living and a sense of someeven thoughlimitedaccomplishment.

Application to retarded children.The mentally retardedpupil has a serious handicap. Any child with a handicapis at a disadvantage when he competes with other childrennot so haridicapped. ,It is but logical that unhafTiness.emotional conflict, and emotional straid are likely to resultin his life. If, therefore, the retarded pupil is to be rea-sonably happy, he must have guidance and supervisionthat will help him to face his handicap squarely and tofind the avemies in life through which he can give acceptable

*service. This guidance niusi begin early in life, since socialmaladjustment is likely to- have its beginning in childhood.If habits of disappointment and inferiority are allowedto persist for several months or even years, they becomeso deeply fixed in the personality of the child that it isdifficult to change them. Sometimes it is impossible forany complete correction to be made. The child's handicapshould therefore be discovered early. The developmentof satisfactory habits must be encouraged and unsatisfac-tory ones prevented. Necessary allowance should be madefor the handicap. Careful supervision and training should

s See ' `Suggestions for reading" at the end of this chapter. /lb


keep the child and those about him from expecting theimpossible.

One of the dangers often encountere'd in the life of thehigh-grade mental defective is that too much is expected ofhim. He may a.ppear to be normal. He may act nsormallyin most situations. The majority of people who meet himare likely to think of him as normal. As a result, he is fre-quently directed to tasks that he is unable to perform. Hefails, with disastrous results to himself and to others. Onewho understands his weaknesses would never have assignedsuch tasks to him.

Yet, while making allowance for the child's handicap, theteacher should at the same time make the greatest possibleuse of those powers which he does possess. He usually hasseveral personal characteristics thaCapproach the normal.He may have a good body, good eyes, good ears, reasonablecontrol of his muscles. These better qualities should be dis-covered and used to their maximum. No fixed rules can begiven for the education of a mentally retarded child fromthis standpoint. The happiness and success of any persondepend upon many adjustable elements. For e'xample, aperson of low mental capacity would ordinarily find greatrdifficulty in a complex city ehvironment, where social andindustrial competition is keen, than in a quiet, rural com-munity. Likewise, the competition in a large class of 40 or50 pupils is almost sure to be disastrous to him, while mem-bership in a small group in which special consideration canbe given to his needs will increase several hundredfold hischances for success. But "success" must always be definedin terms of the ability with which one has to work. Whatis outstanding. success for 14-year-old Jimmie with an intel-ligence quotreht of 60 should be deemed a failure for 10-

:,year-old John with an intelligence quotient of 125. To beable to understand the meaning of "success" and "failure"for each pupil is one of the essential qualifications of steacher who would apply the principles of mental hygieneto his teaching.

Problems of parents and teachers.--It is equally/impor-tant to realize that parents and teachers are frequently inneed of the services of mental hygiene as mucly as or even

80058 --80--4

4

44 .MFANTALLY RETARDED CHILDREN

more than the child. It should be clearly understood thatthe difficdlty which confronts many a child has its originin the maladjusted life of the parent or other adult whois in the position of directing° him. When the prpper solu-tion in the life of the adult has been found, the child'sproblem often disappears. For this reason mental hygienefor children who have problems must in large measure bedirected at the teachers and parents of those children. Thedictatorial, restless, antagonistic, moo67 teacher or parentis showing signs of mental trouble himself. Such an adultcannot expect to be successful in helping to solve the enm-tional maladjustments of children. He should realize thathe must try to put into his own life the same characteristicswhich he seeks in the life of the child, namely, courage,á reasonable degree of independence, calmness, cheerfulness,friendliness: .He shòuld make his own life as free as possi-ble from unnecessary hurry and worry and high pressure,finding happiness in the development of wholesome interestsand activities that bring a feeling of success and t`tvortli-whileness."

Mental health, the enenee-of the entire curriculumTheconcept of mental health should permeate the whole curricu-lum. Needless to say it is not possible to set apart a halfhour each day for instruction of this kind. Mental healthbegins with the teacher's understanding of the child's need;it finds expression in every activity of the day in which thechild is helped to live socially with other people and to con-tribute his bit to the total welfare. Every unit of experiencegives opportunity for demonstratio4 of habits of coopera-

. tion, thoùghtfulness, honesty, and other socially desirabletraits. The time to impress them is not after school whenliome child has been detained for infringement of the rules;bat in the actual work and play and discuksion that takeplace in the course of the day. Situations as-they arise con-

. stitute the subject matter of iiistruCtiòn. The teacher whowould use the principles of mental hygiene must be quickto see and to use the opportuhities growing out of thehomely hap'penings. of. the day. ilts nwst be able, too, loplan a program of work that will make maxim)tm provisionfor the development of ifituations in which liental hygiene

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and character education will function. Some specific éxam-ples of how this can be brought about through the' unit ofexperienco are given in the following chapters.

SUMMARY

1. Physicál and mental health are. the foundation stoneupon which happiness and efficiency are built. Hence healtheducation, including both physical -and mental hygiene, isbasic to all curricular activities.

2. The content of health education is the same for re-tarded children as for intelleCtually normal children, withrecognition of the need for simplifying instructional meth-ods in keeping with the limitations of the child.

3. Every unit of experience involves aspects or ;workwhich can be utilized for the development of physical andmental health, life situations and experiences furnishing thematerial for impressing the lessons needed.

4. Each child should be studied, his Arengths and weak-nesses evaluated, and tasks fitted to his nature and his needs

. as long as he remains under educational direction.5. Teachers aria parents are sometimes quite as much in

need of help in mental hygiene as are children, particularlyif their own lives are seriously maladjusted. The social mal-adjustment of children is frequently caused pr at least en-hanced by the personal maladjustment of adults who dealwith them.


Physical Health

ANDRESS, JAMES M., ALDIN.GER, A. K., and GOLDBERGER, J. H. Healthessentials. Boston, Ginn and company, 1928. 481 p.

A textbook written for high schools, but an excellent `source of informa-tion for the teacher who wishes to adapt the material to the needs ofspecial classes.

BAuER, W. W. Contagious diseases, what they are and how to dealwith them. New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1934. 218 p. r

A book written to meet th-e prahical needs of mothers in protecting theirchildren 'against communicable diseases. Teachers will find many sugges-tions of valye for application in the schtol.

CHARTERS, W. W., SMILEY, DEAN F., and STRANG, Ruin M. Healthand growth series. New York, Macmillan company, 1935. fliustrated. ..


Six books, as follows: Good habits, 185 p.; Living healthfully,184 p.; Wise health choices, 211 p.; Health problems, 229 p.; Ad-ventures in health, 225 p.; Health knowledge, 254 p.

Also published in three volumes as follows : Kf,eping healthy; The body'sneeds; Health through science. Intended' for children's use.ROSE, MARY' SWARTZ. Feeding the family. New York, Macmillan

company, 1924. 487 p.A source book of information for the teacher who would bring into theclassroom experiences the application of health knowledge as applied to food.

Mental Health

IRWIN, ELIZABETH A., and MARKS, Louis A. Fitting the schoul tothe child. New York, Macmillan company, 1924. 339 p.

Gives an account of the results of classifying the pupils of a largeelementary school by means of intelligence tests and of methods usod indiagnosing and treating children's difficulties. Emphasizes the need ofaclaptiw school work to the capacities of children in order to preservemental health and develop wholesome personality.

MORGAN, JOHN J. B. Psychology of the unadjusted school child.New York, Macmillan company, 1936. 346 p. (Revised edition.)

A very readable discussion of the difficulties of school children from thestandpoint of behavior and personality. and of the possibilities within reachof the téacher in helping to remove such difficulties.

MYERS, GARRY CLEVEIAND. Developing personality in the child atschool. New York, Greenberg, Inc., 1931. 375 p.

Written for teachers, with consideration of the many Aspects of theproblem that apply to children's behavior and the mainte.dance or develop-ment of mental health.

SYMONDS, PERCIVAL M. Mental hygien of the school child. New York,Macmillan _company, 1934. 321 p.`

s.

One of the more recent texts in mental hygiene, written primarily forteachers, with emphasis upon the positive, preventive aspects of the subject.Bibliography.

NOTF.See also books of comprehensive scope listed in chapters 2and 3.

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*T.

CHAPTER 6: SOCIAL EXPERIENCES

rr0 LIVE happily a man must be able to get along withhis fellows, respect the rights of others, recognize thevalue of cooperation, desire to earn an honest living,

and respect the laws of the country in which he lives. Thehighest type of behavior along these lines can be obtainedonly through constant practice in the early years. If thereis sufficient repetition of a Pecific situation, a habit. of be-havior is formed. A habit once formed is not easily broken.

0, The school must accept its responsibility -along with thehome and the church in helping to develop socially accept-able habits. Hence, social experiences must play a vitalpart in the life of the school. In fact they should formthe basis pf the entire curriculum. .-.

WHAT SOCIAL EXPERIENCES SHALL BE UWE"?

What are those soeial experiences which are most' con-.ducive to the development of a socially accepted ahd respected personality ? .No attempt will be made to cover' theeniire realm of life experiences that would be included 'in.Sjlis category. A lew suggestions, however, teen froinactual experienCe in the classroom will indicate the bastisof selection-.

he horne.--PreviQus to the child's entering sOlool, hehas been associated mokly with members of his own family.'The relationships, duties, responsibilities, and attitudescommonly found in the home slay well be the point of de-parture which the teacher uses to aid in the adjuamerit ofthe child to the' itew situations in which he finds himselfin the school. The teacher should so far as possible makecontacts with the homes represented in his clas;, learn -ofeach child's environment, and obtain the cooperAtion of thehome in brinfing about needed improvement of attitudesand relationsfiips.

47

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In chapter 4 two units relating to home life were de-scribed which offered material for social activities. Othersuggestions for socializing experiences based on the homeare given in the outline on page 50. These are illustrativeof the wealth of opportunity that lies in this field A.0 de-velop a comprebensive unit in accordance with the agesand abilities of the pupils concerned.

The 8c1o01 and the community.--Next to the home in theexperience of the child comes the school, and after theschool comes the community. Ciirriculum makers shoulddraw freely upon each of these fields in the developmentof units of experience that will place the child in socialsituations of vital importance to his growth as a socialbeing. Suggestions taken from school life and from com-munity life are included in the outline on page 50. Need-less to say, each of these will functioli best if it is made apart of a larger situation or experiencti in which the chil-dren are actively participating. Almost any one of themcan be made the background for effective training in socialhabits and attitudes. For example, if a trip to a farmor factory is in prospect, an informal discussion call be de-vefoped in which the children themselves will set the and-ards for their personal appearance and conduct; and whenthey have returned, another informal discussion can beused as a basis for checking their achiev,-ements in thesedirections as well as *for considering the content of theirobservations.

For boys and girls who are about ready to leave schooland to take their places in the working world, it is essefitialthat the employment opportunities of the community beinvestigated. This is a social experience of intense practicalvalue. A list of possibilities can be made out in classthrough group participation, visits made to some of theplants under consideration, find requirements,. advantages,and hazards ,of respective jobs analyzed. The boys andgirls who go out from the school having some familiaritywith the types of jobs that they can probably fill withreasonable satisfaction have taken a big step ioward gettingone of those jobs. Certainly the school sho'uld do as muchas possible in laying the foundation for this very importantphase of the young man's or young woman's life.

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The Nation. and the world.Beyond the immediate com-munity there are the State, the Nation, and the world.Because a child is mentally retarded is no reason why heshould be deprived of the socializing influences of learninga few things about the geography of his country and ofthe world; something, too, of the life of other peopleand of other times; of the history of his own people, cen-tered about the service of a few truly great men and womenof the past, and, for the older pupils, about the most obviouscurrent social and economic issues.

The purpose of using such content with the retardedchild, however, is not to instill mere factual knowledge ofplaces and events, but rather to increase his understandingof life and his consciousness of world citizenship, of thebrotherhood of man, and of his own place in the scheme ofthings. Academic facts of history and geography and gov-ernment are not essential to his happiness, nor do they ofthemselves contribute to any of the objectives set up for theeducation of retarded children. They should be used onlyas incidental concrete means to the building up of idealsand attitudes.

Most if not all of the content suitable for use in thesefields can be introduced as elements of units of experiencein which children are vitally interested. For example, aunit on shelter can with many groups be easily extendedto include a consideration of the houses of the Indians andthe Eskimos, and of the place of these peoples in our na-tional life. Like normal children, the 'mentally retariedtake delight in dressing up like Indians, in building an In-dian wigwam, in 'Riming some of the simpler Indian songs,and in reading or in hearing read the stories of the life ofethe red man. Particularly in communities which have apast intimately related to the Indians would such activitiesbe appropriate.

In California, a study of the discovery of gold in thedays of '49 or of the work of the Spanish mission fatherswould have local significance. In New England, the land-ing of the Pilgrim Fathers and early colonial days wouldbe topics fraught with possibilities of development. Btit inneither of these iections would a study of the exports ofWales or of the history of French Guiana offer anything

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fis


of social value to children whose mental horizon and whosesphere of activity are both seriously limited.

OUTLINE OF SUGGESTED SOCIAL EXPERIENCES TAKENFROM HOME LIFE, SCHOOL LIFE, AND COMMUNITY LIFE

(To be adapted to needs of age and ability levels)A. Social experiences in home life.

1. Experiences for all children :

(ai) Prearranged visit to a home near the school, lot toofar above the level of homes known by the children,but neat and well-kept, to observe items important inhomemaking, such as clean floors, neatly made beds,arrangement of furniture, sanitary provisions, care ofyard and garden.

b) Talks about the visit, the activities, relationships, andresponsibilities of the home as experienced by thechildren.

(c) Reading of stories portraying home life.(d) Making a playhouse, not elaborate but large enough

for the children's use.(e) Arranging a party, with the children as hosts and

hostesses.(f) Discussing the arrival of guests in the homes of the

children, visits from relatives, grandparents, etc., orthe arrival of a new baby in the family.

2. Additional experiences for older girls:(a) All homemaking activities such as cooking, sewing,

house furnishing, arrangement and decoration, careof clothing, and budgeting expenses.

(b) Making notebooks illustrating activities listed underabove.

(c) Shopping excursions; learning how to select and pur-chase commodities used in the home.

(d) Ordèring supplies over the. telephonè.(e) Inviting parents to school to see exhibit of handwork

or other classroom activities.(f) Serving tea. (Older girls should arrange tea table, pour

tea, make sandwiches, cookies, etc. They should feelresponsibility for engaging their parents in conversa-tion, introducing them to their teacher or to otherparenta)

(g) Care of children. (Real children should be used if pos-sible. Day nurseries may cooperate and permit theclass to "adopt" a baby. Reports should be madeon care of baby sisters and brothers.)

(1) Bathing.(2) Dressing. .

(3) Feeding.

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(4) Making clothing.(5) Playing games with young children; enter-

taining them with songs, stories, poems.(6) Arranging a children's party.(7) Helping with the kindergarten group in the

school.3. Additional experiences for older boys:

(a) Constructing play house.(b) Participating in some of the work of the home. such as

picking up clothes, helping mother, shining shoes, run-¡ling errands, shovpling walks, etc.

(0) Collecting pictures of different types of homes for abooklet.

(d) Collecting figures on cost and maintenance of a home:-;"budgeting expenses.

(e) Participating in school's tea party for parents, especiallyin the conversation.

Caring for pets.Working in a garden. (Each boy should have a plot of

his own.)B. Social experiences in school life.

1. Working in groups for a common cause:(a) Game periods; playground activities.(b) Group construction work in classroom.(c) Committee work.

. (d) Participation in paper sales. .

(e) Spontaneous dramatization of stories or situations de-picting the life of various periods, countries, or areas,

(f) Preparation for special holidays or festive occasions.2. Participation in school vivic league meetings or student coun-

cil; in auditorium programs; in school-safety program.3. Membership on bail teams.4. Musical activities; dancing and rhythmic exercises.5. Sharing responsibility for keeping school building in good

condition.6. Observing school activities in other rooms; making contacts

with other class groups whenever the child can compareadvantageously. (This will be for children having specialability in some direction, such as music or art.)

7. Assisting in the preparation and serving of lunches. (Thisprovides an unlimited number of practical experiences aris-ing daily.)

(f)(g)

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52 MENTALLY RETARDED CHILDREN.

C. Social experiences in communitir life.1. Listing and discussing persons in

to OUT needs:(a) City life

(1) Milkman. (5) Druggist.(2) Butcher.(3) Grocer.(4) Baker.

(b)

(6) 011 station(7) Postman.(8) Fireman.

Rural life(1) Farmer.(2) Postman.(3) Thrasher.(4) Corn huskers..(5) Hay balers.(6) Traveling grocer.

community who contribute

(9) Policeman.man. (10) Motorman.

(11) Librarian.(12) Laundryman.

(7)(8)(9)

Traveling druggist.Traveling butcher.Sales people of various

kinds.Traveling librarian.Oil station man.

2. Listing and studying 113,cal industries or places requiringworkers.

3. Making trips:(a) To vftrious places of business.(b) To farms, observing farm activities.(c) To industrial plants.

4. Conversing with people who serve in either- prban or rurallife.

5. Making contacts with people and agencies_ who can give in-formation and guidance, such as doctors, nurses, ministers,and social-agencies.

6. Locating desirable places for recreation, such as parks, play-grounds, neighborhood houses, best movies, and theaters.

7. Locating public buildings, such as churches, gas company,electric company, city hall, fire department.

8. Writing_friendly letters.9. Writing business letters asking for information_ or quotations

of prices, making appointment for an interview, or engag-ing a speaker who will speak to the class on some phaseof communiti life.

10. Participating in fleld-tlay programs on public playgrounds;making use of public parkst swimming beaches, skatingrinks, and other facilities provided for recreational pur-poses.

11. Engaging in interscholastic meets such as football, baseball,basketball.

12. Investigating employment situation in community ; makingout application for Job; studying Workmen's CompensationInsurance forms; consideration of benefits bestowed byemployer.

(1.0)(11)

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PERSONAL GOALS IN HABITS AND ATTITUDES

For purposes of conciseness, desirable habits and atti-tudes are listed in the outline below, with suggestions as tothe types of experiences that will aid in their development.Again it is emphasized, however, that these experiencesare only illustrative and that in every cage they are to beused within the situation to which they belong. They can-not be considered individual lessons or assignments handeddown by the teacher to the pupils, but are elements *withinthe-total unit of experience that suits best the nature of theclass. Development of standards with the pupils ratherthan dictation of standards to the pupils, mutual conatruc-tive help rather than criticism, a positive constructive atti-tude.on the part of the teacher rather than a negative de-structive point of view, the use of specific situations ratherthan abstract generalizationsthese are some of the key-notes of successful curriculum development. They shouldbe constantly kept in mind in the interpretation and useof the personal goals presented in the outline belQw.

Special emphasis should be placedupon the inculcationof habits of self-reliance and courage. Perhaps there isno child more in need of courage than the mentally retarded,unless it is the child with two or itore handicaps. Theentire curriculum should be organized with the idea of devel-opi,ng in him, insofar as possible, the necessary pluck to carryon in a world not particularly favorable to him. Experienceswhich tend to develop courage include those which givehim confidence in himself. Receiving appreciation for ef-forts made will stimulate the 'spirit and the desire to gofurther. Meeting ridicule without caring too much is oftenaccomplished through achievement in some specific type ofwork. Observing workers in the various industries encour-ages boys and girls to work toward the time when they maybe similarly occupied. No Art should be spared to makethem feel that they can achieve in their own way.


OUTLINE OF PERSONAL GOALS AND SUGGESTEDEXPERIENCES

HABITS AND ATTITUDES SUGGESTED EXPERIENCESNeatness and clean- 1. Development with children of essential

liness. elements of personal hygiene. (On thebasis of the list of items or questionsdeveloped, let each child use a self-rating card and talk it over with theteacher from time to time.)

2. Use of the same items in helping eachchild to keep a "Book About Myself"at the Party, on the trip, or in someother specific situation.

3. Emphasis upon child's johysical assets,and encouragement to make the mostof them in his personal appearance.

Tolerance _ _ _ Recognition of individual differences whichmust be respected. (Example: Any classoften enrolls a child who deviates verymuch either in appearance or behavior,such as an epileptic, whose seizures arc ofthe petit mal type, or a mild post-ericepha-litis case. By talking confidentially to thegroup in the absence of the child in ques-tion, the teacher can enlist the sympathiesof the group and make the deviate sociallyacceptable. The attitude of tolerance forpersons more successful in schoolthose

a not in the sPosial classis less easilyformed, .but even that may come if con-tacts can be made so that the retardedchild feels equal or superior in some re-spect. Through such contact the retardedchild also learns teat there are those whoare superior to him in other ways and he isled to face his own handicap squarely.)

Coop6eration__ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1. Participation in group activities:(a) Planning together for any future

event.(b) Working together toward a common

goal, such as bringfrig papers fora paper sale, decorating theChristmas tree for the school.

(c) Contributing to a room exhibit, il-lustrating some phase of school

, work.2. Collection of data sad editing a school

paper.3. Organization of a school museum.

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HABITS AND ATTITUDES SUQGESTED EXPERIENCESFair play and honesty_ 1. Engaging hbsports, competitive and co-

operative; playground activities; inter-school meets.

2. Use of streetcar coins for transportationto and from school when furnished byschool system.

3. Running errands involving expenditure ofmoney.

4. Facing situations truthfully.5. Use of cash register in cafeteria trining

classes.6. Marketing and ROhool banking experiences.

. Using one's time without waste.8. Assisting in sale of toys and other hand-

work.Self-reliance and I. Planning gchool plays.

courage. 2. Participating in auditorium periods.3. Reading stories to a group of younger

children.4. Keeping a list of individual achievements.

(a) Making a toy.Keeping an orderly desk.

(c) Learning to read, spell, write, orfigure.

(d) Enumerating any special talents.-(1) Singing solos.(2) Playing any musical instru-

. ment.5. boing something for others. (Examples':

A special class in a very poor districtdiscovered that towels were no longerfurnished to the school; so they col-lected sugar sacks, washed and hemmedthem, and made them ready for use inthe school. They have hemmed 400such towels. This same class dressed'35 dolls for the holiday bureau, whichwill be giverito poor children. Anòthergroup made toys for the children ofan unfortunate mining camp. Othergroups collected pictures and madethem into scrapbooks for sick childrenin hospital& Others filled baskets forThanksgiving offerings.)

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HABITS AND ATTITUDESUyalty.

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SUGGESTED EXPERIENCESLoyalty to the home and its members can

easily be instilled with participation illthose erperiences previously describedunder "Social Experience's fn Home Life."Loyalty to school will be the result ()fmany of the experiences listed under"Social Experiences in School Life.-

. Loyalty to church, clubs, ind friends ca:ibe developed through almost daily (.\-periences if there is a real awarenes onthe part of the teacher. In fact,this is t)iocrux of the whole mitter. Opportunitil,;arise constantly in nearly every activitycarried on in a modern classroom,- whichmay be capitalized by, the thinkingteacher.

APPLICATION TO UNITS OF EXPERIENCE

How the teaching pf social attitudes can be integratedwith the actiyities of a unit of experience has already beensuggested in connection with the examples given in chapter4. Further suggestions are given in the following .putline,which represents what one teacher did in analyzing the op-portunities inherent in a unit based on the study of food.It, should be noted that every habit or attitude listed is pre-sented as an element within a specific situation'and not as anabstract forinciple. The more concrete instruction can be

;made, the more effective it will be.

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Study of food

Activity

1.. .riting letters to

selected food"companies.

2. Visits by represen-tatives from food

. companies.3. Writing original

play ábout food.

4. Making costumesand scenery.

5. Rehearsing play_

6. Planning Christmasparty.

AMM,

Social attitude

Interest in social as-.: pects of life.

Courtesy__ __ ____

Independent judg-ment; open-mind-edness.

Helpfulness; cooper-ation.

Promptness

Thoughtfulness;thrift; meeting dis-appointmentsbravely.

...=y1Means of encouragement

Selecting best repre-sentative compa-nies tO write to.

riting letters goodenough to ßend.

Being polite to visi-tors; thanking them,etc.

Selecting best dia-log. f Taking crit-icism in good spirit,if part is rejected.

Working togetherwell. Helping eachother over difficultparts.

Being on time forrehearsals.

Planning to do thingsthat everyone en-joys. Planningmenu economically..Accepting cheer-fully the fact of notbeing able to ex-change presents.

Any unit of experience can be analyzed in the same wayC.

for the opportunities which it presents _ for vitalizing sácialeducation. Teachers who Make a study of tire socialexperiences actually at hand and who 'use them wiselyin relation to the instructional program are developing aliving, eÏTt4vçurricu1um as changing as life. itself andas the social ordWO1--7hich the school is a part. They'will be preparing the children entrusted to their care to.make the necessari adjustments to the social aider, to usetheir leisure time advantageously, to differentiate truthfrom falsehood, to use whatever -thinking powers. theypossess, to present their thoughts on any given subjectwithin their experience to the best bf their abilities, andto live a life tWat within th'eir limitations is effective andworth while. They will find the problems of civic lifethat are of importance to the child and lead him to anIfmderstandinK.of his civiC responsibility to the community,the State, and the Nation. History and geography will

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inevitably be drawn into the picttire as some of the unitsof experience are developed and as civic problems are dis-cussed. Furthermore, the teacher who has a worfcingknefwleoilge of the personal goOs as listed in this chaDterold a vision of stich social goals as the improvement ofsocial justice, the ironing out of inequalities, and the better-ment of society, can, pròmote cuscussion of those currentproblems which come within the experience of his stutlentsand which are in keeping with their needs and intere.

It should be remémbered that the child is continuallybuilding attitudes toward teacher, lessons, school, parent,home, country, and even toward himself. Whether theseattitudes are desirable .or undesirable depends upon theeffectiveness of the educational program that begins earlyand continues throughout the formative period. Attitudesonce formed tend to remain and largely to detertbinewhether the child will be able to adjust himself to theworld.

SUMMARY

1. Social experiences common to the home, to the school.and to the communq offer the most logicar means fordeveloping wholesome adjustment to the community *andthe ability to contribute to community life.

2. Specific situations arising in thesé experiences shouldbe used day after day dshe means of empha'sizingand inculcating ,socially desTrable habits and attitudes.Abstract generalizations must give Ntay to concreteapplications.

3. There must be sufficient repetition c4 experiences toform the habits and attitudes desired. , Mere suggestipnwill not do the work.

4. Every *unit of experience should "analyzeif by Weteacher for the opportunitieq which it pivsents for.vitalizinpsocial experience. Any activity is justified only in ternisof its specific coritribution to the ultimate sociql efficiency

A teof the indiviaual. .


eLOUBER, LUCY W., and MILUKAN, Cava E. Kindergarten-primaryactivities based on community life. New York, The Macmillancompany, 19296 307 p.

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The units desaibed here will be suggejtive to the teacher who wishes todevelop social cWepts in the experiencelrof the special class. Illustrationsand bibliographical matetial are included.

FINCH, CHARLES E. Guide posts to citizenship.. New York, Americanbook company, 1927. 278 p.

One of thti" objects of this book is to provide a series of experiencesrelated to civic attitudes and activities in such a way that they wiltstimulate children to think and so enable thein to profit by the experiences"of others. Written fer junior high-school pupils, but contains much excel-lent material that can be adapted by the teacher.

HOLBROOK, HAROLD L., and McGREoon, A LAURA. Our world of work.New York, Allyn and Bacon, 1929. 351 p.

Written for regular junior high-school pupils, but contains much materialupon the basis of which the tehcher of retarded adolescefits can develop thecoriskieration of occupational opportunities. Includes an outline for inten-sive study of an occiipation, bibliographical material, juld sources of visualmaterial for the study of occupations.

HUGHES, AVAH W. Carrying the mail. New York, Lincoln school'of Teachers college, Columbia university, 1933. 253 p.

A description of a "unit of work curriculum" in operation, centered about1

a commuhity activity. Shows the coordination of various subject activities.

REED, MARY M., and WRIGHT, LULA E. The beginnings of the socials'ciences. New York, Charles Scribner sons, 1932. 224 p.

The authors approaCh the subject from the standpoint of children's in-terests and experiences, endeavoring to enrich the social science curriculumth this way. Extensive bibliographical material and sug¡estions for activi-ties and equipment are included. .

Appendix lists source materials and bibliography.

STORM, GRACE E. The sócial studies in the Arimary grades. Chicago,Lyons and Carnahan, 16931. 596 p.

Describes ways in which .units have been worked out dealing with phasesor social and oimmunity life. Gives' sources of illustrative material andlists books for both teacher and children. Written for regular grades butmay be adapted to needs of retarded children.

NoTE.See also books of comprehensive scope listed in chapters2 and 3.

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CHAPTER _1: ACADEMIC EXPERIENCES

IN CONSIDERING thé skills. which mentally retardedchildren should master, we Ast keep in mind thenature of their handicap as well as the objectives of

their education as discussed fn previous chapters. Becau;e,their powers of judgment and reasoning are limited, long-involved sentences, abstract. words, and abstract number!

1 ideas are usually beyond their comprehension. Therefore,1 they must not be asked to waste time trying to master all1i of the academic skills required of intellectually normal; children. In keeping with established objectives, it isii important to remembet that only those skills which arei instrumental in the development of a useful adult life, asi

I well as a happy chiltJhood, should be attempted. In these4 matters we must be severely practical, but the presentation

must be made through interesting vehicles. As -with social.experiences, the child learns to read, to write, and to addmore readily when the need for learning arises out of anexperience through which he is living at the time. Hebecomes so interested in the situation or in the manipula-tion of objects connected with the experience that he iseitherdonaware that he is learning or is definitely tacklinga difficult 'piece of work as a blean's toward reaching a goalwhich this new experience has opened up to him.

READING

Reading is an important factor in the social life of thechild in helping him to take his place with normal peoplein the community. Yet adult readipg newls in their simplestterms are few. In order of importance they ar (a) Read-ing for protection, (b) reading for information or instruc-tion, and (c) reading for pleasure. Some mentally retardedchildren *ill be able to %%aster onlrenough reading for

I their own protection. Others will be able to add reading61

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for information and instruction. A few will read forpleasure.

Reading for protection.---The child should be able torecognize instantly such signs as DANGER, CAUTION,EXIT, KEEP OFF, EXPLOSIVES. He should be ableto read pedestrian traffic signs such as KEEP TO THERIGHT, WALK FACING TRAFFIC, WATCH YOURSTEP. He will need to be able to read streetcar, train,or bus signs, showing their destination; also such signs asNO SMOKING. DO NOT PUT HEAD OR ARMS Ot-TOF WINDOW, DO NOT TALK TO THE MOTORMAN,SPITTING PROHIBITED, NO SPITTING. All butthe children of lowest grade of intelligence will have needto learn auto traffic signs. These will include such roadsigns as SCHOOLGO SLOW, STOPLOOKLIS-TEN, CROSSROADS, CAUTIONMEN WORKINGAHEIAD, ROAD SLIPPERY WHEN WET, DANGER-OUS CURVE, STEEP GRADE, NO LEFT TURN, CARSTOP.

Reading for inforination and iZstruction.In order thatthe child may find his way about the community, he mustbe able to read street signs, streetcar signs, transfers,time tables, and official signs and warnings. He muA alsoknow how to find a name through the alphabetical listsgiven in the telephone and the city directories. Any otherreading items should be introduced that are common tothe social andr industrial or agricultural environment ofthe child. He should be able to read labels and names ofall household necessities such as names of articles of cloth-ing, drugs, groceries and vegetables, and common tools.He should be able to read the names of the stores or depart-ments in stores that carry such items. His reading vocabu-lary should' include the names of common plants and ani-mals, also family words. He should be able to readnewspaper advertisements such as announcements of sales,"Help Wanted" and "Lost and Found" columns.

Reading for pleasure.Children of low intellectual abilityfrequently read for pleasure if carefully guided and directedto material that is within their comprehension and interest.Imong the first sources to which they turn are the "Fun-


nies" and at least the headlines of the "Sports Page." Somebooklists hare been made out by librarians and others in-terested in the reading of retarded children indicating thebooks most frequently preferred by them. Any teacher candevelop such a list for himself, but. he should be most carefulto offer the children only those books which they can handlewith ease.1

Some of the items suggested above will be common tothe lives of both city and rural children, others only to oneor the other group. Each group should have a vocabularysuited to its own particular needs. Each child should goas far as he is able. A very deficient child in the citymay be able to learn only the nanies of streets in. his im-mediate vicinity. Others with more ability. will learn thegeography of.the city and will be able to learn the namesof all principal intersecting streets, of all parks in the com-munity, and of the important buildings. Still others,especially those whose families use the automobile as a meansof travel, may be able to learn the geography of the entireState as well as of neighboring States. There is no limitset except.the child's ability and interest.

The rural child of very low ability may be able Co learnonly .the names of crossroad signs of his immediate vicinityand the name and destination of the bus that passes through.Others may learn the names of the towns through which thebus passes and the destination of other busses met at junc-tion points. To these kural children the physical geographyof the State should be of special interest.

This type of vocabulary for either city or country willbe built naturally and with ease through many units of ex-perience in which the need to know the geography of thelocality arises. Such experiences include:

-1. Walks about the vicinity 9f,school and home.2. Trips about the city to

(a) Market(b) Dairy.

,

(c) Bakery:(d) Art gallery.

,(e) Parks or playgrounds

'See Ingram (op. cit.), pp. 372-376, for a suggested list of this type.

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3. Tracing the progress of farm products to their markets.4. Tracing some manufactured article from the factory to film

or home.

Experience reading.Emphasis should be placed on so-alled experience reading, involving items common to the

activity being carried on in class. For example, if a el.asactivity centers around "Household Pets", the child mu4acquire many new words for his reading vocabulaty. To-gether teacher and pupils will develop phrases, sentences,and paragraphs that will be printed on charts and in turnbecome the next day's reading lesson. Through discussionand work periods the new words will be made a part of thechild's vocabulary. They will have real meaning for him.When he encounters them again in another reading situa-

) tion, they will give meaning to the new subject matter.The experience and vocabulary used must always be in

terms of the psychological maturity of the child. Theexperience must be real to him, and to be real it must bewell within his ability to undergtand it. The subject"Household Pets" has interest for all children, but to thechild with a mental age of 6 years, a dog is "just a dog."To him it is little or big, black or brown. His readingexperience may center around the following ideas:

1. The (log as a playmate.2. His habits (what he eats, where he sleeps).3. How we should take care of him.4. Why we stould take care of him.5. Tricks he can learn.6. How to punish him.7. How to reward him.

The child with a mentaNge of 8 or 9, on the other hand,will be interested to go further and to learn about hedifferent breeds of dogs, the native country of each breed,the different characteristics and uses of each breed, andother items.

Again, in carrying out a "Post Office" unit, the interetof the child who has a mental age of 6 will not go beyondthe postman, the letter, and the stamp. The child of amental age of 8 or 9 years will want to learn about theduties of the local postmaster, the train mail, the air mail,and the ocean mail. The boy who is 14 or 15 years old

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and who has a mental age 04, 10 or 11 may be interestedin mail rates, routes, and peihaps in subsidies to airplaneand ship companies for the carrying of mail.

In grading the reading vocábulary according to themental age of the child, constant reference should be madeto sta.ndard word lists as checks upon the pupil's vocabu-lary. Among those which will prove helpful are "A Read-ing Vwabulary for the Primary Gra.des", by Arthur I.Gates, and the "Thprndike Test of Word Knowledge",2 forthe upper grades, which is issued in four forms, each con-sisting of the same number of words graded according toimportance.

Building up reading ability.Continuous and sufficientdrill in the mechanics of reading is necessary to make thechild feel at home with the readingsontent specified above.There are several new readers which, with their accom-panying work books, are the result of much research workon the mechanics of reading. The subject matter of these

II I

books is within the experience of most children and fitsin very aptly with various units of experience. They areof invaluable assistance, representing the work of expertteachers under the guidance of psychologists who recognizethe mechanical difficulties of reading.8

The seriously retarded child stays at one reading level solong, however, that the supply of book material within his.experience and at the same time suited to the interests ofhis life age is inadequate. Therefore it is necessary for theteacher to develop much that the child reads from othersources, such as newspaper or magazine articles, sciencereaders, geographies, and histories. Such materialt berephrased into short paragraphs and simple sentences, withsimple ideas directly stated, words within the child's vocab-ulary, and a few new words at a time. Work' sheets plannedto,go with these reading lessons should be planned with thedefinite aim of developing the child's use of the mechanicsof reading.'

I These word lists are available through the Bureau of Publications, Teach-ers College, Columbia University, New Yo0 City.

Bee Ingram (op. cit.), pp. 368-370, for a suggested list of such books.,See Organization and Administration of Special Education Classes for The

Orthogenic Backward, pp. 52-60 (op. cit.), for typical work sheets that Zinn beprepared by the teacher for use in reading and language.

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The child who has not yet reached a mental age of 6 is not,ready to build up reading concepts. He should share inthe group's unit of experience, develop his own background.of experience, and increase his speaking vocabulary. Hisreading work should be of kindergarten or preprimer level,involving largely the matching of words and objects or ofwords and pictures.

LANGUAGE AND SPELLING

Since spelling is the medium of written language, thesetwo phases of work are here considered together. Languageis the mode of expression of the child growing out of hisactivities and interests. Oral expression is the chief aimof language instruction for mentally retarded children. 4.sadults they should have clear, distinct speech, be able toexpress their thoughts in simple sentences, be able to speakover the telephone, and to ask for or to give simple di-rections.

In the classroom the child's facility with language willgrow under tile teacher's guidance as his field of life ex-periences enlarges. His speaking vocabulary should in-crease and his meaningfurreading vocabulary will increaseaccordingly. He should learn to speak clearly. He shouldlearn to express complete tlioughts before he learns to readsentences or paragraphs. He should use his litnguage abilityin reading, arithmetic, social science, arts, and other fields.The fact that language is so general a subject makes itimperative that a check list be used constantly to evaluatethe work that has been done. Such a list can be formulatedby the teacher on the basis, of the activities carried on inclass, supplemented by Thorndike's list refe.rred to above.

Written language grows out of the use of oral lanehage.The pupil must be able to say first that which he wishes towrite. A need for written language will arise when liewishes to write a letter to mother inviting her to a schoolparty, or to a firm asking for information, catalogs, folders,or exhiNts. He may wish to write a simple account of anactivity being carried on in the classroom or to compose agreeting for Christmas or Easter. Every experience carriedon under the teacher's guidance póvides opportunity for

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developing written language in conformity with the prob-able demands that will be placed upon the retarded childas he grows up. Among the ntrost common activities thatwill demand written expression will be those involving ap-plication for a job, ordering goods from a m.ail-order house,.writing letters to relatives or friends, and certain otherexperiences that may be peculiar to his own --socialenvironment.

Spelling fieeds are simple and demands in this directionshould involve only those words which are likely to be in-cluded ill the pupil's adult writing vocabulary. Numerousstandardized spelling scales have been published 5 whichmay be used as basic cheat lists. The limit of progressshould be determined only1 by the child's own ability tomaster the mechanics of tliT spelling of words common tohis needs. In some cases it is the one field in which a men-tally retarded child seems to excel.

Again the activities carried on in the classroom shouldbe the basis for introducing new words. Words so derivedwill be meaningful to the child. They will already be apart of his speaking vocabulary. and he will readily recog-hize the need of making them a part of his writing vocabu-,lary. Their correct spelling should not stop with the so-called "spelling lesson" but should be a part of every writ-ing activity in which the child engages.

NUMBERS

Adult arithmetic reeds.The everyday demands of arith-metic in adult life are simple and few. The-Y generally in-volve the use of money and of making change. The chiefproblems relate to table or household expenses and are con-cerned with such items as groceries, fruit, meat, milk ; cloth-ing, drygoods; house furnishings; fuel, electric light, gas;rent or taxes. Other problems involve the figuring of wage

5 Among these spelling scales are:Buffalo spelling scales. Grades 2-8. Bloomington, Ill., Public School

Publishing Co.Iowa dictation exercise and spelling test. Form Agrades 3-4;Form Bagrades 5-6; Form Cgrades 7-8. Iowa City, Iowa, State

University of Iowa, Bureau of Educational Research and Service,Morrison-McCall spelling scale. For grades 2-8. Yonkers, N. Y., WorldBook Co.


rates per hour, week, or month, the use of time schedules andcommon weights and measures. Some nf the boys will bepapering rooms in their own homes. They should have tlwnecessary number facts and skills at their command. Somewill be planting corn and should be able to figure the cost.Some may build chicken coops or hen houses. They shouldknow how to buy lumber. Whatever number situations arisein the life of the child or in the life of his family shouldbe considered good contesnt in arithmetic, provided Ili:mental level is high enough to enable him to cope withthem.

In any situation it is probably safe to say that the essen-tials of number development in classroom activities shouldinclude much practice with the following skills:

(i) Addition and subtraction of two-digit numbers.(2) Addition and subtraction of dollars and cents.(3) Content of multiplication tables.(4) Short division.(5) Simple fractions and 'plied numbers, concretely applied

(e. g., 14, j1/ 114, 1) , common to measuring of pond.;or yard&

(6) Common weights and measures.(7) Clock and calendar facts.(8) Time tables and schedules (railroad, bus, airplane).

'Meaningful experiences.The mentally retarded childneeds many meaningful experiences with numbers before heis ready to handle simple problems. Every classroom activ-ity in which a number situation arises should be .made apart of histxperience. His ideas of number values must besystematically built up out of his immediate environmentand should be based upon objects which he can handle or,less frequently, with representations of objects through pic-tures. The following may tbe considered common, to everychild's experience:

(1) Real money for real buying, pie, if: this is not possible, forplaying store.

(2) Desks, scissors, crayons, etc., to count(3) Boys, girls in the classto count and to compare.(4) Boys, girls, absent todayyesterday.(5) Party preparationscounting napkins, plates, cakes, fipples.(6) Representations in pictures; e g., 4 baby ducks and 1 mother

duck ; 2 black dogs and 3 brown dogs ; 3 birds in a tree and2 in the sky.

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Number rough the type of experienceenumerated above the child should develop a concept ofnumber values and relationships. He should know in doingthings that the "and" relation nwaiiP addition ; and that"difference", "how much more", "lost", or "gave" meansilbstraction. He is not ready for written problems until

these items are part of his speaking vocabulary and arerecognized as "cues" for the solution of oral problems.

He should acquire before he leaves school a workingvocabulary of certain common arithmetical terms that hewill commonly encounter in a work-a-day world. Thefollowing terms, most of which are taken from "TheVocabulary of Arithmetic", by G. T. Bus.well and LenoreJohn, represent some of the concepts common to everydayusage: 3

1. Terms relating to time, space, or quantity:anotherapiecedoubletwiceeach

enoughbothincreaselessmany

2. Terms relating to measurement :

dollardozenquarter/dimecent (penny)nickel

3. Commercial terms :

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changecharge

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costearnexpense)price

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rentsellspendworth

Drill on fundamen.lal8.The ae of the unit of experiencedoes not _eliminate the need of drill. It is the use of thenewly acquired tool over and over again in many and varied,situations that makes it a permanent part of the child'sknowledge, and the mentally retarded child is of all childrenmost in need of such repetition if he is to acpiire a given,skill. Short drill periods have a place in arithmetic as ifother fundamental processes, and can in practically everpcase be based upon the content of the unit of experience.One can add twto cupfuls of water and thiee cupfulsof

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70 MENTALLY RETARDED CHILDREN. t

water to mAke a pitcher of lemonade. One can make a

garden patch 4-feet wide and 8 feet long. One can dividea day's wages into halves. .Through countless applicationsthe attainment of skill in the fundamental processes canbecome for the child an interesting, purposeful activityrather than a meaningless process.

PENMANSHIP

Legibility is the chief goal of instruction in penmanship,and this requires the achievement of muscular coordination,proper posture, and proper manipulation of the pencil.Once the child has acquired* the ability to fo'rm even well-

e spaced letters, he should be impressed with the' fact that wewrite only to convey a message or to preserve a record ofsome interesting event or important: fact. Therefore hiswriting must. always be legible, neat as te form, And freefrom smutiges.

Constant vigilance on the part of the.

teachefr to see thatthe child always assumes a proper writing position; thathis paper is properly placed before him, and his pencilProperly held will produce' far better and more lasting re-sults than any dmount of formal instruction. .To be sure,habits here as elsewhere need to be formed through muchrepetition. Hence drill again has it place, but .the mentallyretarded child does not automatically transfer -"copybook"penmanship to his ordinary everyday requirements in writ-ing. After the bare essentials have been acquired, the-bestpractice that can be given to him Is in immediate connectionwith his writing activities. Written language and penman-ship are thus supplementary to each.other.

SUMMARY

1. The nature of the mentally retarded child's handicaplimits both the amount and the kind of subject 'matter by4which he is able to profit. In individual cases, however, no

restriction should be placed upon the content of academicexperiences in wifich the child participates save that whichis imtposed by each child's own lack of ability to comprehend.

2. In general,,the criteria for the selection of academicsubject matter should be the probable need for it in adult

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CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT .71

life and its possible contribution toward development of ahappy childhood.

3. The approach to the mastery of subject. matter shouldbe through experiences of the child at the level.of hisinterests, presented through concrete ideas and the manipu-lation of objects. Every academic skill can be taughtthrough many and varied experiences with the same, fact,these experiences forming the basis for the necessary drill.

4. The choice of the subject matter to be presented at aparticular thine should be in response to a real need orinterest on the part of the child in meeting a particularsituation or in solving a particular problem.

5. Word lists, spelling lists, multiplication, addition, andsubtraction tables may serve as a, valuable tool ih selectingthe skills to be achieved, and as a eheck to determine theskills already acquired and the amount of drill needed.

SUGGESTIONS FOR REApING

BRUECKNER, LEO J. Diagnostic and remedial teaching in arithmetic.Philadelphia, John C. Winston company, 1930. 341 p.

Analyzes processes,/ and discusses difficulties met, with illustrative casestudies. Inaudes discustilon of tests that can be used in arithmetic.

. BRUECKNER, LIFJO J., and Wain', ERNEST O. Diagnostic pnd remedialteaching. New York, Houghton Mifflin -compdny, -1931. TIPS

Pregerits methods used for diagnosis and remedial worji in arithmetic,reading, spelling, language, hand writing, and,oitor fields. Gives referencesat close of each chapter which furnish guidance for furthçr .sttidy,

DALGLIESH, ALICE. First experiences in 11Wature. Nei? York, ChfirkwScribner's sotp, 1932. 162 p.

From tttls book, written primfkrify for teachers oi young chihiren, thoseworking TM% retarded pupils may. glean many suggestions that will helpthem to dipcover reading interests- and materials for use.

GATES, ARTHUR I. The Improvement of rading. Itev. ed. New York,Macmillan company, 1935. 668 p.

'Ms book is essentially a manual of directions for diagnosing and cor-recting defects in reading in the fixst.eight grades. Extensive bibliography,

MABIE, ETHEL. Language development in primary grades throughsch6ol activities: Bloomingtqü, Ill., Publie school publishing coin-pany, '1930. 96 p. s.

' The author's aim is "to Suggest methods and moterials by which the pupilmay be %made aware aof Mum& as an individual, proud of his home rep-tionshipi, 'Laid awake to intgresting thirigse in his surroundings", with ap-preciation and enjoyment & sociil contacts. Gives many concrete sug-gestions for distirOo_nil activities in lauguage-development.

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PENNELL, MARY E., and CUSACK, ALICE M. Teaching of readin:::better living. New York, Houghton Mifflin company, 1935. 41;ti

Contains a wealth of concrete suggestions and devices for reading a(thi.ties designed to cbntribute to the fundamental objectives of the sellConsiders the preprimer stage as well as the work of grades 1 through f;.Extensive lists of reading material for pupils are included.

NOTE.See also hooks of comprehensive scope listed in chapter,and 3.4)

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CHAPTER 8: EXPERIENCES IN SCIENCE

CURRICULUM IN science which may be excellentfor the regular elementary grades is not necessarilyeither desirable or practical for special classes of

mentally retarded children. This follows from the char-acteristics of retarded children already discussed. They arenot as .observant or as well-informed concerning thingsabout them as are normal and mentally superior children.They do not grasp abstract ideas readily. They.must haveintensely practical experiences and many varied repetitionsof experiences of the same general type if their observationsand interpretations are to function effectively. Finally,some of the content usually included in junior and seniorhigh school science is of utmost value for efficient livingand can be taught realistically and simply enough for thementally retarded child to understand and to use. Since,by definition, he will not be able to meet the standards ofthe regular classes in junior and senior high school, suchcontent will need to be presented to him in his own groupor in terms of his own ability to understand. These factsmake it imperative to make careful selection of curricularmaterial from all fields of science, directed toward increas-ing the child's equipment for daily living.

REQUISITES OF SATISFACTORY MATERIAL

Both the physical and the biological sciences offer ma-terial of interest and value to mentally retarded children.To be acceptable such material must, in the first place,contribute to interpretation of the environment, to adequateadaptation within the environment, and to the appreciationsand attitudes that add to the erijoyment of Abe environmentin which one is living. In the second place, the subjectmatter selected must be simple enough for mentally retarded

73

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children to understand, tangible enough for them to ap-preciate, and objective enough for them to utilize. Thatwhich is an integral part of the environment as they seeit and work with it from day to day and which can he ex-plained objectively with concrete materials at hand consti-tutes the most desirable content.

The experiences selected should contribute to the develop-ment of habits of more careful observation and to the ex-tension of wholesome interest in the physical environmentand thoughtful care of living things. They should bringabout an acquaintance with those scientific facts that concertihealth and safety. They should stimulate economic pur-chase and use of commercial products and mechanical de-vices, with an ability to make selection on the basis of valueand durability. They should add to the power to interpretsimple phenomena of the physical environment and of thebehavior of living things. Finally, they should open upsome possibilities for the use of leisure time.

It is, of course, understood that experiences in science area logical part of every unit of experience planned by theteacher. The teacher who says, "Now we shall have a sciencplesson", and who fails to see the vast opportunities for lead-ing the children into realms of experiences in sciencethrough the unit on the home, on foods, on clothing, or onany other theme, has lost his opportunity to integrate thedaily experiences of his pupils into a meaningful whole.The topics.listed in this chapter are therefore suggested notas themes to be presented through isolated discussion.4 orexperiences, but as phases of scientific subject matter thatcan be either closely related to the total units of experiencewith which they individually belong, or used as the basis ofan experience to which other fields are related.

For example, an entire unit of experience might beplanned about the subject of plants. In one class, the chil-dren planted several kinds of seeds in flower boxes, whichin due time became aglow with color find beauty. Theflowers furnished the approach to a study of the place ofseeds and of roots in plant life; of different kinds of seedsand roots, including those which are edible; of the needs# of plant life; of the use of plants for clothing, for building,for medicine, and for coloring. Into this setting were in-

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troduced activities in reading, language, numbers, manualarts. music, health education. Younger children of thegroup participated in the simpler activities and observedothers. It was a socializing experience that helped eachchild to learn something of and to appreciate 'nature's workand itetffect upon human life.

In another school a unit of work wii.s developed under thegeneral topic of milk. The children of lowest ability cut.out pictures of cows. milk bottles, milk triicks: they talkedabout the milkman and the use of milk at school and at.home. The intermediate group took a trip to the dairy,made butter and cottage cheese in the classroom, saw anddiscussed some "movies" on cows and' milk, made readingcharts, wrote stories and poems, and modeled out of clay

. anti wood CONS`l calves, barns, trucks, and milk wagons.The advanced group joined the intermediate group in itsactivities, but added spelling and arithmetic lessons based Onthe same material, vocabulary charts, posters, and recipebooks. The entire school became "milk-conscious." I

The study of habits and needs of native birds mightin some localities easily become a part of a unit of experi-ence on "exploring the community." Reading the ther-mometer might be included in the same unit and be relatedto weather conditions of the community. Many scientificobservations are closely concerned with the. subject of foods,a field in which an illustratire unit has already been de-scribed in chapter 4. Nature study, biology, chemistry,and physics all offer material from which selection can bemade in -accordance with the ages and mental levels ofthe children concerned, and with the units of experiencsthat are under way. Even the youngest children canwatch the birds, the clouds, the rain, the snow. They canobserve the change of seasons. They can become acquaintedwith the flowers and the trees growing in the immediatevicinity ; with the habits of common birds, animals, and fish ;

and with theiNhavior of the butterfly, the caterpillar, andthe ant. They can catch snow in a container and watch

Adapted from Jane Churco. The development of a unified activity in aBinet Center, The Blnet Review, 4 : 21-22, March 1936.

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76 MENTALLY RKTARDED CHILDREN,

it melt; observe snow crystals under the magnifyingput water out to freeze: care for pets and for plants; boilwater and watch the steam; watch a lighted candle go outwhen placed under a glass; and watch water disappearfrom the blackboard after washing. All these observation,experiments, and other activities will help to orient theyoung child in the world of nature about him and to seesome of the -simplest ways in which natural law applies-to human existence. As he grows older, he will be ledto a more scientific knowledge of living things in a naturalworld through more comprehensive experiences.

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SUGGESTED EXPERIENCES

A. Subject matter driwn from the immediate environment of thechild.

1. Habits and needs of native birds.2. Preservation of wildlife.3. Plant life (indoors and outdoors) ; its needs for development:

absorption of moisture; growth; value.4. Daily phenomena of weather: Rain, snow, hail, fog; amount

of rainfall.5. Function and operation of simple mechanical devices, such

as the toy steam engine, water wheel, bellows, air pump,carpet sweeper, bicycle, meat grinder, egg beater, vacuumcleaner.

6. Some of the major features of the universe, such as sun,, moon, earth, stars, cloudst_wind, seasons, day awl night.

7. Sources and composition of common materials used for food.clothing, shelter, tools, transportation.

8. Scientific explanation of some of the modern means of com-munication and transportation of interest, such as the Me-phone, telegraph, radio, balloon, automobile, airplane.

B. Skills offered by various sciences that are usable in -daily living.1. Reading the thermometer.2. Pouring !roll a bottle so that it will not gurgle and spill.3. Using a m. .. ne dropper.4. Gradually heating a glass container so as to loosen the lid.5. Building a tire.6. Bleaching or dyeing cloth.7. Using a siphon.8. Comparing the relative values of cooking utensils.9. Simple household processes, such as tiling a plunger, changing

fuses, putting new washers on faucets, making simple ex-

tensions for electric lights.C. Directed observation of simple, wellplanned experiments illus-

trating vell-known scientific piindples.

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CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT 771. Buoyancy of water.Floating different sizes of miiterials of

various shapes in water and noticing the water line ofeach; experiMenting with the shape and resulting varia-tion in the water line; applying to the making of toy boatsthe principle that objects are buoyed up by the amountof water they displace.

2. Leakage of water.Measuringthe amount of water wastedin a given length Qf time from a slow leak, appreciatingthe fact that trivial waste results in considerable toss.

3. Purification of water.Putting on small glass lids or ondishes (a) water from a puddle, (b) water from a faucet,and (c) boiled water, observing daily through magnifyingglass the changes taking place; filtering water and boilingwater; investigating the local, filtration plant and watersupply.

D. Knowledge that contributes to .the under4tanding and appreciationof the behavior and needs of living things.

1. Life cycles of animals and plants.2. Distribution of seeds.3. Growth '(if seedlingie and bulbs under different conditions of

light, moisture, and heat.4. Kinds of commoti trees: Their foliage, fruits, and uses.5. Behavior and needs of pets at school and at home.6. Behavior and physical condition of mice fed on different foods.

E. Practical knatvledge that contributes to desirable habits of healthand safety.

1. Adjustment to different seasons and weather conditions.2. Effect of bacteria upon food.a Ventilation; respiration.4. Prevention of disease.5. Posture, care of teeth, eyes, ears, hair, skin.6. Use of simple antiseptics.7. Use and repair of electrical devices.8. Causes, danger, and prevention of sho.rt circuits.9. Use and storage of inflammable materials.

10. Function and mechanics of fire alarm and fire extinguisher.11. Methods of extinguishing fires.12. Care of household plumbing in winter.13. Construction and function of household water system : Water

meter, traps in drainage, connection with city systems.F. Practical knowledge thataleads to wise selection and satisfactory

use of commercial products.1. General repair of household appliances.2. Care, use, quality, and endurance of tools.3. Choice of cloth: Kinds; characteristics; limitations; values;

tests for Wool, cotton, and silk; tests for permanence ofprints and dyes.

4. Use and limitations of cleaning agents, home-made and com-mercial.

78 MENTALLY RETARDEp CHILDREN

7). Use of foods: Kinds; vAlues; preservation; refrigeration.Care of heating systems: Kinds; characteristics; advantages;

disadvantages.7. Mechanics of pumps.

Construction of simple equipment and common products that willwiden the child's range of interest, contribute to better under-

wise selection and use of commercialstanding, or lead toproducts.

1. Thermometer.2. Respirator.3. Medicine dropper.4. Water magnifying glass.5. Strong alkaline soap and neutral soap. *C. Dyes, bleaches, stain removers.7. itmmon home remedies.8. Window ventilators.9. Outdoor window boxes.

10. Thermos container.Il. Experiences ikhich contribute %to desirable use of

1. Visiting museums and exhibitions of scientific2. Making mechanical housebold apptiances and toys.3. Collecting, mounting, and labeling specimens of trees, flowers.

rocks.4. Raising animals, birds, fish.5. Other hobbies, such as gardening, making weather vane, sun

. dials, bird baths, bird houses. e

leisure time.interest.

SUMMARY

1. Experiences in science must be simply and objectivelyinterpreted if they are- to be of any value to' mentally re-tarded children. Only those experiences should be pre-sented to them which can be interpreted in terms of the dailyliving of the pupils.

2. Such experiences should çontieibute io the developmentof habits of more careful observation, to the extension ofwholesome interest in.the physical environment and thought-ful care of living things, and to the ability to ,make prac-tical application of simple scientific facts to everyday livingin the interests of health, safety, economy, and enjoymentof leisure time.

Experiences in science may be taken from nature study,biology, chemistry, physics, astronomy, and other branchesof science which offer material bf value and interest..

4. The discussion of abstractaprinciples should be avoided,but activities illustrating the Mieration of principles shouldbe numerous.

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5, The activities in science should not be considered' asisolated "science lessons", but should constitute a 1ogic4part of the total unit of experience that is under way.


FISHER. CLYDE, and LANGHAM, MARION L. Nature science. NewYork, Noble Ind Noble, publisibers, inc., 1934. Illus.

Book 1, World of nature. 94 p. ; Book 2, Ways of the wild folk. 117 p. :Book 3. Our wonder world. 113 p.; Bbok 4, In field and garden. 104 p.(Intended for children's iise.)

HUNTER. GEORGE W., and WHITMAN, WALTER G. Science in our sociallife. New York, American book company, 1935. 452 p.

Content of this book is suited to the interests of children of Juniorhigh-school age and much of it can be adapted to the needs of retardedadolescents. Suggestions for activities and reading references are included.Illustrated.

LEINING, EDNA BRIDGE. Millions of years in a winter. New York,Lincoln school of Teachers college, Columbia university, 1935.197 p.

This is a record of a "fourth grade's venture into the realm of...science",planned on the basis of a unit of experience. Illustrated.

Pathways in science, a course for elementary schools. New York,Ginn and company, 1932, 1933. Illustrated.

Book 1, We look about us. 194 p.; Book 2, Out of doors. 269 p. ; Book3, Our wide, wide world. 306 p. ; Book 4, The earth and living things.308 p.; Book 5, Learning about our world. 384 p.; Bopk 6, Our earth andits story. 462 p. (Intended for children's use.)

PATTERsoN, Amu J. Science for the junior high school. Normal, Ill.,McKnight and McKnight, 1929. 360 p.

A source book from which many experiences in science may be drawnfor special classes. Illustrated. Bibliography.

FRANK. Science related to life. New York, American book corn-.1932.

filooks 1 and 2, Water, air, sound.; heat and health. 203 p.; Books 3and 4, Magnetism, electricity; light, forces, and machines. 211 p. Pub-lished also in 4 volumes.

Science and the joung child. Washington, D. C., Association forchildhood education, 1936. 40 p.

A bulletin prepared by the science committee of the Association for Child-hood Education. Gives suggestions of science activities, equipment andsupplies, and useful books, including those suited to grades above theprimary level.

Nom.See also books 'of comprehensive scope listed in chapters 2and 3.

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4CHAPTER 9: EXPERIENCES IN THE ARTS

EXPERIENCES IN the various fields of art, in-cluding both so-called fine and practical arts, havean important place in the school curriculum for

retarded children. Music, dancing, dramatization, poetry ;various types of play activity ; drawing, painting, stencil-ing, modeling; hoilsehold arts; pottery, metal work, leathertooling, and other handicrafts all stand side by side inoffering abundant opportunity for both appreciation andcreative expression. Interest and ability in these fieldsare among the strongest assets which retarded childrenpossess. They constitute an emotional stabilizer, at thesame time offering great possibilities for enriching the livesof the pupils. It is not to be expected that the childrenwill ever become exceedingly adept in their performance,but they will secure emotional satisfaction and in some caseswill make creditable progress, thus becoming socially moreacceptable in a normal group. itsIn planning activities in the arts for the classroom, theteather should keep- constantly in mind (1) the social char-acteristics of various age and ability levels, as suggestedin the chart on the "Unit on Home Life", in chapter 4,and (2) the need for differentiating the curriculum accord-ing to these age and ability levels, as discpssed in chapter 3.To secure the greatest va,lue from the_ activities, he shouldsee to it that the work of the children is spontaneous andsatisfying and that it is a part of the experience unit underway in the classioom.

.

MUSIC1.40.

The value of music in all its varied forms can scarcelybe overestimated. Through it may come the release ofpent-up emotions, the development of an innate ability onthe part of some, and the sheer joy of singing, playing,

81es


or listening on the part of all. It is a means of expressionof which no one is utterly deprived, and it, should be usedfor all it, can do to make the retarded child happy throughappreciation and participation.

Most mentally retarded children enjoy singing, eventhough with sorne it may be limited to humming a tune.Zheir ability in this field usually excels their academicaccomplishments. Hence, it should be capitalized for allit is worth. Sometimes it seems best to teach songs bythe rote method, no attempt being made to teach the wordscorrectly until the melody is familiar. At other times itis quite feasible to teach words and music together, andsome groups do fairly well even in simple part singing.Accompaniment by the piano or by a band of the pupils'own membership adds to the zest of the activity.

Harmonica bands, toy orchestras, And other instrumentalmeans have been used to deirelop in the children the joyof creating music and rhythm, as well as to accompanythe class in singing. Wind instruments can be played bysome children who are intellectually quite deficient. Musicis tine of the fields which seems not to show a high degreeof correlation with academic iritelligence. Some outstand-ing results have been achieved by teachers who themselveswere musically inclined and knew how to secure musicalexpression from their pupils:-

The victrola and the radio are both valuable as meansof assistance and inspiration in the development of musicalappreciation and also as means of furnishing accompani-ments. Good music is so jrequently given over the radiothat a teacher who is fortunate enough to have access toan instrument for the use of his class can employ it to goodadvantage. While victrolas are still much more commonlyfound in schoolrooms, radios are now appearing in increa;ing number.

Correlation with experiences of the day is here, as in allother fields of art, a desirable factor. A period set apartfor music without relation to anything else being done maybe fun while it is going on. If, however, it is tied up withan experience unit through the selection of songs and musi-cal selections that bear upon the content of the unit, its

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CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT 83message will carry over far more effectively ipto the lifeof the child.

PLAY ACTIVITY

Play in its highest form is truly an art. It combinesrhythm, coordination, and skill, and holds the possibilitiesof joyous creative expression. No teacher of retarded chil-dren should permit himseH to think of playtime merely asan opportunity of relief for himself and a means of gettingthe children out of the way. Even here they need guidancethat, if effectively given, can lead them on to new fieldsof conquest in social adjustment.

John, a shy, unaggressive boy of 15 with an intelligencequotient of 72, enrolled in a special school, began playingbasketball with the other boys of his approximate chrono-logical age and intelligence. For 2 years these boys playedbasketball correctly but without the degree of skill whichis usually found in normal boys of the same age and ex-perience. However, they played a creditable game and wereable to compete with high-school boys of the community.After 3 years, several boys, including John, developed skillfar beyond the average of the group. He was asked to joina team of local young men and played with them for aseason. He has become one of the most Iiighly valued play-ers on the team and has frequently been asked to refereegames.

When the team of the special school began playing withother teams of the community, the boys often excused them-selves by saying: "We are not expected to play as well asthat team." But they soon ceased to use that as an alibi forlosing a game, saying instead: "We had better work outsome new s a e meet that team again." Thus,throug form of play activity these boys learned to adjusttheir thi king and actions to a more acceptable socialstandard. Their ability to play winning games with localteams is of secondary importance. The greatest gains havebeen their change in mental attitude and a more nearlynormal view of social situations.

Rhythmical game8.---All types of rhythm ha an impor-tant place in the life of retarded children, since it affordsa means of releasing activities which have been prevented

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by faulty coordination. It is always wise to begin with thechild's own natural degree of rhythm and to develop fromthat point by fitting the music to the child's activity. Aftersome skill in coordination has been developed, it is possiblefor the child to fit his action a little more nearly to the cor-rect tempo of the music. It is most important in a begin-ning rhythm class, as in all activity, to be willing to acceptmuch inferior work. If too mall 'attention is given tofaulty coordination, the child frequently loses interest in theperformance. If the activity seems difficult or some type ofcoordination cannot be learned through suggestion or imi-tation, it is better to drop the activity for a while and returnto it later than to try to teach the child step by step untilhe wearies of the effort. Often a rhythm game or dancewhich proved difficult and uninteresting when first pre-sented will be quickly learned and enjoyed when it is triedagain later on. After the activity has become familiar andfun has been experienced in executing it, correction offaulty coordination can be made without causing the childto feel a sense of failure and without the loss of his interest.

It is usually advisable to combine the teaching of rhythmwith an interesting game. Many times it has been foundthat a child is unable to skip in a rhythm class but is

able tc; skip quite acceptably in a simple singing game, suchas "Farmer in the Dell" or "Did You Ever See a Lassie ?"It has also been observed that a waltz step could not be ac-complished when presented as a simple rhythm, but whenthe children did a folk dance having a waltz step, they per-formed it without hesitation. The dramatic interest in thefolk dance is so great that the step comes more or less with-out effort.

When remedial work with apparatus or some other formof calisthenics appear to be necessary, it too should so

far as possible be made a part of the rhythmical activity.Faulty posture and poor physical coordination can oftenbe overcome in this way. Even older boys and girls of lowintellectual level will enjoy and gain skill in activities whiichnormal children of their age consider "baby stuff", providedthey are not ridiculed. They do not mind repetition even atan advanced age if the activity is planned with an appealingsetting.

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CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT 85Imitative play.Imitation is common with all young

children. Mentally retarded children are no exception. Aboy of 7 with an intelligence quotient of 50 frequentlyworked for a half hour tryilig to fit a flat board into a smallwindow in a door, as he had seen a glazier fit a pane ofglass. He used a small stick to tap the board in place andalso made it serve as the putty knife to put the pretendedputty on the edge of the pane.

The most common expression of imittitive play is prob-ably in enacting the role of some person or animal or thingwith which the child is familiar. The nurse or the doctor,the mother or father, are frequent objects of portrayal. ,Familiar stories also offer opportunities for the child'sidentification of himself with some character. For example,if the leader announces "I am Red Riding Hood, Who areYou?", it will not be long before the child becomes thewolf, the mother, the grandmother, or the wood cutter.Thus story play can be developed that will bring the joyof creation and contribute to the loss of self-consciousness.

DRAMATICS

Dramatic expression is the logical outcome of imitativeplay and constitutes an enjoyable part of recreation of re-tarded children whether they are in the audience or actinga role on the stage. However, the plot must be relativelysimple with much action. Situations developing fromsubtle actions or conversation are beyond their comprehen-sion and should be avoided. Lines of the play should bewritte,n in their own vocabulary. Unfamiliar words havelittle meaning for the actor and are repeatedly mispro-nounced or emphasized incorrectly in the sentence.To develop meaning, the teacher and the group should goover the play as a whole many times before the parts areassigned. The setting of the play, the roles of the charac-ters, the scenery and costumes should be discussed as thor-oughly as possible until the players have a general under-standing of the play before actual rehearsals begin. Playswith many characters and major roles, each requiring fewlines but much movement, seem to be most acceptable. Thechild may have little difficulty in automatically memorizing


lines or in following cues, but too often a play resolves itselfinto a mechanical exchange of .words. On the other hand,roles that call primarily for action or movements are quitenaturally interpreted.

It is not an easy matter to find suitable plays which havemeaning for retarded children and which at the same timeare at their social level. Most of those available are eithertoo "babyish" in content or too difficult in plan and vocabu-lary. Therefore, after these children pass the story-actingperiod, the teacher will often find it necessary either towrite his own plays or to revise some existing play so asto make it acceptable to both the mental and social levelsof development of the pupils concerned. BeA of all willbe the cooperative enterprise of the pupils in writing theirown play under the skillful guidance of the teacher, the con-tent being drawn from the unit of experience in progress.

Another form of dramatic play which retarded childrenenjoy is the puppet show. Operators can develop such playsin the same fashion in which a story play develops, with nofixed lines in the beginning. Gradually the children makeup lines in their own words to fit the actions of the char-acters in the story. Not only do they have fun making theirpuppets act in a play, but they enjoy constructing andoperating them. *Just to make them walk, sing, -or dancein a fairly natural fashion seems to fascinate older boys andgirls. Writing a puppet play as an integral part of a unitof experience, opens up the entire field of reading, spelling,and language activities connected with the experience andat the same time offers the definite incentive of making andoperating the puppets. It carries with it the developmentof skills, habits, and attitudes in the whole realm of activ-ities, fundamental to the education of retarded children. .

FOLK DANCING

After the child has mastered simple rhythms and has hadexperience in various types of singing games he is readyfor folk dancing. The dramatic element which makes thesinging game enjoyable is then elininated and the rhythmand complicated step alone hold the-child's interest. Girlswho for 4 or 5 years have had many singing games are able

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CURRICItUM ADJUSTMENT 87to do difficult folk dances with skill, ease, and pleasure.They are also often able to do clog and tap dancing witha high degree of ability. Boys too are eager to learn tojig, clog, lind tap dande, but they usually refuse to do folkdancing, which they feel -is unmanly. It is amazing, attimes, how efficiently they learn the more popular types ofdancing, and to find what an asset they are to them after-ward. One boy who was shy and retiring learned to jig.On many occasions he was asked to jig before his class-mates and for several school programs. Not long afterhe had developed this accomplishment his manner began tochange. He volunteered suggestions in the schoolroom andseemed to have a greater interest in all, that went on-abouthim. When he realized that he had a social asset in dancinghe became aware that he had other abilities as well andexerted a greater effort in all of his undertakings, includingacademic subjects.

FORM AND COLOR

Art forms, particularly form and color, expressed throughpicture study, drawing, modeling, and various handicrafts,give to intellectually subnormal children the same oppor-tunity for enjoyment and creative expression that theygive to normal children.

From the youngest to the oldest they can be helped toappreciate attractive colorful pictures of artistic themes,chosen to fit into the experience of the day and in keepingwith their age levels. Every teacher should have an abun-dance of such pictures on hand for use as occasion demands.The use of crayons, paints, brushes, clay, and other typesof art materials by the children themselves gives to themconcrete evidence of a certain amount of control over thethings with which they are working.

Many retarded children have difficulty in differentiatingcolors. To them it inecessary to give much experience incolor discrimination. An 8-year-old boy could not distin-guishbed from orange until he had had months of directedexperience. Likewise it is sometimes necessary to givemuch practice in recognizing various shades of a specificcolor. This doès not mean that retarded children are not

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sensitive to color, form, and beauty, but that their observa-tion is less acute than that of normal children.

After a child has to some extent learned to manipulatethe materials with which he has to work, his performancegradually s4ows keener observations. Inasmuch as his workshould be as free as Nssible from arbitrary direction, lipshould be given manyupportunities to exercise his ownjudgment and to make his own decisions. These are experi-ences which subniorma1 children need, since they are con-stantly asking if "this is the way", "is this right", "showme how", or "help me do it."

As a means of expression, drawing can be of very prac-tical help. A boy of 14, with an intelligence quotient of 64,had difficulty in finding suitable words in describing a pieceof equipment found in a bakery. The teacher and childrenwere unable to supply the missing words from his meageraccount. Suddenly he asked for chalk, saying, "I can'tsay it but I'll draw for you." Although his drawingwas cnide, the name of the object was supplied and hisdescription of. the shop progressed with interest. Insteadof resulting in failure, .the incident gave the boy a feelingof success, since he had at his command the means of over-coming a difficult situation.

GENERAL ARTS AND CRAFTS

Obviously the particular type of craftwork called forwill be determined by the particular unit of experiencein which the class is participating, but almost every branchof handicraft- offers some opportunity for the mentallyretarded child to develop creative ability in connection, withthe activity under way. No attempt is here made to discussthem all. A few of the more recent books on arts andcrafts are included in the bibliography, from which valu-able suggestions can be drawn by the ingenious teacher.The following are among the multitudinous ictivites inhandicraft that have been used again and again by teachersof retarded children: Painting flower pots, boxes, chinaware; making candy or flower baskets; bookmaking; block

making lamp shades ; stehciling curtains; weavingscarfs and rugs; making posters or friezes; making favors

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CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT 89for a party; modeling aniniTils or articles of interest ; pot-tery making; tooling leather; making candlesticks; smock-ing; embroidering.

The younger children will use the paper, paints, crayons,day, plasficine, and even wood and cloth with some pur-pose and attention to details. Manifestly, however, onlythe simplest/ projects, should be attempted by them. Theolder preadolescent group will formulate increasingly defi-nite plans of work and achieve increasingly vtiluable re-sults with more difficult projects and materials. When thechild reaches the adolescent age, special emphasis is placedupon the manual and prevocational experiences that notonly satisfy the creative desire but that are also definitelyutilitarian in natuite, looking toward employability. Theseexperiences are considered in chapter 10.

SUMMARY

1. Experiences in the arts offer abundant opportunity forenriching the lives of the pupils and for the developmentof creative ability. They constitute an emotional stabilizerand a means of self-expression that can be secured in noother way.

2. Among the-fields of art wbich should be given a promi-nent place in the curriculum for retarded children aremusic, play activity, dramatics, folk dancing, drawing andpainting, household arts, and general arts and crafts.

3. Each of these types of activity can be woven into thegeneral unit of activities, thus becoming a part of the totalexperience rather than a thing apart from the rest of theday's program.

SUGGESTIONS FOR READINGBUFANO, REMO. Be a puppet showman. New York, Century company,1933. 168 p.

This book covers thoroughly the entire field of puppetry from the writingof the play to its production.COLEMAN, &ATIS N. (Mrs.) Creative music for children. New York,G. P. Putnam's sons, 1922. 220 p.

A source book of information for various types of musical activities,including the making and playing of musical instruments, development ofthe rhythmic sense, singing and voice control, and other topics of importancein the musical training of childrep. Illustrated.

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SAns N. (*a. ) 'The maKimba book. New York, TheLincoln school of Teachers college, Coiutnbla university, 1926. 9t; p.

flow to make marimbas and bow to play them constitute the theme ofthis little book. Illustrated.

DOBBS, ELLA V. First steps in art and handwork. New York, TheMacmillan company, 1932. 242 p.

Includes consideration of numerous topics that.teachers of retarded chil-dren can apply to their own situations, such as picture making, workingwith clay, bookmaking, house-building activities, dramatics, and toy making.

HAMILTON, EDWIN T. Handicraft for girls. New York, Harcourt,Brace and company, 1932. 270 p.

Includes directions for stenciling, pottery, batik, art metal craft, leather-craft, and other hand projects. Presented simply and clearly, with illus-

. 7 .trations:

Tin-can-craft. New York, Dodd, Mead and company, 1935.508 p.

Describes the use of tin plate of discarded tin cans as a substitute forexpensive materials in art metal work. Illustrated.

SCHLOITER, BERTHA and SVENDEIEN, MARGARET. An experiment Inrecreation with tbe mentally retarded. Chicago, Behavior researchfund, 1933. -75.p.,

Reports a joint project undertaken by the Lincoln State School andColony and the Illinois Institute for Juvenile Research under the directioik

mf the State department of public welfare. Describes the recreational pro-gram in action and analyzes the-.strkture a games used, based upon mentaland chronological age,

TODD, JESSIE, and GALE, ANN VAN NICE. Enjoyment and use of art Inthe elementary school. Chicago, Ill., the University of Chicagopress, 1933. 134 p.

, Presents material for art instruction which lends itself to integrationwith the regular educational program. Includes consideration of modeling,making paper dolls, designs, dramatics, and other fields, with emphasis upondeveloping creative expression.

NoTESee also references of comprehensive scope in chapters 2and 3.

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"V.

CHAPTER 10: MANUAL AND PREMCATIONA,LEXPERIENCES

UNDER "manual and prevocational experiences" amincluded all those. fundamental activities of a manualtype which help to make civilization what it is. Theseare primarily concelmed with- food, clothing, and shelter.No one will deny that children's interests, if giveri an op-portunity to e'xpress themselves, will center around thesefundamental types of activity. The specific phases of theseactivities which have been introduced into the schools underthe general heading of "manual work" or "manual train-ing" are household science and cooking, sewing, cobbling,weaving, woodwork, metal work,4ka?dening and horticul-ture, general repair work, electrical work, and simple orcomplex modifications of these. Which of them shall beused for the instruction of a given group of retarded chil-Oren must be determined on the basis of several tctors,chief among which are: (1) The mental and chronologicalages of the children concerned; (2) the availability oftrained teaching personnel; (3) equipment provided; and(4) communitironment and needs.

Hów available equipment and community environmentcontribute to this phase of the program is well illustratedby the following instance. A long unused greenhousestood on the school grow*. The Board of Education wascontemplating its demolishment, but the city gupei-visor ofspecial classes .pleaded for its retention and rehabilitationon the basis that it could serve an excellent instructionalfind *prevocatiimal -purpose for the special classes whichhad recently been assigned to the school- building. Therequest *fig graritèd, and the greenhouse very soon becaniethe Miter a interest in devolping a fascinating experiencewith fkowirs in, which all pupils of the special classes par-ticipited. .. The youngest children watched the,.tiny p1ant4,80053-46----7914

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grow and learned to recognize them and to love them. Theoldey ones learned the secrets of soil preparation, of plant-ing, of watering, and of fertilizing. A commercial ele-ment in the project appeared when flowers and plants werready for the market and were sola to patrons of theschool. The entire curriculum of the classroom drew ittheme from the activities in the greenhouse. The childrenread stories, learned poems, wrote letters, drew picturesand sang songs of the flowers. They visited attractiveflower gardens in the neighborhood. They kept accountof costs and receipts in connection with the greenhoueacti'vity. The vocational value of the experience appearedwhen several of the boys who had been most interested inthe work later secured jobs in a local commercial green-house. Thus an enriching and a practical experience wasrealized for these retarded boys and girls because someonesaw the possibilities of salvaging a dilapidated piece ofequipment that was about to be destroyed.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES

Place of manual activities in curriculinn.---In planningmanual activities for retarded *children, it must always bekept in mind that they are larger physically than they arementallythat their physical and social interests are gov-erned by minds which are very childish. In other words, a"kindergarten mind" may be directing a body with adoles-cent characteristics. This is why they have more interest inconcrete than in abstract situationsin doing things ratherthan in hearing or reading about them. It is logical, there-fore, to attach great importance to the value of manual ex-periences in any curriculum used for _their training andeducation. It is in such fields that they receive some of tlwirgreatest satisfactions and it is there, too, that they find theirway into remunerative employment. By far the greatestmajority of seriously retarded children will earn their livingin adult life through the use of their hands. While it maynot be conceived as the purpose of the schooLto teach specifictrades to seriousli retarded boys and girls, yet familiaritywith a variety of material and equipment related to mechan-ical 'processes, together with a certain amount of skill in

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CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT 93their use, will give some preparation for the new employ-ment situation ahead. Certain experiences have definitevocational implications, as, for example, household science,cafeteria training, sewing, shoe cobbling, tailoring, and gar-dening, and many jobs have been found in factories, hotelkitchens, cafeterias, parks, and elsewhere, for boys andcrirls who have been industrious and onscientious in theirschool work. Numerous employers, however, have indicatedthat they would prefer to teach-the skills of a specific tradethemselves if they can secure a boy or a girl who has beentaught at school to get along with others, to be punctualand regular on the job, and to be steadfast in work habits.If, therefore, manual activities are to contribute to thefulfiqment of the aims of the education of retarded children,as discussed in chapter 2, they must function in the livesof the children to whom they are taught. They must helpto give the child command of himself. They must helphim to make judgments in meeting the conditions pf hisexistence. They must help to give to his eyes, to his ears,and to his hands skin sufficient to serve him well in satis-fying the needs of his life. They must give him opportuni-ties to experience life situations, and opportunities to usesuch experience in maldng of himself a social being.Coordination with other activiti,e8.Moreover, the teachermust be constantly conscious of the principle of unity run-ning throtigh the whole school program. M1 too oftenchildren have made only a sample of a wooden box, a wovenmat, or they have prepared potatoes, without getting anyreal experiences of the relationship of these things to therest of their activities. The integration of experiencethrough units of work does not exclude manual activities.What the child does with his hands in the shop or thekitchen should be a living part of the fotal experience towhich each specific activity makes its contribution. Theunits of work on foods and on child care, as outlined in chap-ter 4, exemplify this. In.other words the teacher must be ateacher of children first, last, and always, with full con-sciousness of their total lives, and not a cook or cabinetmaker, or a worker in arts and crafts, or even a tiacher ofany of these subjects. If the departmentalized 'plan isfollowed, and a specially trained teacher works Ifijth the

a


children in manual activities, the need for integration isjust as great. All teachers dealing with the group mustplan together to make the program a unified one, centeredabout a common theme of interest.

Need of careful grading.Manual activities need to beplanned to progress from the easy to the difficult, from thesimple to the complex as do other subjects of the curriculum.Careful grading is frequently the secret of the very goodresults produced by mentally retarded and feeblemindedchildren, and contrariwise, the poor results sometimes foundare caused by a lack of careful grading of the tasks_givento the children.

The expression "tasks given to the children" sounds verytraditional. It need not signify anything traditional at all.The wise teacher .s-ees to it that the children have oppor-tunities for manual activities growing out of their ex-

periences and interests, that these activities are withinthe capacities of the children, and that they furnisikabasic training for other manual activities which are tofollow.

It is manifestly impossible to discuss in detail all of themanual skills which have been mentioned in the openingparagraphs of this chapter. A few of the most common

ones are considered. Others should be handled with thesame general principles in mind of careful gradation ofwork and integration of program. The content of ex-

periences in horticulture or auto repairing or any otherspecific field must obviously be determined in the light oftechnical aspects of the subject.

For convenience and clarity the various activities are

discussed separately in the following pages and are dividedinto primary, intermediate, and advanced divisions. Ingeneral, the work of the primary division is planned forpreadolescent children with mental ages from 3 to 6 years,

inclusive; the work of the intermetliate division is plannedfor preadolescent or adolescent children mentally 7 or 8

years old; and the work of the advanced division is foradolescents mentally 9 years or older.' There is necessarily

much overlapping, since mentally retarded children even

This classification is in general accord with the principles of differentiationset forth in chapter 8.

'

CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT 95of the same mental ages differ in abilities, fas do other chil-dren. Their personal an(Nocial characteristics aid or deterthem, as the case may be, in using all of their native ca-pacities. Also previous training should always be takeninto account. More children than one would think, how-ever, need to begin at the beginning, or near it, arid proceedregularly through the various steps. If these steps arecarefully graded and are based upon children's interests,the childr.en themselves will enthusiastically choose themand eagerly look forward to reaching the next higher stepas a goal of achievement.

COOKING AND HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE'

Primary diri8ion.----Schematically the work for childrenwho are young mentally and quite untrained in work ofthis kind might be expressed as follows:

1. Household duties:(a) Care of classroom.(b) Attention to the appearance of the room.(0) Sweeping up small bits.(d) Duqing furniture.(e) Keeping equipment in order.(f) Washing blackboard correctly.(g) Care of sink in classroom.(h) Cleaning classroom tables.(i) Washing dishes.(j) Care of milk bottles.

2. Laundry:(a) Simple washing of such things as dusters and towels.(b) Plain ironing.(c) Care of rough dry clothes.(d) Sprinkling.(e) Blueing.(f) Shaking and banging clothes.

3. Cooking:(a) Preparing cheese and vegetables.(b) Preparing simple dishes such as boiled rice, macaroni.(c) Cooking dried fruits.

4. Personal hygiene:(a) Washing hands and face.(b) Care of nails and hair.(o) Care of teeth.(d) Taking baths.(e) Care of underclothing.

,2 see also outline of unit of experience on p. 31 ff.

96f

MENTALLY RETARDED CHILDREN

5. Table etiquette:(a) Skill in handling bits of food and utensils.(b) Good habits of eating.

Intermedide division.The work of this division growsdirectly out of that of the primary division. If the founda-tion of good habits has been well laid, the children continueto grow in ability to do the simple everyday tasks of lifeand keenly enjoy the opportunity of doing real jobs forwhich they themselves see the necessity. The schematicpresentation of the work of this division is as follows :

1. Household duties:(a) Sweeping.(b) Dusting.(c) Scouring.(d) Scrubbing.(e) Care of gas range.(f) Care of garbage pail.(g) Care of refrigerator.(h) Scraping and stacking dishes.(i) Fire preventions.(j) Window cleaning.

2. Laundry:(a) Washing, rinsing, blueing, starching, hanging.(b) Sprinkling.(e) Ironing.

3. Cooking.(a) Preparing fruits and vegetables.(b) Boiling water for tea, eggs, and starch.(c) Simple measuring: Cup, tablespoon, teaspoon;

and %.(d) Setting a table or tray.(e) Cutting bread and making sandwiches.(f) Making simple candy.(g) Making tea, coffee, and cocoa.(h) Making sauces.(i) Making soups, simple desserts,(f) Preparing meat substitutes.(k) Preparing salad materials.

4. Personal hygiene:(a) Washing hands before eating.(b) Personal bathing.(c) Personal cleanliness in all respects.

5. Table etiquette:(a) Good habits of eating.(b) Behaving at meals.

and hot breads.

1/4 1/2,

JD*.

CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT 97Advanced division. With the basic training provided inthe early divisions, the children in the advanced divisionare quite able to compete with their normal fellows in the

household science departments of the junior high and evensenior high schools. The special schools, however, providea greater opportunity for real jobs for the children.There are so many things that mentally retarded childrencan do when they reach this division that a schematic pres-entation of the work can give but a bare outline as a guidefor the teacher:

1. Household duties:All the odds and ends of duties connected with a house, acafeteria, or a hotel. The standard for this group shouldbe very high.

4144O

(a) Careful laundering of more difficult pieces of clothingor household linens.

(b) Knowledge of the use of electric washing machines.3. Cooking:(a) Cooking all the different types of food which would beused in a family or cafeteria situation.(b) Gradual growth to complete independent cooking onthe basis of a recipe.

4. Personal hygiene.Emphasis on cleanliness and good health habits in all lifesituat ions.

5. Table etiquette:Manners which would make the children acceptable at anysimple family or public table.

OutCo7The8.Household science properly taught can pro-vide well-rounded training for both boys and girls.All the fields of the curriculum can be represented in theoutcomes. In related academic work, abundant opportu-nities are offered for application of important knowledge.Counting and measuring, figuring costs of food and equip-ment, and comparison of values provide the means for de-veloping an appreciation of the value of arithmetic andfor the incidental teaching of number processes. Charts,written directions, and recipes give much opportunity for'reading for comprehension. Incidental teaching. oflanguage, elementary science, and geography is also a partof the t,otal experience unfolded through a unit involvinghousehold science.

Laundry :


Personal hails are an essential element in the pictureof outcomes. Cleanliness is so very important in the kitchenthat cleartahabits in person and dress are acquired with-out the necessity of constant preaching about it. Wash-ing hands, keeping nails clean, and hair covered arethings that are always "done" when handling food andcooking equipment. It is so obvious that one cannot cookor clean without having the necessary materials and equip-ment that the habit of providing oneself with these islearned without much friction. The practice of thrift inthe use of materials and equipment is easily taught be-cause school provision of money for these things is usuallyvery limited. By necessity both teacher and pupils 'haveto work these things out very carefully.

Desirable social habits, too, are encouraged. The kitchenis a splendid place for children to ledrn to cooperate withone another. Space, equipment, and materials have to beshared continuously. Any dishonesty in work appears inthe results. Spoiled food is concrete evidence of careless orindifferent work.

Indwtrial values are evident. If time is wasted, the mealwill not be ready on time. Therefore, the value of time islearned. Moreover, the ability to cook well, and to cleanwell depends considerably on the habits of perseveranceand "stick-to-it-iveness" of the individual. Cooking andcleanihi give such understandable results that they aidgreatly the development of these habits.

Thus household science, far from being an isolated activ-ity unrelated to the rest of the school life of the child, canbe made truly a center of correlation around which a com-pleté living situation can be built. It makes possible bothdirect and incidental teaching of nearly all the subjects usu-ally listed in a curriculum for mentally retarded children.

WEAVING

Weaving is an activity fundamental to the race and seemsunending in its interest for children. Therein lies a cer-tain danger. There is oftentimes a tendency to keep sl.ow-learning children too long on various phases of the weav-ing process because they like it. Since special classes

1

CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT 99are educational and not occupational centers. progressivesteps should be planned in teaching weaving just as in teach-

!' ing other fields of the curriculum.Primary diviion.--The following processes may be

included:1. Under-and-over steps taught first with pliable material andlater with materials more difficult to handle.2. Weaving on Tyndall looms.3. Beginning of chair caning.4. Stringing up looms.5. Use of pedal and shuttle.6. Use of two-harness foot loom.7. Other activities connected with weaving, such as basketry,

knitting and crocheting; also flat reed weaving.Intermediate division.In the intermediate division the

weaving activities of the primary division are continued,with emphasis on the use of diversified materials and equip-ment and with much higher standards of work. Much moreindependence on the part of the pupils is expected in thisdivision of the subject.

Advanced division.Much skill, independence, and versa-tility in the processes previously learned are expected in theadvanced division. The children should understand themechanism and use of the various two-harness, table, andfoot-pedal looms. Design weaving which approaches theartistic should also be developed.

Outconte8.--Weaving does not offer so many possibilitiesforicompletely rounded training as household science. Ithas, however, many values which add to the skill, the satis-faction, and the happiness of the children. The counting,measuring, and computation necessary for successful weav-ing give opportunities for further development of a numbersense. Natural reading situations are created through thepresentation of written directions which the teacher in self-defense will need to have printed. The versatile teacherwill also find means for the incidental teaching of languageand elementary science. The opportunities for art expres-sion and art appreciation are numerous.

When materials are handled the need of having cleanhands and equipment is obvious and the habit grows withlittle or no antagonism on the part of the children. Also

1

1

loo MENTALLY RETARDED CHILDREN

neatness of equipment and materials is necessary for ef-fective work, and so this habit is learned in a natural sit-uation. Thrift in the use of materials, especially left-overmaterials, becomes almost an interesting game.

Weaving is more likely to be an individual enterprisethan are some of the other activities. There are, however,many opportunities for develdping social habits, as in help-ing others in producing goods for the use of family orschool, and in working together on looms, or on a specificarticle. Good use of time and perseverance are rewardedby the results accomplished. This concrete evidence helpsvery much to establish the good habit of steady work untilthe task is completed, thus contributing to the induspialvalue of the activity.

Hence,' weaving as an activity has great value if it is

used as an educational project. It gives pleasure and haspossibilities for the use of leisure time. It is a pity to use

the activity as a commercial enterprise merely to makemoney. There is little value to the children, for example,in turning a class indefinitely into a chair-caning factory.However, there is little objection to selling the articles madefor the cost% of materials, if the children are not kept atspecific phases of the activity too long after they havedemonstrated skill. The chief criterion of success in anyactivity is its meaningful integration with other elementsof the school program.

SEWING

There has been some discussion as to whether sewingshould be taught in the schools at all. Those who opposeit claim that home sewing is completely out of fashion andeven the poorest people buy their clothes ready-made. Thisclaim can be partly but not wholly substantiated. Even ifnew clothes are bought ready-made, there is still the needof the ability to make new garments out of old ones. More-over, there is no doubt that clothes cif better quality can be

secured,if the wearer can make them herself. Now that allpersons have more leisure time, this factor will be increas-ingly emphasized. Furthermore, as a prevocational subject,sewing has special possibilities in cities in which there aregarment factories.

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CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT 101Primary divigion.There is little place for sewing assuch in the primary division of a special group of retardedchildren. However, the weaving, the coarse work withneedle and easily handled materials, and cutting and bast-ing may give in the primary division the necessary train-ing for the &-ginning of real sewing begun in the interme-diate division.Intermediate division.In the regular classes, sewing istaught for the first time usually in the fifth grade. Thementally retarded children of the intermediate division arenot quite ready for the small muscle work required by a"fifth-grade standard of sewingat least at first. Theprocesses and stitches of the regular fifth grade of sewingshould be used only in a preliminary fashion with coarsematerial and large tools. The following fundamentalprocesses .may be taught as they are needed in makingthings :

Taking thread,Threading needle.Position of needle.Making knot.Taking stitch.Wearing thimble.Use of scissors.Tearing.Creasing.

The following additional processes and stitches may betaught in connection with some problem of interest requir-.ing teir use :

sifting on buttons.Overcasting.Gathering.Running stitch.Combination stitch.Outline stitch.Straight binding.Bias binding.French seam.

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Palling thread through material.Even, basting.Unqen basting.Back stitch.Cross stitch.Chian stitch.Blanket stitch.Coarse hemstitching.

Hemming.Altering curve in fabric.Making aIld using a gauge.Use of commercial pattern.Making design.Pressing.Fringing.Elementary use of sewing machine.Mending clothes.

Advanced division.The techniques taught in the inter-mediate division should be extinded to the advanced divi-sion in making all sorts of practical and useful garmentsneeded by the children. Higher and higher statdards

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should be required until results compare favorably with thework of any pupils in the school system. Not only shouldhigh standards of workmanship be maintained but alsocorrect standards of speed. Work should be well done ina reasonable length of time. This type of trainIng is abso-lutely necessary if positions are to be secured in any sew-ing factory which offers openings to girls when they leavvschool.

The problems should be simple at first. There are manydifferent kinds of aprons and many kinds of bloomers. Themodels mtist be very carefully selected on the basis of thedifficulties they present. The ultimate aim in the advancedditigyion is independent construction needed garmentswhich are well And quickly made.

Outcomes.Possibilities are numberless to make the workconducive to desirable outcomes. :The many opportunifiesfor increasing number appreciation through counting, meas-uring, computing, and comparing are obvious in connectionwith the activity of sewing. Charts on processes anastitches, which are always in view, and directions for mak-ing the various articles furnish incentives for reading forspecial purposes. Facts of elementary science and geog-raphy may be incidentally learned in connection with thematerial used in the sewing äctiv,ity. Persondl habits ofCleanliness and of thrift in careof material arid equipmentare emphasized. Social habits may be developed through co-operative piece work introduced when practical and throughmaking garments for the Red Cross, for public relief agen-

. ciesi ot for individual families. Industrial values of perse-verance and "stick-to-it-ive-ness" as well as appreciationof the necessity to avoid wasting time are outseanding.There seems to be no doubt that sewing, or the constructionof clothinga fundamental activity of the racehas itsplace, when ufsed as a part of a total *experience, in giving

,ipmentally retaftled children vital opportunities for activitywhich help them to grow in the ability to live.

WOODWORK

So important has woodwork become in the school curricu-lum that "manual training" has to some people come to be #,

synonphous with "woodwork." Important as this subject

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CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT 103has been as part of the curriculum of the school system, ithas been avai101e generally only to boys who have reachedthe fifth grade in school.

In classes for mentally retarded children copportunitiesfor woodwork activity should be made availablq to childrenof lowest intelligence, Construction of things ,has unlim-ited interest for both boys and girls. However, in spiteof all the fun he may have in hammering and banging, thechild needs to be taught how to do things. There is riothingpleasanfer than to watch the mentally retarded child developto the point where he realizessuddenly from his point ofviewthat out of the hammering and sawing be is doinghe can produce something he wants and can use.Primary division.In the primary division, when the

. children are growing gradually into the knowledge of theconstruction of things, woodwork is practically aft 'activityof simple hammering, sawing, and nailing. The ,aim is to Ahave the rbsults only as good as the ability and interest ofthe children warrant, yet some teachers get amazingly goodresults and ihe children the keenest pleasure in attOningthese standards.- For the children who want merely to be active and tomake a noise there are hammers *and nails. Just hammer-ing nails into a block of wood gives the very young andmentally low-grade child much fun and at the same timeleads to improvement in muscle coordination. By the timethis aimless activity is losing its interest, the tedcher mayhave ready pieces of wood of proper sizes. When the childnails them together a box appeirs and he realizes that hehas "made" something.From this step, the child goes on to other steps, improv-ing in the use of the hammer and saw and learning theuse of new tools as °the occasion requires. He also learnsto handle various Aliicknesses of wood. These early steps-.L.are very difficult, 14 are the bekinning steps in any activity.

intermediate* division.-sii.Any good outline of work usedin a regular t4titsiNi the elementitry school is helpful inplanning work 'Irer is division of the retarded group. The,standards of woik s ould unquestionably be the same asfor normal children.

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The correct manipulation of the following tools shoublbe tafrught in connection with the unit of experience :

Crosscut saw. Keeler.Ripsaw.Coping saw.Screw driver.Coping saw block.Brace and bit.'Countersink.

Smooth planes.Marking gage.Tri-square.Sloyd knife.Bench hook..

Correct processes, such as the following, should be taughtin connection with the unit of work:

Sawing. Use of screw.Sandpapering. Assembling.Squaring stock. Finishing.Gluing. Chiseling.Boring holes.

Advan-ced divieion.--The children in the advanced divi-siop, with the basis of knowledge they have acquired fromthe activities of the intermediate division, and with theskill acquired from former practice, are able to use morevarieties of the tools they.. already know and to learn theuse. of additional and more complicated tools. They arealso able to use a greater variety of materials.

In this division some boys may begin the more complexproblems, such as the building 'of airplanes, motor and sailboat, book ends, and medicine cabinets. These are men-tioned as only suggestive. °Any problem which involvesAheuse of the tools that the boys know and the processes theyhave learned is a suitable one, provided it ig in some wayconnected with the unit of experience in progress. Theboys' interests determine the problem. Strange and unex-pected, although feasible, suggestions come from the chil-r dreu themselies. The boys of this division should be ableto compete with the boys of their community in the hobbyshoiv=and win the prizes..

Ouiconw.--A skillftil teacher could teach almost all thenum1;érs a mentally retarded child ever needs to knowthrough woodwork activity. There are so many situationsin which counting, multiplying, dividing, adding, and sub-tracting are rie.eded. There is a constant need of measuring,coinputing, and comparing in every phase of woodwork:.

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CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT 105figuring costs and making estimates give additional prac-tical problems which need to be solved. The use of chartsfor outlines and directions, and the use of blue prints givereuding opportunities, which are motivated by the need ofknowing what they are all about. Pupils may look up

4Iferences in newspapers and magazines for ideas and sug-,gestions of things "for boys to make." Simple elementaryscience and geography can also be taught incidentally inconnection with the woodwork activity.

Orderliness and neatness are both necessary to successfulshop activity. These habits grow oùt of the good teachingof woodwork. The necessary sharing of tools furnishes thesituation in which self-control, politeness, and cooperationmay be developed. Thrift is nowhere more necessary thanin the shop and can be very concretely taught.

There is little chance for bluff iri making things withwood. An article is either "true" or it is not. A childlearns the valuable lesson thitt he must be strictly honestin every phase of a job in Order to get a good result.Moreover, in woodwork as in the other activities, persever-ance is a virtue which gains its own reward. Woodworkhelps to inculcate the habit of sticking at a task until it isfinished and the habit of using time to*an advantage. Thesehabits grow from the nature of the activity and not throughtalking about them.

In conclusion, woodworkone of the earliest manualtraining subjects to be introduced into the school curricu-lumseems to hold its own in the interest of the childrenand in the value of the results. There is something whole-son"le about it in its appeal to the pupils and somethingvery practical about the possibilities of its application toeveryday life.

SUMMARY

1. Manual and prevocational experiences include all thosefundamental activities of a manual type which help tomake civilization what it is and are primarily concernedwith food, clothing, and shelter.2. There are so many forms and modifications of thesefundamental activities that a wide choice is open, deter-mined by the mental and chrohological ages of the chil-

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dren concerned, the training of the teach* personnel,available equipment, and environmental needs of the com-munity.

3. If manual activities are to contribute to the aims ofeducation for mentally retarded boys and girls, they inuthelp to develop working habits and skills that contributetoward their ability to secure employment and to live associal beings.

4. The principle of unity running through the entireschool program makes it desirable that manual activitiesbe an integral part of the total experience centered abouta common theme of interest.

Manual activities need to be carefully graded, provid-ing for a continuous progression from simple to morecomplex processes.


BECHDOLT, JOHN E. Modern handy book for boys. Garden City,New York, (;arden City publishing company, 1935. 432 p.Manual activities of various types are discussed in this book, includingengraving, molding, puppetry, and other highly varied phases of the ficldSuggestions are given for integrating the activities through a coordinatedproject.

BOLLINGER, JOSEPH W. Elementary wrought iron. Milwaukee, Brucepublishing company, 1930. 139 p.Written from the standpoint of a general metal shop "in which a numberof metal-working activities are represented." The author has includrdprojects of particular value and interest in both home and school. Illus-trated.

CAVE, EDNA S. Craftwork. New York, Century company, 1929.267 I

Describes how to make things for sale in gift shops or for use in thehome. Plans are clearly presented and many of them are simple enoughfor retarded children to follow.COLLINS, ARCHIE F. Making things for fun. New York, D. Apple-

ton-Century company, inc., 1934. 282 p.Paper, cardboard, and wood are the media used for suggesting varioustypes of hand work suited to both younger and older children.

HARRIS, FLORENCE LA GANKE, and H.USTON, HAZEL H. Home eco-nomies omnibus. Roston, Little, Brown and company, 1935. 617 p.A comprehensive textbook covering all phases of home economics, centeredabout the girl's life and experiences in the home. Although the book iswritten for senior high schools, it furnishes much excellent material whichcan be adapted to tbe needs of adolescent girls of retarded mentality.Bibliographies.

LEHMANN, HERBERT G. Shop projects in electricity. New York,American book ciiinpany, 1934. 190 p.

Simple projects in electricity are outlined which meet practical nee4s ofhome and shop.

5.

CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT 107PLAYGROUND AND RECREATION ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA. Handcraftfor home, school, playground, and summer camp. New York, Play-ground and recreation association, 1930. 79 p.

Gives full-size patterns and directions for carrying on 118 differentprojects in hand work. Suited to children of different ages. Anmmz thoarticles sugeested are cardboard and wooden doll furnittIre. lanterns, kites,boats, bird houses, paper dolls, etc.SHAVIM, RICHARD. Furniture boys like to build. St. Paul. Minn.,Bruce publishing company, 1931. 216 p.

Various types of projects are graded according to the ability of the pupils.SIEPERT, ALBERT F. Bird houses boys can build. Peoria, Ill., Manualarts press, 1926. 64 p.

Directions are given for building different kinds of bird houses.TIPPETT, JAMES S. Toys and toy makers. New York, Harper andbrothers, 1931. 144 p.

Makes suggestions and gives directions for constructing various types oftoys.

VAN CLEVE, KATE. Hand loom weaving for amateurs. Boston, Mass.,The Beacon press, inc., 1935. 122 p. illus. (Thecraft series.)A manual of directions for creative work in weavir, with instructclearly given and materials and tools of mintrnunl cost.

Beacon handi-

NOTESee also references of comprehenAve scope listed in chap-ters 2 and 3.

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CHAPTER 11: SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF THERESIDENTIAL SCHOOL

rrHE PLACE in which a child is being educated doesnot affect the general philosophy and objectives under-lying his education. His own nature, his probable des-tiny, and the social milieu in which he is to play his part,are rather the determining factors. Hence what has beensaid in the foregoing chapters concerning curriculum ad-justment applies to mentally retarded children everywhere.The fact of retardation is common to them all, whether theyare enrolled in day schools or in residential schools; in pub-lic schools or in private schools. And the fact of retarda-tion must be met by an adjustment of curriculum which iscommon to all, subject only to those variations which ariseas the résult of the successive levels of chronological andmental development. We have been proné to emphasize thedifferences between so-called institutional schools and dayschools and to forget their similarities. The child of 60 IQwho, because of some complication, leaves the home com-munity to enter a residential school does not by reason ofthat change of residence alter his intellectual status or hiseducational needs and abilities. Other factors have enteredthe picture which reveal the need of continuous supervisionon the basis of a 24-hour day and a 365-day year, but hiscapacity for learning remains the same. What is good edu-cational content for him in one place should be satisfactoryin the other. The method that is successful in one placeshould be successful in the other. It is suggested, there-fore, that as the special problems of the residential schoolare considered in this chapter, they should not be permittedto overshadow the problems that are the same for all schoolsand classes for retarded children.

109

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It should be recognized that not all inmates of manyState or private institutions for the feeble-minded attendthe school sessions conducted as part of the institutionallife. Those children who are mentally too deficient to profitby school instruction are not included in the considerationof this bulletin ; neither should it apply to those who arephysically adults of middle age or beyond, but who arementally still children. Some of these latter have beentaught to perform useful tasks about the institution whichrepresent the realization of their maximum capacity. Butthey are not in daily attendance upon the school program,and they are not children within the age groups being con-sidered here. Educable children between the ages of 6and 16 or 18 are the theme of this study, and theirs is theright of regular systematic instruction wflerever they are.In most ihstitutions for the feeble-minded this is effectedthrough the organization of a daily school program forthem under the guidance of trained teachers.

That some special problems do exist in residential schbolsis obvious. The very nature of the institution is bound toproduce situations not known in the day schools, but thesedo not necessarily militate against the application of soundprinciples of curriculum adjustment. In fact, some of them,as pointed out in the following paragraphs, promote ratherthan hinder the program as outlined in previous chapters.It should be remembered throughout that "residentialschools" include schools of all sizes, representing all types ofsupport and administration. The little private school con-ducted in a home for 20 children and the large State in-stitution with 2,000 inmates are equally concernedthis problem of curriculum adjustment.

CONTINUOUS SUPERVISION AND CONTROL

The control of the residential school over its pupils ex-tends through 24 hours of the day and 365 days of the year.The continuous supervision that obtains there cannot beexercised in day schools because of the very limitations oftime at the disposal of the latter. Therefore the possibilitiesin a residential school of an integrated program in whicheducational and social values are combined go far beyond

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the limits achieved by the day school. Through the use ofunits of experience classroom activities can be coordinatedwith activities carried on in the cottage, in the kitchen, inthe dining room, and in other phases of institutional life.Experiences during out-of-school hours can become thesubject matter of reading, writing, numbers, and language,to an extent not known in the day school. Cottage lifegives the best possible opportunity to develop desirable per-sonal and social habits which in turn can become the themeof discussion in the classroom. Social, industrial, academic,and physical development of the child can proceed hand inhand with one another through. a complete practical in-tegration of his experience during a 24-hour day and duringevery season of the year.

SELECTION OF GROUP

The pupils of a residential school are a selected group.Because of environmental situations, extreme mental de-ficiency, or social conflict, they have not succeeded inmaking adjustment to community life. The curriculummust therefore be organized to meet the peculiar needs ofthe respective types. Those who have been assigned to theresidential school because of undesirable home or communityenvironment can, if they are persons of sufficient intelligenceto accept needed training, be prepared to return to thecommunity later under more favorable environmental con-ditions. Those who are too deficient ever to return to thecommunity must be prepared to take their places in insti-tutional life. Those who are in the institution because of theaddition of behavior complications to low intelligence mustbe carefully studied with reference to their possibilities forsatisfactory social adjustment. Some will no doubt bè ableto go back to the community. Others will need to remainin the institution indefinitely and will need to be trainedaccordingly.

This training for institutional life involves preparationfor usefulness in line with the activities necessary for themaintenance of the institution. Thus the content of themanual and prevocational experiences offered. to childrenduring their school years will logically depend upon the

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opportunities that will later be available for their applica-tion. In the larger institutions girls will be able to rendertheir services in the household, in the sewing and weavingrooms, in the hairdressing shop, and in the dining room.Boys will contribute to the maintenance of the institutionthrough simple carpentry, shoe cobbling, painting, barber-ing, printing, garden, and farm work. In every case theprobable future of the child as a permanent resident of theinstitution will color the trairiing he receives in industrialactivities.

PSYCHOTICS AND DEFECTIVE DELINQUENTS

Most serious amons behavior problems found in the resi-dential school are tiNe characterizing the psychotic andthe delinquent. Mentally deficient children who show defi-nite symptoms of psychosis as well as those who are knownas defective delinquents are likely to disrupt any çurricularprogram. They need a highly specialized type of training,probably in a separate ibstitution, or at least in a separateunit quite apart from the school for the mentally deficient.As long as they remain unclassified in a large institutionfor the mentally deficient, they complicate the school pro-gram by demanding much individual attention and evenby demoralizing the genèral atmosphere of the schoolroom.Because the residential school is likely to receive these verydifficult cases, it must make the needed provision for carefuldiagnosis, treatment, and individual instruction of each onein accordance with the needs revealed.

SERVICE TO ALL AGE GROUPS

The fkct that persons of all ages are resident in manyof the institutions "for the feeble-minded makes imperativean arrangement which will give to the children enrolledthe opportunity to work in groups of children., just as theywould do in day schools. This places a responsibility uponthese residential schools for careful classification and assign-ment of each child to classroom work, as well as a preven-tion of undue contact with older feeble-minded inmates.The proper organization of a school within the lar ..."stitutional life which includes service to preschool c ren,bedridden patients, physically mature adults, and old people

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DIFFERENTIATION OF CURRICULUM

The problem which the day school faces in the adaptationof curriculum* content and method to meet the needs ofvarious age and ability levels is still further accentuatedin the residential school. We find here many more childrenwith a mental age below 6 years than in the day school,and at the same time there are all degrees of subnormalintelligence even up to high-moron level. Therefore theprocess of classification must be carried on not only inseparating children of school age from adults and fromchildren of preschool age, but also in making extensive

'application of the principles of curriculum adaptation tothe various groups of children of school age.No detailed cohsideration will, here be given to the

methods of adaptation, since these have been discussed inprevious chapters. The groups that have been consideredare : (1) Those educable children who are menially belowthe level ordinarily prescribed for entrance into the firstgrade; (2) preadolescent children who are mentally 6 yearsold or older; (3) adolescents of a mental level lower than9 years; (4) adolescents of a mental level of 9 years ormore. The task of the residential school is to Add tothe educational service for these respective groWs, whichis in essence the same as in the day school, the continuoussocial supervision and training made necessary by complica-tions of circumstances.

RESEARCH FUNCTION

The residential school is peculiarly suited to the use ofexperimental methods and research. Many of them areunder the direction of medical men or other highlytrained persons "'who are especially interested in the fieldsof pathology, biology, and eugenics, as applied to thementally deficknt. In some, there are clinical laboratorieswhich have been the battleground of intensive research,

' See also chapter 8 on "Differentiation of Curriculum According to Age andAbility Levels."

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designed to increase knowledge and to develop possibilitieof training. The activities of the clr&sroom may make avaluable contributidn to this prograni of research throughOle use and evaluation of experimental methods of in-struction. It is ..

only through controlled experimentationthat we can ultimately prove the value of our procedures.and it is to the scientific laboratories of residential schoolsthat we must look for darge contribution in certain phaseof needed investigation.

SUMMARY,

The education of mentally retarded children is gov-erned by the same philosophy and .objectives regardless of

. where they are educated. Curriculum content and meth-ods in residential schools should in general be the sameas those used in day schools, with whatever adjustment maybe necessary to meet the peculiar problems of the institu-tion.

2. There are certain conditions peculiar to residentialschools which need to be considered in formulating a cur-ricular program in such schools. Chief among these arethe continuous control of the school' over the children en-rolled; the selective nature of the group assigned to resi-dential schools , complications arising from the preselice ofpsychotics and defective delinquents; the sidence in the'institution of persons of all ages; and th ecial oppor-tunities open for re*earch and experimentation.

3. The fact that the 'residential school exercises 24-hoursupervision through the- year makes possible the realiza-tion of an integrated program of life experience throughwhich classroom and extraclassroom activities can be co-.ordinated in the form of experience units even more closelythan in the day school.'

4. The predominance of serious problems in the residen-tial school that have proved incapable of adjustment in thecommunity produces complications that make necessary themost careful diagnosis and treatment of each individualcase.

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5. The residence in many institution of persons . of allages, from the preschool child to the sild man or woman

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CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT 115necessitates a plan of classification of inmates which will-give to each child of school age his right. to learn alongith other children of his.approximate age and ability.6. The residential school offers abumjant opportunityfor scientific research directed toward the improvement ofaurricultup practice.


BERRY, VICHARD J. A., and CoRuoN, R. G. The mental defective :A problem in social inefficiency. New York, MeGraw-llill bookcompany, 1931. 146 p,(See chapter 1.)

DAVIES, STANLEY P. Social control of the mentally deficient. NewYork, Thomas Y. Crowell company, 1930. 3S9 p.Presents mental deficiency in its social rather than its clinical aspects,with particular reference to the responsibility of society to meet theproblem. Discusses the functions, activities, and achievements of institu-tions caring for mental defectives.

ITARD, JEAN-MARC-GASPARD. TIT wild boy of Aveyron. New York,The Cetitury company, 1932. 104 p. (Tr. by George and MurielHumphrey.)This is the first English translation of an original account by Itard ofhis efforts to educate a feeble-minded child. "The wild boy of Aveyron"was found in the woods, apparent& "a degraded being, human only inshape." Itard undertook to instruct him with the hope of raising his levelof understandifie and intelligence. In this account he dessribes the methodswhich he pursued and the results which he secured.

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CHAPTER 12: THE STATE IN RELATION TO THECURRICULUM

LEÀDERSHIP in the development and maintenanceof agpr6priate and adequate public-school curriculais a definitely recognized responsib4ity of the State.This responsibility is nowhere more important than in thedevelopment of curricula for new educational endeavors,siich as the education of mentally retarded children. Thefunctions of the State in this field are being defined moreand more clear1y, as psychological and educational researchreveals the relationship between mental retardation andeducational opPokunities that will foster the developmentof happily adjusted and useful lives, with or withoutgupervision.

The functions of the State in relation to the curriculumfor the mentally retarded may be classified as follows:1. Directing educational surveys to determine the extent andthe nature of the problem and submitting curricular recom-mendations to school officials. .

2. Establishing clearly defined objectives for the education ofthe several types of mentally retarded children.3. Educating the public, both lay and professional, as to thecurricular needs of these children.4. Sponsoring psychological clinics and child study bureaus toexamine and classify the mentally retarded and to makerecommendations as to appropriate education.5. Prescribing State standards for the education of the men-tally, retarded and assisting in the development and main-tenance of such standards.6. Coordinatine and influencing the activities of the severalagencies in the State concerned with the establishment andmaintenance of an adequate curriculum for mentally re-tarded children.

These phases of the State's responsibilities will be discussedin order.

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DIREcTING EDUCATIONAL SURVEYS

Three types of educational surveys are fundamental toa realization of the curricula'. needs of the mentally retardedand the organization and maintenance of a suitable educa-tional program for them :

1. A State-wide survey and study of age-grade tables, of aLre-

progress records, of reports of medical inspectors on gravelyretarded pupils in the several school districts of the St;tte.and of other pertinent data, to determine the prevalenceof educationally maladjusted youth in the State, the natureand cause of such retardation insofar as this is possilde,and to make definite recommendations as to suitable edu-cational provisions for them in the public schools or :nthe residential schools of the State.

One of the greatest responsibilities of the State at pres-ent is to enlighten its educators as to the prevalence ofmentally retarded pupils and the injustice quite universallyperpetrated against them in permitting them to becomeeither laggards in the grades or in passing them "on age"through the grades with no attempt to offer them an edu-cational opportunity in conformity with their actual needs.Should the State continue to ignore this responsibility, theprice to be paid by taxpayers for the inevitable social inade-quacies and delinquencies will far exceed the cost of a suit-able educational program for them.

2. A survey to determine the prevalence of Cie mentally deficientinappropriately committed to publicly and privately con-trolled correctional institutions.

The tendency to commit mentally deficient juvenile delin-quents to correctional institutions, rather than to institu-tions for the feeble-minded, places upon the State a respon-sibility to ascertain, through surveys aftd research, theextent to which this practice is prevalent and to evaluatethe educational systems in thes6 institutions in terms ofindividual fitness. Many pupils fail in maintaining satis-factory 'life adjustments through failure of the publicschools to recognize individual differences and to supplythe necessary educational adaptations. Continiied disre-gard of these factors in the educational programs of cor-rectional schools will retard rather than promote sociallyconformed behavior. Mentally deficient boys and girls who

s


have become delinquent should not be conunitted to reform-atories or to schools of correction. since by definition extrememental deficiency, or feeble-mindedness. connotes social in-competency, and therefore represents the need for custodialcare in a school for the mentally deficient or in a separateinstitution.

3. Surveys to) inve:t ¡gate the occupational histories of those whoare known to he mentally retarded, particularly formerspechd-class pupils, looking toward an evaluation and amodification of the curriculum in accordance with findings.

Such surveys will indicate whether training in occupa-tional skills is desirable in certain localities or for sometypes of pupils just before they leave school. They mayalso show whether socially acceptable habits and attitudesof work can be developed more readily through exposureto a wide variety of manual experience or through theacquisition of specific occupational skills.

ESTABLISHING CLEARLY DEFINED oBJECTIVES

Uniformity of curricular procedure throughout the Statenecessitates the cooperation of the several State agenciesconcerned and the establishment, by these agencies. of clearlydefined educational objectives for the mentally retarded.The results of the surveys recommended above will showhow far actual practice is failing to reach these objectives.

EDUCATING THE PUBLIC

As there can be no real progress in educating the mentallyretarded without public approbation and support, the pub-lic, both lay and professional, must be made cognizant notonly of the danger ott neglecting to provide proper educa-tional facilities for tSem, but also of the value of develop-ing desirable habits, at t itudes, knowledges, and skills througha curriculum that Minimizes defect and capitalizes assets.There are two avenues of approach to this goal:1. Through State publications, general in character for thegeneral public and specific and technical in character forschool administrators and teachers.2. Through public meetings, demonstrations, and exhibitions,such as:


a. Annual State-wide conferences on the education of ex-ceptional children, with ection meetings for the dis-cussion of the curricular needs of the mentallyretarded.

b. Regional conferences consisting of :

(1) A morning session to demonstrate approved edu-cational procedure for the mentally retarded.the demonstration being a replica of a spccial-class day, with the exception that teachim:periods are shortened to cover the activities Ilftwo sessions in one.

(2) An afternoon session conducted as an open forumfor a discussion of the morning program andrelated administrative problems.

All school administrators, special-class teach-., ers, medical inspectors, school nurses, sucial

workers, service-club members, and interested# lay people within an area of easy access to the

special class selected for the demonstrationshould be eligible to attend these conferences,the aims of which are: (a) To bring the special-class teachers of the selected area into closerpersonal contact, in order that they may discussmutual problems and exchange ideas ; (b) tofamiliarize superintendents, school officials, andteachers with special-class curricular standardsand teaching methods; (e) to show to the publicthe value as well as the necessity of specialclasses for the mentally handicapped.

(3) State and local parent-teacher meetings, andother meetings of an educational nature, in-terested in promoting the welfare of mentallyretarded children.

(4) Displays and pupil demonstrations of processesinvolved in handicrafts suitable for the mentallyretarded at local, county, and State educationalexhibitions, bringing some of the curricularneeds of the mentally retarded to the attentionof thousands who otherwise would have beenunfamiliar with them.'

SPONSORING PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINICS

The services of psychological clinics and child studybureaus, conforming to State standards, should be extended

I In Pennsylvania the education of the mentally and physically handicappedis annually demonstrated at a State farm show visited by 800.000 people frommany. parts of the United States and Canada.

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CURRICULUM AWUSTMENT 121

to all parts of the State, particularly to remote and sparselysettled districts that are financially unable to employ apsychologist or to provide psychological examinations.WI.lere such clinics are now operating gri,der the jurisdictionof State agencies, cooperation to insure cooi-dination of effortand uniformity of procedure is desirable. In one State,plans are now being' made to organize a child-study depart-ment at each State teachers college which is to offer psycho-logical service to the school districts within its geographicalarea. In this way, a psychological examination, diagnosis.and recommendation will be available for every mentallyretarded child in the remote areas of the State. Certificationrequirements for school psychologists and psychological ex-aminers should be prescribed by the State.

PRESCRIBING STATE STANDARD

Mandatory legislation in a number of States requires theorganization of special classes in the public schools forthe "gravely retarded" when 10 or more such pupils in thedistrict are considered "fit subjects" for special education.In rural schools and suburban schoo? di'stricts in which asmall school enrollment does not warrant the organizationof a special class for the mentally deficient, the problemmay be solved (1) by establishing a joint special class (thecost being prorated to the districts on a per capita basis orotherwise) ; (2) by establishing a sperial class in a con-solidated school; (3) by inaugurating special individualizedprograms for such pupils; or (4) in very serious cases,by transferring them to a residential school. The Statedepartment of public instruction should aid rural teachersto recognize and to adapt instruction to the needs of suchmentally retarded pupils through State bulletins on the sub-ject, lecture courses, supervisory visits, and free or loanedinstructional materials.

Complete recognition of the State's responsibility undera legal mandate implies more than segregating the men-tally retarded into special classes with the primary motiveof relieving tegular grades of maladjusted pupils, for suchaction would be merely a gesture in the direction of meetingthe requirements of the law. To give meaning and vitality


to the program, the State should prescribe standards regu-lating the following factors related to special classes:

Selection of classroomClassrooms should meet Statestandards for light, area, floor space, air space, heat, andventilation. Failure to appreciate the scope of educationalactivities for the mentally retarded and their need for a

healthful environment has resulted in the assignment ofspecial classes to rooms undesirably located, poorly lighted.heated, and ventilated, and quite inadequate in floor area.Plans and specification for model special classrooms sup-plied by the State will promote better classroom accommo-dations and improved programs of study.

812e of c7a8s.As the effectiveness of the curriculum willbe minimized by an enrollment that interferes with therequired individualized instruction, the maximum enroll-ment for the several types of mental retardation should beregulated by the State.

Equipment.Adequate equipment for the special class-room is fundamental to a successful administration of thecurriculum. Therefore, the State should prescribe a mini-mum equipment for instruction, including domestic andindustrial apparatus, and ample facilities for storing toolsand raw materials, for keeping pupils' unfinished handwork,and for displaying finished articles.

Coilstitution of class.The curriculum of a special classfor the mentally retarded cannot be fairly administered ifthe pupil personnel is not properly homogeneous. TheState should specify the types and ages of mentally retardedpupils eligible for enrollment in a special class.

Conditions of admission.The proper selection of men-tally retarded pupils based on- a thorough psychological ex-amination is essential. The policy of *waiting until a childis "gravely retarded" (3 or more years) with the sense offailure strongly ingrained, should be avoided. The processof selection should begin when pupils enter the kindergartenor first grade. Through this procedure repetition of gradeswith the concomitant acquisition of undesirable habits andattitudes, such as discouragement, embarrassment, resent-ment, inattention, idleness, truancy, and delinquency will beminimized. Early selection and asiignment of mentally

CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT 123retarded pupils will afford the maximum amount of timefor the development of desirable habits. They should, how-ever, be protected against improper placement. The De-partment of Public Instruction should cooperate with theWelfare Department and with other State and private or-ganizations to this end.

Qualificatiom of teacher8.Although teacher training isone of the major responsibilities of the State, comparativelyfew States have organized training courses for teachers ofthe mentally handicapped. Two phases of thi§, problemdemand consideration : The training of new teachers and thetraining of teachers in service.A satisfactory solution of the first phase of this problemrequires :

(a) Inauguration of training courses in State teachers' collegesand normal schools combined with facilities for observa-tion and practice teaching in an approved special class.Such courses should parallel State requirements for certi-fication find will promote greater uniformity than nowobtains in special classroom procedures.(b) Selection of suitable candidates for such training. As cer-tain personality characteristics and natural aptitudes areessential to successful special-class teaching, only thosehaving the desired personality qualifications should be per-mitted to register. Selection of experienced, capableprimary Nachers, having natural aptitudes for practicalarts and music and more than ordinary interest in healthand physical education, will guarantee in a large measurerealization of the educational objectives for the mentallyretarded.The second phase of this problem concerns one of themajor functions of the State department'of public instruc-tion. Training teachers in service may be accomplished, inpart at least, through :

(a) Guidapce in the selection of extension and summer schoolcourses, if certification requirements have not been metor if additional college courses seem desirable.(b) Demonstration lessons and teaching suggestions by Stateand local supervisors.(c) Demonstrations of special class teaching at regional confer-ences in special education.(d) Discussions of teaching problems at national, State, and localeducational meetings.80053O-46----9

n


(e) Distribution of bulletins and handbooks on the education ofthe mentally retarded prepared by the State and FederalGovernments, including bibliographies of selected refer-

. ences in this field.(1) Circulation of portfolios, containing descriptions of units

of experience, together with samples of reading bookletti.teaching devices, and correlated seat work, to be used assuggestive material and not for duplication, as each proj-ect or unit of experience should be a new creation repletewith local color.

(g) Instruction by experts and agents of commercial houses innew manual activities or handicrafts, arranged by thesupervisor, for selected groups of special teachers.

The education& program,.Standards governing the edu-cational program for the mentally retarded should beformulated by the State. The content of instruction andcurricular differentiation according to levels of mentalability should evolve from actual classroom experimentationof sufacient successful duration to justify embodiment inthe purriculum. They should represent the composite expe-

riences of the most successful special-class teachers in theState. The curriculum should always remain flexible topermit desirable modification or change.

Teacher initiative should be encouraged in the develop-ment of suitable "units of elperience" and in the keepingof accurate records of all correlated and motivated instruc-tion utilized, in order that it may be assembled and dis-

tributed by a central agency as suggestive teaching mate-rial. A suggestive daily program, apportioning periods oftime to the several activities and embodying psychologicalprinciples, promoting effective teaching situations, should beprepared by the State and distributed to teachers of thementally retarded.

Certification of teac1er8.The professional courses andtraining required for certification of teachers of the men-

tally refarded should be fixed by the State and adjustedfrom time to time, its warranted by changing educational'Conditions.

State tub8ifly.To .promote the organization of specialclasses for the 'mentally retarded in the public schools, a

State subsidy should be appropriated to school districtsmaintaining tit* curricular standards prescribed for suchclasses.

CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT 125Supervi8ory program.If the State standards suggestedabove are, to be effectively applied, the services of a well-trained supervisor are indispensable. Such a personshould know from both training and experience the generalprinciples of education as applicable to all children in theelementary grades, and should, of course have additionaltraining and successful experience in the education of re-tarded children. Only with such a background can hegive to the teachers throughout the State the assistancethey need.

COORDINATING THE ACTIVITIES

The curricular needs of the mentally reiarded are thesame regardless of the organization or authority chargedwith their educationcity or rural school systems, elemeu-tary special classes, special prevocational or ior4tional*schools, residential schools, or correctional institutions.The responsibility of the State to supply these curricularneeds through its several agents remains unchanged re-gardless of where the mentally retarded may be found:Therefore, under leadership of the State, there should beunity of effort in promoting the educational welfare ofsuch children in the State through the cooperation of alldepartments, organizations, and agencies dealing with theproblem.The State should, through this cooperative relationshipand through its supervisory program :

1. Direct and °control the enumeration, classification, and place-ment of the mentally retarded.2. Guide and direct the development of adequate curricularprograms-and teaching materials.3. Prepare same for distribution to all teachers of ihe mentallyretarded.4. Stimulate teachers to the attainment of higher educationalachievements by the mentally retarded, particularly alongoccupationfil5. Encourage teachers to evaluate continually the daily needs ofthe mentally retarded and to adapt the curriculumaccordingly.

In accepting and carrying out all the responsibilities asoutlined above, the State will be preventing the mentallyretarded from becoming totally dependent or delinquent

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members of society. But, more than this, it will be *provid-ing an equalized educational opportunity for all, intelli-gently adapted to individual needs, that will help each childto learn how to make a constructive contribution throughself-help, self-respect, and self-control, in keeping with hismaximum capabilities.


MARTENS, ELISE II. OrganizationState departments of education.printing office, 1933. 35 p. (U.no. 42.)

for exceptional children withinWashington, D. C., Government

S. Office of education, Pamphlet

Analyzes the plans of organization existing in State departments of elluca-tion in which a special division or bureau is responsible for the education ofexceptional children. Emphasizes the essentials of such a program.

Supplemented by eight mimeographed circulars dealing with specificaspects of the problem.

MASSACHUSETTS. Manual for special classes. Boston, Massachusetts,State Department of Education, Bulletin whole number 244, 1932,no. 2. 58 p.

Gives regulations for the establishment of special classes for retardedchildren, suggestions for tbeir organization and administration, and sug-gested items for curriculum content Prepared by and designed for specialclass' teachers in Massachusetts.

PENNSYLVANIA. STATE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. Organi-zation and administration of special-education classes for theorthogenic backward. Harrisburg, Pa., State department of publicinstruction, 1935. 91 p. (Bulletin 85.)

Handbook describing the program for mentally deficient children in thepublic schools of Pennsylvania. Includes regulations issued by the Statedepartment of public instruction, sfuggestions for daily programs, timeallotments, and other features of the work.

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APPENDIX A; SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES FORUNIT ON THE HOME, OUTLINED FOR CHIL-DREN OF PREPRIMARY MENTAL DEVELOP-MENT

NOTE. A similar outline may be used for planning units on thefarm, the circus, the store, holidays, and seasonal interests. Allactivities must be carefully directed and preceded by discussion oftheir content. Age in all cases refers to mental age.

DRAWING'Use large colored chalk at blackboard or easel, or small crayons at seat

NURSERY AGE

Activity .

Related sense training,

-

Color and draw father, mother, baby.Draw bed and chair for baby.Draw house for mother.Draw mother's dishes.Draw fruits and vegetables.Draw some toys for baby, as ball.Draw a house for father.

Size.Shape.

KINDERGARTEN AGE .

The above can be elaborated upon, as:Draw a red house with 2 windows and 1 door.Draw 2 broom beds..

Size.Shape.Position.Color.

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_CUTITNG

Use paper or cardboardNURSERY AGE

Activityb Related sense training-.-

Paper Cardboard

Learn to handle scis-sors by cuttingpieces of newspaperto be used for de-finite things, suchas covering desksduring pasting.

Cut on heavy crayonlines:

Strips.Circles.Squares.DraWings of home

unit, a house.

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Shape.Muscular sense.

KINDERGARTEN AGE ,

Cut pictures of homeunit from Sundaypapers and maga-zines.

Cut and classify pic-tures pertaining tohome, as, motherpictures, furniturepictures.

Cut freehand picturesfor posters of homeunit.

Cut geometric figures._

A

-Cut on penciled lines,strips, circles, andsquares:

(a) Clock faces.(b) Square houses.

Cut kitchen, bedroom,living roan, in boxform.

Muscular sense.Touch.Size.Shape.

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Figure and form

Match figures of var-ious forms, colors,and number; piecesof furniture;houses.

MATCHINGNURSERY AGE

Classification

KINDERGARTEN AGE

48

129

Related sense training1

Shape.Color.

O

Match clocks; toymoney.

Use picture puzzles ofrooms and homeactivities.

Classify pictures ofhome life, rooms,furniture, home du-ties, and other actiwities.

Classify Mother Gooserhymespertaining tothe home: Jack andJill, Miss Muffet,Polly Put the KettleOh, etc.

MODELINGUse plasticine or clay

NURSERY AGE

Size.Position.Muscular sense.

Plasticine

Model foods (fruits,vegetables) ; figures(mother, father,baby) ; houses; furni-ture (chair, bed,table).

Clay

Make gifts for mother,father, baby (bell, mar-ble, paper weight).

Related sensetraining

Size.Shape.

KINDERGARTEN AGE

Model figures to beused in illustratingstories

"Gingerbread Boy.""Wee Wee Wo-

men." h"Three Bears."

Model furniture: Dav-enport, lamp, stove,sink, radio.

Make gifts (candlestickholder, flowerpot, spoolholder).

Make decorative articlesf or room (paperweights, book ends,novelties for library).

Size.Shape.Color.

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130 MENTALLY RETARDED --.11ILDREN

OTHER HAND WORKSewing, woodwork, and miscellaneous

NURSERY AGE

Sewing

Make cheeseclothdust cloths withfringed edge.

Sew cards on per-forated pattern.

Make oilclothtoys, stuffed,edged with over-and-over stitchor blanket stitch.

Woodwork

Use toys cut byolder pupils:Sand., n a 1,

color withwater paint,crayola, o rshellac.

M iscellaneousRelated

sense train-ing

Color.Shape.Size.

KINDERGARTEN AGE

Make simple dollquilt blocks.

Weave rugs and,hammocks on

small frames.Weave in and out

design on mesh-ed dishcloths.

Make ginghamnapkins withfringed edges.

Make spool knit-. ting; sew to-

gether fin hotpad.

Make paper filewith t w osquares ofwood: N a i 1,color, andshellac.

Make cardboardjointed ani-mals: C u t,color, and fas-ten together.

Make spongexnapkin rings.

Model claydiahes: Paintand shellac.

Color.Shape.Size.

LIBRARY PERIOD

Activity

Dramatization: la-111-Child represents character.

Plasticine figure represeas character.Paper cutting mounted on sticks used as

puppets.Group bulletin board:

Cut pictures from magazines and arrangethem on bulletin board.

Later paste these in scrapbook stressingbalance, subject matter, neatness.

Make booklets for exchange with kinder-prten and 1B.

Print children's names foriiibrary cards inissuing books.

Related sense training

Touch.Muscular sense.Position.

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APPENDIX B: AN EXAMPLE OF JUNIOR HIGHSCHOOL PROVISIONS FOR RETARDED PUPILS

IN A 'Amber of cities steps have been taken to organizegroups of retarded children in the junior high school.Regardless of previous academic achievement, mentallyretarded pupas are assigned to these groups when theyreach the age of 13 or 14 years. Details of organizationand curriculum differ, of course, in different cities. Thefollowing' account represents la. practice followed in Phila-delphia, Pa., as told by the superintendent of schools ofthat city in a recently published article, which is hete re-produced in part with his permission and the permissionof the publishers of the magazine in which it appeared.'The work describéd is carried on for children of some-what higher academic intelligence than that which charac-terizes most of those enrolled in special classes for theretarded, hut the principles on the basis of -which the. plan oprates can be applied with necessary modificationsto suit groups of lower ability as well.The nekly program for backward pupils in severalselected junior high schools 2f the city, as described bySuperintendent Broome, is divided as follows :

PeriodsPractical arts_____ __________ 10Problems of living 5.English

_______ 5Literature and art.Physical and health education 5Activities (clubs and 5

114TotalmO mI

These tiine allotments and the titles of the general divi-sions of subject-matter, remain constant throughout the.

I Broome, Edwin C. Industrial arts and the problems of the maladjustedpupil. Industrial education magazine, 38:15-17, January 1936.

131

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seventh, eighth, and ninth years, but the content and treat-ment vary with the progress from grade to grade.

ACTIVITIES

Practical arts.Ten periods each week are devoted to a greatlymodified offering of shop work, drawing, and related subjects. Thecourse includes appreciation of the complexity, beauty, and efficiencyof mechanical devices and processes.

For the girls: Short intensive courses on the job-analysis basis.All units to be related to the larger job of homemaking and familylife. Food selection, preparation, and service; sanitary practicesin the care of food and general housekeeping; personal grooming,which includes care of hair, skin, hands, and feet, and the careand repair of clothing; washing, removing spots and stains, andironing; the selection of materials for family use, and the fabricationof garments; the intelligent purchase of ready-to-wear garments,and of household equipment and furnishings; the choice, care, anduse of labor-saving appliances; the careful use of money, and generalbudgetary considerations; the care, development, and welfare ofinfants and children; care of the sick; the study of the family andits relationships; the care and use of tools used In making simplehousehold repairs; the care and use of electrical appliances; safetyrules and practices.

For the boys? Acquaintance with and uses common tools; homerepairs, and minor repairs on articles brouat from home ; care oftools and supplies; shop information; simple projects in wood, metal,..and electricity; shop service construction (semicrude articles madein quantity for use in the school system) ; advanced projects for ablepupils; °informal mechanical drawing; instruction in plain cooking,and in the use of sewing implements; patching and repair of cloth-ing; purchasing ready-to-wear garments, household equipment, andfurnishings ; the care and use of laboi-saving appliances; generalbudgetary considerations; and the careful use of money.

To a considerable extent, it is provided that boys and girls eachreceive some instruction in the fields commonly reserved for the othersex.

Problems of liviing.Practical citizenship of the home, the street,the occupation, the community; local government ; recreational activi-ties and opportunities; use of newspapers and magazines (sports,advertisements) ; discussion of current events; problems and con-ditions of labor; studies of occupations; elements of geography andhistory of Pennsylvania and the United States; food, clothing, andshelter; elements of environmental science; applied arithmetic, andcommon business practices.

English.Emphasis on the mechanics of oral and silent reading(in an effort to raise the reading level) ; enunciation ; oral English;

CURRICULUM ADJUSTMENT 133letter writing, spelling, vocabulary building: correction of the com-mon errors of expression.

Literature and art.For appreciation values, primarily.Phpical and health edwation.Brief lessons on hygiene, personaland for the worker, followed by a program consisting largely ofgames, with some apparatus, track, and field work. Emphasis onposture.

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