Risk and Resiliency Community Assessment

Community Assessment Report for Bolivar County Mississippi An analysis of community resiliency and needs Bolivar County Mississippi is located in what is commonly referred to as the Mississippi delta. Many communities in the delta have historically faced the threat of flooding from the Mississippi river and its nearby tributaries. This report will examine the impact of flooding over time on the local community and assess the resiliency of communities to effectively cope with natural disasters such as flooding. This report will also examine community needs and provide recommendations for strengthening resources and future preparedness. Shane R. Brady University of Michigan Michigan Youth and Community Program In Partnership With Delta State University Center for Community and Economic Development July 10, 2008

Community Assessment Report for Bolivar County Mississippi

Jul. 10

2

Project Background:

The community assessment and resiliency study conducted in Bolivar County was made possible

through an ongoing collaboration between the University of Michigan, located in Ann Arbor, Michigan,

and Delta State University, located in Cleveland, Mississippi. Through an active and productive

partnership the two institutions have collaborated on numerous projects and continue to increase the

capacity for future work and relationships between the numerous schools of both institutions. This

project was the result of a summer internship program sponsored by the Michigan Youth and

Community Program, located at the University of Michigan’s School of Social Work. Through a

competitive application process University of Michigan social work graduate interns are chosen to spend

the spring/summer semester working in Mississippi in a multitude of capacities but primarily focused in

the areas of community organizing, program evaluation, and social justice related work. Michigan

interns are able to gain practice skills, increased competency, and a once in a life time experience, while

the delta community attains expertise and resources that helps to build stronger communities.

Acknowledgements:

This project would not have been possible without the assistance of a wide array of community partners, not the

least of which is Delta State University who provided guidance, resources, and insight, in the creation and

implementation of this community assessment and resiliency study. It is with sincere gratitude that I thank the

following individuals and entities for their support and contributions to this work:

Dr. John Green, Associate Professor, the Center for Community and Economic Development, Delta State

University, who provided mentorship and expertise on the development of this report.

Mr. Talbot Brooks and the Center for Interdisciplinary Geospatial Information Technology, for providing access to

the Bolivar County Hazard Mitigation Plan and associated maps.

Dr. Luther Brown, Director, Delta Center for Culture and Learning, for his ongoing support and community

expertise.

Ms. JoDonna Watson, Director of Emergency Shelter and Transitional Program, Bolivar County Community Action

Agency, for her insight and local knowledge.

Dr. Barry Checkoway, Professor of Social Work and Urban Planning, University of Michigan, for his continued

mentorship, patience, and support, with this project. I would also like to thank Dr. Checkoway for his continued

commitment to community work in Mississippi and social justice everywhere.

Ms. Nsombi Lambright, Executive Director, Mississippi American Civil Liberties Union, for her mentorship and

continued support of the Michigan to Mississippi internship project.

I would also like to acknowledge my family and friends for providing so much support during this process, without

you it would not have been possible. I love you Kari Beth.

Finally, I would like to say thank you to the Mississippians that welcomed and embraced me, without your support

there would be little opportunity for true community work.


Jul. 10

3

Executive Summary:

The Bolivar County flood assessment and resiliency study conducted over ten weeks in the summer of

2008 was made possible through the collaboration efforts between the University of Michigan and Delta

State University. The purpose of the study was to assess the local community’s strengths and

challenges as they relate to flood preparedness and recovery with the purpose of generating

recommendations that utilize the proven strengths and resources of the community along with evidence

based expertise, in order to minimize future flooding risks while mitigating the associated damage.

The primary research questions being asked are as follows:

1. What is the current level of flood risk in Bolivar County?

2. How have the communities in Bolivar County responded to flooding over time?

3. What are the current and inherent strengths of the community that provide support during

times of disaster?

4. What are the community challenges to flood mitigation and preparedness?

5. What strategies and resources are needed to increase the level of community preparedness and

minimize the effects of future flooding?

To answer the research questions proposed in this study the following step will be taken, these steps

comprise the research methodology for the study.

1. A preliminary scan of the existing literature on community resiliency and disaster preparedness.

2. Data collection from U.S. Census Bureau data sets for Bolivar County, local chamber of

commerce records, and other local sources.

3. A walk through assessment of the communities in Bolivar that are at most risk for catastrophic

flooding.

4. A review of the comprehensive Bolivar County Hazard Mitigation Plan.

5. Interviews with community stakeholders and local experts.

Community Profile:

The region of Bolivar County is marked by several features that impact both community resiliency and

disaster preparedness. Bolivar County is an agro economic region, meaning that agriculture is still a

main employer and provider to economic life in the region. Farming, construction, and gaming, are still

primary employers for males in the region while females tend to work in the medical supply or

education fields. The flat topography of the region that provides economic strength and jobs to the

community also presents challenges to flood mitigation. People of Bolivar County make significantly less

in median income, $24,248, than the state average of $34, 278 and more than thirty percent of the

region lives below the poverty line. The low socio-economics of Bolivar County create further strain to

community resiliency. The population of the area is almost a fifty/fifty, male to female ratio and two

thirds to one third, black to white, population. The population demographic that stands out however, is

the twenty percent of the population over five years old that has a documented disability. The high

populations of disabled persons living in the area create an even more persistent need to address flood


Jul. 10

4

preparedness and mitigation. The community profile of Bolivar County provides a brief glimpse of the

characteristics that provide both strengths and challenges to community resiliency.

Overview of Flooding:

The region of Bolivar County has a long history of flooding that extends back in time. The communities

of Bolivar County sprouted up along the Mississippi River because of the resources which the river

provided, however it also presented challenges to residents. The first major effort to address flooding

occurred in 1838 with the construction of the first levee system. The first levee systems were modest in

design and worked only minimally to address flooding. Over the years levee systems improved in design

as communities became more proactive and determined to minimize the threats of flooding. The

communities learned from each levee breech and disaster, how to construct stronger and more durable

levee systems. The last levee breech that occurred in Bolivar County was in 1927, when heavy and

persistent rains caused every levee along the Mississippi River to break, sending flood waters across the

county. After this major flood the federal government became more involved in disaster management

and began to construct and operate new levees, which are still operated today by the U.S. Army Corp of

Engineers. Although there has not been a catastrophic flood as a result of a levee break since 1927,

many communities still face yearly nuisance flooding caused by heavy rain and accelerated by the flat

topography and poor drainage of the region. There are also several communities that have recreational

homes along the unprotected side of the Mississippi River. The historical legacy of flooding in Bolivar

County has continually strained community resiliency and presents a current challenge and need for

disaster preparedness and flood mitigation planning.

Key Findings:

There were several key findings that resulted from the community assessment of Bolivar County. The

first main finding of the study was that communities have historically provided the most resources to

flood mitigation and have continually, over time, helped to minimize the effects. It was community

residents that first advocated to the federal government for funding and support to rebuild levees after

the flood of 1882 and 1927. The advocacy efforts of community members eventually led to the

establishment of federal programs such as the Federal Emergency Management Administration, that

provide assistance to communities impacted by natural disasters. Another key finding of this study was

that most of the current flooding occurs as a result of localized flooding. The Bolivar County Disaster

Mitigation Plan provided communities with assessment tools to gauge the disaster threats of their own

communities and to design goals to improve disaster preparedness.

Every community in Bolivar County, with the exception of one, indicated that flooding was a persistent

threat, however only fifty percent of those communities addressed the need in their disaster mitigation

goals. None of the communities in Bolivar indicated that catastrophic flooding is a persistent or serious

threat even though the past history of levee breaks indicates that a catastrophic flood is likely to occur

sometime in the future. The communities also did not address the needs of residents who live or have

recreational homes along the unprotected side of the levees in Benoit, Rosedale, and Beulah. Overall

Bolivar County and its communities have demonstrated a high level of resiliency over time that is


Jul. 10

5

evident in county archives, stakeholder interviews, and other documentation. There are also several

challenges that hinder disaster preparedness and flood mitigation efforts and include the following:

1. Low Socio-Economics

2. Lack of Resources

3. Lack of Awareness or Perceived Threat of Catastrophic Flooding

4. Flat Topography of Region

5. Large Size of the region

6. Lack of Technology in Some Communities

7. Lack of Affordability or Access to Flood Insurance

8. Inefficient Disaster Funding Systems

Final Recommendations:

The recommendations that are provided are based upon community strengths and pre-existing

resiliency in the region. The first recommendation that I provide is for local officials and governments to

begin raising the consciousness and awareness of communities in regards to the future threat of

catastrophic flooding and to design disaster preparedness plans focused specifically on the impact of a

levee break. Another recommendation that I provide is for a research project targeted at communities

that lie on the unprotected side of the levees. The research study would focus on finding out the

reasons that residents do not have flood insurance, so targeted action can be taken based upon the

results. One intervention that I recommend involves advocating to federal and state governments to

assist with subsidizing flood insurance to residents in Bolivar County and potentially designing legislation

that targets insurance companies for price gouging and claim restrictions. Although the hazard

mitigation plan developed with the help of Delta State University is a proactive step to addressing

disaster preparedness and mitigation, it may also prove beneficial to have a separate disaster mitigation

plan for flooding, since this seem to be one of the most persistent threats in the region. The last

recommendation that I provide involved the disbursement of disaster funding to local communities from

larger foundation, Not-for-profits, and government sources. I recommend that these entities utilize the

existing local strengths of faith-based and smaller not-for-profit organizations to develop special disaster

mitigation accounts that upon the onset of a natural disaster, funding can then be immediately

disbursed into these accounts for agencies to utilize when they are most needed, without being forced

in the midst of a disaster to write funding proposals.

The Bolivar County region has a long history of disaster mitigation and resiliency that occurs at the

community level. It is from these strengths along with professional and local expertise that disaster

preparedness and flood mitigation plans can be best designed and implemented, so that the

communities of Bolivar County are best prepared, protected, and enabled, to cope effectively with

future flooding.


Jul. 10

6

Introduction:

Bolivar County is an agro economic rural community located in the northwest Region of Mississippi,

commonly referred to as the delta. The communities which lie along the region are frequently impacted

by floods caused by torrential rains and the fast rising waters of the Mississippi River. The Bolivar

County area is only one hundred and fourteen feet above sea level and as a result local communities

have faced persistent threats of flooding for centuries. The most recent flooding issues arose during a

series of extreme storms and steady rains that occurred in April of 2008. These storms also produced at

least one tornado that touched down and created some damage in the town of Rosedale. Many local

communities suffered damages from storms and localized flooding, which forced several hundred

residents from their homes. Mississippi governor Halley Barber declared many areas of Bolivar County

disaster areas. This study will examine community response and preparedness to flooding in Bolivar

County and provide recommendations for strengthening future disaster response strategies.

Assessment Purpose:

The main purpose of this assessment is to examine the effects of flooding in Bolivar County and provide

an overview of the region. This report will also discuss the resiliency and strengths of the community,

and make recommendations to government, not-for-profit agencies, and residents, for improving

disaster response strategies in order to mitigate future flood damage.

Research Methodology:

Although this study is meant to be beneficial to community planning it is not intended to be a

comprehensive all encompassing doctrine. This study will utilize both quantitative and qualitative data.

The quantitative data utilized in this report is taken primarily from U.S. Census Bureau data sets and

other local sources. The data is intended to help provide a community profile of Bolivar County. Local

data for the communities of Rosedale, Benoit, and other regions near the Mississippi river, may also be

utilized in order to provide a better profile of the communities most at-risk for flooding in Bolivar

County. This report also draws heavily from existing literature on community resiliency and disaster

preparedness, including the Bolivar County Hazard Mitigation Plan. The qualitative data utilized in this

report comes mainly from personal observations of flood affected areas and stakeholder interviews with

residents, not-for-profit workers, and local leaders. The interviews are summarized within this report

but because of issues arising with informed consent, no names or identifying information is provided in

this report.

Geography and Environment:

Bolivar County Mississippi is located in the northwestern region of the state and is considered part of

the delta region. The area on average is one hundred and forty one feet above sea level with the areas

along the western edge of the county less than One Hundred and forty one feet. The County of Bolivar

is one of the flattest regions of the country and as a result is more suceptible to flash flooding and back

water flooding as a result of its proximity to the Mississippi River. The county is bordered by the

Mississippi River on the west, along with the state of Arkansas, bordered by Washington County on the


Jul. 10

7

south, on the east by Sunflower County, and on the north by Coahoma County. The area is

predominently highlighted by flat farming areas as well as swamps and marshes. There is one main

levee that sets along the western edge of Bolivar County near the town of Benoit, where the Mississippi

River runs parelle. The communities which face the most evident and constant threat from flood waters

are the towns of Rosedale and Benoit because of their close proximity to the Mississippi River.

Figure 1.1. Bolivar County location in relation to the state of Mississippi1

1 McCool Management Systems. (2008). A Hazard Mitigation Plan for Bolivar County, Mississippi. Cleveland: Delta State

University.


Jul. 10

8

Land Use:

Bolivar County is the second largest county in the state of Mississippi. It is also one of the flattest places

on earth, which increases the likelihood of flooding. The area is mainly utilized for agricultural purposes

but stretches of wetlands and forests can be found along the Mississippi River. The following map

displays the land use of Bolivar County, with the municipalities outlined in black.

Figure 1.2 General Land Use In Bolivar County, MS2

Demographics:

2 McCool Management Systems. (2008). A Hazard Mitigation Plan for Bolivar County, Mississippi. Cleveland: Delta State

University.


Jul. 10

9

The following chart provides information on the population demographics of Bolivar County. The

statistics are based on 2000 U.S. Census data and 2006 population projections3.

Table 2.1 Population Demographics of Bolivar County in Relation to the State of MS

Population Demographics Bolivar County Mississippi

Population, 2006 estimate 38,352 2,910,540

Population, percent change, April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2006 -5.6% 2.3%

Population, 2000 40,633 2,844,658

Persons under 5 years old, percent, 2006 7.7% 7.2%

Persons under 18 years old, percent, 2006 27.6% 26.1%

Persons 65 years old and over, percent, 2006 10.8% 12.4%

Female persons, percent, 2006 52.8% 51.6%

White persons, percent, 2006 (a) 33.4% 60.9%

Black persons, percent, 2006 (a) 65.4% 37.1% American Indian and Alaska Native persons, percent, 2006 (a) 0.1% 0.5%

Asian persons, percent, 2006 (a) 0.5% 0.8% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, percent, 2006 (a) Z Z

Persons reporting two or more races, percent, 2006 0.5% 0.7%

Persons of Hispanic or Latino origin, percent, 2006 (b) 1.3% 1.8%

White persons not Hispanic, percent, 2006 32.5% 59.3%

Living in same house in 1995 and 2000, pct 5 yrs old & over 62.9% 58.5%

Foreign born persons, percent, 2000 0.5% 1.4% Language other than English spoken at home, pct age 5+, 2000 2.7% 3.6%

High school graduates, percent of persons age 25+, 2000 65.3% 72.9%

Bachelor's degree or higher, pct of persons age 25+, 2000 18.8% 16.9%

Persons with a disability, age 5+, 2000 8,816 607,570

Mean travel time to work (minutes), workers age 16+, 2000 19.7 24.6

Population Analysis:

The population of Bolivar County according to census data was 40,633 in the year 2000 and

expected to have decreased by six percent in 2006. The ratio of male to female residents is

almost equal with females comprising a slightly higher percentage of the population. Young

people, those under eighteen years old, make up almost twenty eight percent of the county’s

population. This is a large percentage of young people based on national statistics but only

slightly higher than the state of Mississippi’s average. The counties estimated overall race and

ethnicity composition is sixty five percent Black, thirty three percent white, and approximately

one percent Latino. There are smaller populations within the county who identify as Asian,

Pacific Islander, and who identify as multi-racial. There are also a larger proportion of people

3 U.S. Census Bureau: State and County QuickFacts. Data derived from Population Estimates, Census of Population and Housing, Small

Area Income and Poverty Estimates, State and County Housing Unit Estimates, County Business Patterns, Nonemployer Statistics,

Economic Census, Survey of Business Owners, Building Permits, Consolidated Federal Funds Report Last Revised: Wednesday, 02-Jan-2008


Jul. 10

10

with disabilities, twenty two percent, which is slightly higher than the state average and

considerably higher than the national average of seventeen percent.

Education Demographics:

The residents of Bolivar County receive less high school education than the state average, sixty

five percent compared to seventy three percent, but more residents attain bachelor degrees

than the state average, nineteen percent compared to seventeen percent. The high school

graduation rate of Bolivar County is below the U.S. average of eighty percent and the bachelor

degree attainment is also below the national average of twenty four percent. The major institute

for higher learning in the area is Delta State University.

Housing Related Information:

Table 2.2 Housing and Income Information for Bolivar County4

Housing Facts Bolivar County Mississippi

Housing units, 2006 15,410 1,241,489 Living in same house in 1995 and 2000, pct 5 yrs old & over 62.90% 58.50%

Homeownership rate, 2000 61.1% 72.3%

Housing units in multi-unit structures, percent, 2000 17.3% 13.3%

Median value of owner-occupied housing units, 2000 $57,200 $71,400

Households, 2000 13,776 1,046,434

Persons per household, 2000 2.79 2.63

Median household income, 2004 $24,258 $34,278

Per capita money income, 1999 $12,088 $15,853

Persons below poverty, percent, 2004 30.1% 19.3%

The housing demographics of Bolivar County are highlighted by the high percentage of people

living in the same house in 2000 as previously documented in 1995, sixty three percent. This is

higher than both the state and national averages for five year continuous residency. Sixty one

percent of residents own their own homes, which is considerably below the state average of

seventy two percent. The median value of homes in Bolivar County is fifty seven thousand

dollars considerably lower than the state average of Seventy one thousand. The median

household income of residents of Bolivar County is approximately twenty four thousand dollars

and significantly below the state average of thirty four thousand dollars. The percentage of

people living below poverty is also higher than the state average, thirty percent compared to

nineteen percent.

4 U.S. Census Bureau: State and County QuickFacts. Data derived from Population Estimates, Census of Population and Housing, Small

Area Income and Poverty Estimates, State and County Housing Unit Estimates, County Business Patterns, Nonemployer Statistics, Economic Census, Survey of Business Owners, Building Permits, Consolidated Federal Funds Report Last Revised: Wednesday, 02-Jan-2008


Jul. 10

11

Economic Activity and Structure:

Table 2.3 Employment Sector Population Distribution for Bolivar County5

Industry Number Percent

Agriculture, forestry, fishing, hunting, and mining 1008 7.1

Construction 725 5.1

Manufacturing 2579 18.2

Wholesale Trade 390 2.8

Retail Trade 1585 11.2

Transportation and warehousing, and utilities 539 3.8

Information 180 1.3

Finance, Insurance, real estate, and rental and leasing 473 3.3 Professional, scientific, management, administrative, and waste management services 578 4.1

Educational, health and social services 3717 26.2

Arts, entertainment, recreation, accommodation and food services 871 6.2

Other services (except public administration) 520 3.7

Public administration 996 7

Total 14161 100

The economic structure of Bolivar County is a mix between agriculture, industry, retail, and

professional sectors. Bolivar County has a significantly higher level of agricultural sector

employment than the rest of the state. The farming sector is still a major employer of males in

the county. The construction field is also a common field of employment for males. The top

employment sectors for females in Bolivar County are education and healthcare related work,

mainly in the public school and hospital systems. The average commute to work for Bolivar

County residents is under twenty minutes and less than the state and national averages.

Table 2.4 Major Industry Employers in Bolivar County6

Company/Institution Type of Industry No. of Employees

Baxter Healthcare Inc. Sterile Hospital Supplies 800

Faurecia Metal Sheet Frames 375

Cives Steel Co. Fabricated Structural Steel 140

JANTRAN, Inc. Marine Construction, Repair 175

Needle Specialty Products Needles for Medical Use 140

Quality Steel Corporation Steel Propane Tanks 97

Total

1727

5 McCool Management Systems. (2008). A Hazard Mitigation Plan for Bolivar County, Mississippi. Cleveland: Delta State University.

6 Cleveland-Bolivar County Chamber of Commerce,

http://www.clevelandmschamber.com/majoremployers.html, as viewed on 4 June 2008.


Jul. 10

12

The chief employers in Bolivar County are Baxter Healthcare, with eight hundred employees

followed by Faurecia and Cives, both steel associated companies. The major industries in

Bolivar County are most often associated with the steel or medical supply sectors.

Table 2.5 Business Demographics of Bolivar County7

Business Ownership and Economic Output Bolivar County Mississippi

Private nonfarm establishments, 2005 748 60,542

Private nonfarm employment, 2005 9,246 926,952

Private nonfarm employment, percent change 2000-2005 -10.9% -3.1%

Total number of firms8, 2002 2,265 187,602

Black-owned firms, percent, 2002 42.9% 13.3%

Women-owned firms, percent, 2002 34.0% 25.1%

Retail sales, 2002 ($1000) 255,863 25,017,531

Retail sales per capita, 2002 $6,478 $8,724

Building permits, 2006 54 16,618

Federal spending, 2004 ($1000) 309,959 22,337,697

The nonfarm employment sector which encompasses several different job sectors has

declined by eleven percent between 2000 and 2005. This decline has been more significant

than the state decline of three percent or the national decline of two percent. The number of

black owned businesses in Bolivar County is forty three percent, this is significantly higher than

the rest of the state which has thirteen percent black owned businesses and higher than the

national average of five percent, black owned enterprise. The number of women owned

enterprises in Bolivar County is thirty four percent, which is also considerably higher than state

and national averages. The number of building permits given out in 2006 was fifty four which is

less than one percent of the total number of permits given out for the entire state. The amount

of federal spending provided to Bolivar County is slightly above the mean average provided to

other counties in the state ($310,000 to $272,000). The retail sales per capita in Bolivar County

are less than the state and national average.

7 U.S. Census Bureau: State and County QuickFacts. Data derived from Population Estimates, Census of Population and Housing,

Small Area Income and Poverty Estimates, State and County Housing Unit Estimates, County Business Patterns, Nonemployer

Statistics, Economic Census, Survey of Business Owners, Building Permits, Consolidated Federal Funds Report

Last Revised: Wednesday, 02-Jan-2008

8 The Census Bureau refers to “firms” as businesses which have paid and documented employees and does not

include international corporations.


Jul. 10

13

Table 2.6 Means of Transportation for Residents of Bolivar County9

Subject Number Percentage

Means of Transportation and Carpooling Workers 16 years of age or older 13,885 100.0

Car, Truck, or Van 12,961 93.3

Drove Alone 10,427 75.1

Carpooled 2,534 18.2

Workers per Car, Truck, or Van 1 (X)

Public Transportation 140 1.0

Bicycle 26 0.2

Walked 399 2.9

The residents of Bolivar County generally drive to work as opposed to other means of

transportation. This is represented by census data that illustrates that ninety three percent of

residents get to work by car, truck, or van. Seventy Five percent of residents drove alone while

more than eighteen percent of residents carpooled with one or more others. The lack of public

transportation in the county may be a challenge to overall community resiliency however; the

evidence of carpooling suggests a strong sense of cooperation among local residents that

should be considered a community strength.

Overview of Flood Control:

Pre-Civil War:

The history of flooding in Bolivar County as a result of the Mississippi river is documented

through community archives, census data, and other records. The community first began

addressing the need for flood control in 1838, with the construction of a modest levee that was

built three feet above the highest water level on the river. The levee cost one thousand dollars

and was built over the course of a year. It is doubtful that this modest levee would have

contained the waters of the Mississippi over any length of time, given that the river often crested

at much higher levels than the levee could contain10. It did however demonstrate that the

community was taking a proactive stance on flood mitigation. The first board of levee

commisoners was documented in 1848 and is another example of proactive measures taken by

the local community to address flooding. In 1850 the levee board instituted a levee tax to local

citizens for the purpose of constructing an eighty five mile long levee system that would stretch

9 U.S. Census Bureau: State and County QuickFacts. Data derived from Population Estimates, Census of Population and Housing,

Small Area Income and Poverty Estimates, State and County Housing Unit Estimates, County Business Patterns, Nonemployer

Statistics, Economic Census, Survey of Business Owners, Building Permits, Consolidated Federal Funds Report

Last Revised: Wednesday, 02-Jan-2008

10

McCool Management Systems. (2008). A Hazard Mitigation Plan for Bolivar County, Mississippi. Cleveland: Delta State University.


Jul. 10

14

along the areas of the Yazoo-Delta region. The problems with levee design of this era was that

the engineering was very primative and emphasized wood as the chief material. Often times

the wood would rot and decompose, creating weak points throughout the levee system; thus

making repairs an ongoing and constant battle for local communities11. The formation of levee

districts in 1858 generated much needed funding for the buiding and maintaining of hundreds of

miles of levees, stretching from Memphis Tennesee to the far end of Issaquena County. The

creation of more stable levees had a profound impact on the entire region. Slave holders began

migrating to the delta and cultivating the land for cotton and other crops. The economic activity

increased expotinuously during this time period as people begun to trust in the levee systems.

Reconstruction-1882:

After the civil war came and went much of the delta region consisted of abandoned and

destroyed plantations, houses, and communities. The wilderness of the region began to retake

the fertile farm lands and levees began to wear down and become in need of immediate repair.

In November of 1865 two former civil war officers, General Charles Clark and Colonel F.A.

Montgomery along with Colonel W.A. Percy and Captain W.E. Hunt formed the Mississippi

Levee Commission. The purpose of the commission was to repair and replace over two

hundred miles of exisitng levees that stretched across the delta region. Once again the work of

community leaders helped to reclaim communities from the inevitable flooding of the Mississippi

river.

Smaller private levees, such as the levess at Lake Vermillion and Lake Beulah, were also being

build by communities during this time frame; these private levees were often weaker in design

and construction than their municipal counterparts. These smaller levees were breached at

much higher rates and residents were often faced with living in constant flood danger or leaving

and giving up their residence. Most residents of local communities stayed and simply worked

together when flooding occurred to repair damaged buildings and homes. The sense of

community seems to have helped these smaller communities cope with flooding. Although

several levee breaks occurred between the years of 1867-1880, they were small in stature and

communities were able to overcome the effects with relative ease. The flooding of 1882

however, caused great distress to communities as frequent and torretial rains created high flood

waters in the Mississippi and its tributaries. Every levee of the Mississippi Levee Commission

broke during this time and the devestation to crops, businesses, and homes was at an all time

high12. The communities in Bolivar, Washington, and Issaquena Counties advocated to the

federal government for the first time in history. The congress authorized funds and resources to

help repair the damaged levees and upgrade them with new design and innovation. This

11 United States Army Corp of Engineers. (2000, April 30). Levee Construction. Retrieved June 10, 2008, from United States

Army Publications: http://www.usace.army.mil/publications/eng-manuals/em1110-2-1913-/c-7.pdf

12 The Lower Mississippi Development Comission. (1990). The Lower Mississippi Development Comission Papers. Delta State

University, Caps Archives. Washington D.C.: Author.


Jul. 10

15

marked one of the first times, since reconstruction, when the federal government became

involved in diaster recovery. Once again local communities through advocacy and effort

demonstrated a level of resilency to overcome the circumstances created by flooding.

1882-1911:

The time period after 1882 through the begginning of the twentieth century was marked by

smaller levee breaches, mostly occuring among communities right on the Mississippi river. One

of these communities Beulah, faced constant threats from flooding due to its close proximity to

the Mississippi river and its inferior and inadequate levee system. One of these levee breeches

in 1882 at Beulah, had the potential to be much more catastrophic in nature if not for the local

residents who banded together and fixed a weak spot underneath the levee with seed bags and

sand. The work and inginuity of local residents helped minimize the damage and impact of

flooding.

Flood of 1912:

The next major event of flooding occurred near Beulah in 1912 and destroyed two huge

plantations and heavily impacted a third13. The flood waters were the highest ever recorded at

the time and levee systems, for the most part, succeeded at keeping flood waters contained, a

true success for levee engineers, community planners, and local residents. The breech that did

occur was due to heavier than anticipated rain and lack of flood expertise by members of the

military who had been in charge of levee systems. The damage could have been much more

severe if not for the quick response of military personnel, residents, faith based organizations,

and the work of inmates.

1912-1927:

Although between 1912 and 1927 water levels often rose high enough to worry community

members, the levees successfully kept out flood waters. The great flood of 1927 stands as one

of the largest flood related disasters in recorded history. The breech occurred at Mound

Landing Break and flooded every acre from Beulah to Vicksburg, an area of over eighteen

hundred square miles of land. The flood took the lives of two hundred and forty six people and

uprooted over seven hundred thousand people from their homes. The flood claimed many

towns, communities, and residences. The total estimated cost was in the hundreds of millions

of dollars. The cost was simply too much for local communities to endure and as a result the

federal government passed the General Flood Control Act of 1928, where as the federal

government assumed all cost for reconstruction associated with the great flood. The federal

government also incurred all costs associated with levee construction, in order to protect the

Mississippi River Valley. The U.S. Army Corp of Engineers took over the maintenance of the

levees and still control them to this day. The military was able to identify the need to bring the

levees away from the river in order to have stable land to utilize for levee design. The spatial

relation between the old levee that breeched in 1927 and the new levee, which is the highest

point in Bolivar County, is illustrated below in figure 1.3.

13



Jul. 10

16

Figure 1.3 Image of new levee in relation to the levee that breeched in 192714

Flood Control from 1927 to Present:

After the great flood of 1927 devestated local communities levee systems were vastly improved

and rebuilt with state of the art technology, supplied by military engineering. There have been

no levee breeches along the Mississippi River, in the delta, since 1927. Although there have

been no levee breaks along the Mississippi, many communities still face constant threats from

flooding due to poor drainage associated with the flat topography of the region and the proximity

of residences to the river15. Although most of the population of Bolivar County is protected by


15 The Lower Mississippi Development Comission. (1990). The Lower Mississippi Development Comission Papers. Delta State

University, Caps Archives. Washington D.C.: Author.


Jul. 10

17

the levee system, some parts of communities in Beulah, Rosedale, and Benoit, are not

protected. There will be greater attention paid to these areas in subsequent sections of this

report but most of the areas that are threatened by flooding are recreational communities,

including hunting camps, and are located on the unprotected side of the levee. It is also

important to include the Great River State Park, located in Rosedale, in this conversation

because much of its area is unprotected by levees and as a result, faces constant threats from

flooding. The flat topography of the region also affects the rate of flooding. Many communities

face flooding on average of twice a year.

Communities Affected by Flooding:

Figure 1.4 FEMA Identified Flood Zones in Bolivar County16



Jul. 10

18

Although several communities are often affected by flash flooding or back water flooding, the

community of Benoit often faces direct flooding threats from the Mississippi River. The

community of Benoit is small with a population of approximately six hundred people and a total

area of less than one square mile. The communities most often affected by flooding from the

Mississippi River are residences that sit on the unprotected side of the levee. These residences

are mainly recreational dwellings that are valued anywhere from one million dollars, residences

located in private gated communities, to lower end properties that are more primitive in design.

The residences that sit on the unprotected side of the levee experience flooding on a yearly

basis. During a walk through assessment of the area conducted on June 4, 2008, I observed

several homes that were visually damaged. The damage was mainly illustrated by torn up

decks and porches, along with siding that was hanging off residences. It is difficult to ascertain

which damage was caused by flooding and which was attributed to wind. The water line from

the flooding was evident on many homes and reached as high as eight feet. I spoke in depth

with a local community leader who is involved in providing services in the community. She is

also a resident of one of these local communities and therefore can provide a dynamic

perspective about flooding. She stated that flooding occurs once or twice a year in the

community and that in April of this year, 2008, the river rose above flood stage and damage

resulted. The main communities that were damaged were private hunting and recreational

communities. This statement was further corroborated by the testimony of a university

professor with expertise of the community. The community worker also stated that some

structures suffered moderate damage while others were not affected at all. She stated that the

Great River State Park which is in Rosedale, a few miles away, often faces closure during

flooding. The state park is often entirely flooded. The park also loses power and water during

these times. We drove to the front of Great River State Park on June 4, 2008, over a month

after the last flooding occurred and it was still closed to the public because of flood relates

issues. The community leader also spoke of area homeless who often utilize unoccupied

recreational homes and decks, as refuges at night. It is hard to infer from this the degree to

which homeless populations are affected by flooding but it does raise the point that the effects

of flooding may in fact impact the homeless, despite the fact that the majority of homes affected

are secondary recreational dwellings.

It is difficult to place a dollar amount on the yearly cost of flooding in these communities that lie

on the unprotected side of the Mississippi river. It is possible However, to discern from

stakeholder testimony and through the community walk through assessment that there is

collateral damage. The damage is mainly, but not limited to, recreational homes that lie on the

unprotected side of the Mississippi. The residents of these communities, sometimes yearly,

must pay to repair water damaged decks, flooring, and siding. The Great River State Park in

Rosedale loses revenue each year because of forced closure due to flooding. The local

electrical and water service providers also lose revenue because of yearly repairs to electrical

and water services; this cost most probably is passed on to the consumer. Although the recent

flooding that took place in April of 2008, is not to be considered severe, it did create damage

that when compounded with a slowed economy and the low socio-economics of the region,

impacts the community.


Jul. 10

19

Current Flood Control Strategies:

Although there has not been a major breech in Mississippi River levees since 1927, the local

delta communities still face yearly threats of flooding along with threats from tornados,

earthquakes, and ice storms. The yearly threats from natural disaster and associated damage

led the Federal Emergency Management Administration (FEMA) to mandate in February of

2002 that communities deemed high risk for experiencing a natural disaster, develop local

disaster mitigation plans. The FEMA order along with regional need led to the establishment of

a regional task force between local government, social service agencies, institutes of higher

education, and community residents. Below is a list of entities that were invited to participate in

the task force:

Governmental Entities Mississippi Emergency Management Agency Mississippi Department of Health Port of Rosedale Bolivar County Board of Supervisors Bolivar County Planning Commission Bolivar County Emergency Management Bolivar County Volunteer Fire Department Bolivar County Sherriff’s Office Bolivar County Public Works Department Bolivar County Engineer Bolivar County Coroner Bolivar County Schools Bolivar County Regional Corrections Facility Washington County Sunflower County Coahoma County Town of Alligator Town of Duncan Town of Shelby Town of Merigold Town of Mound Bayou City of Cleveland Cleveland Volunteer Fire Department Cleveland Public Works Department Town of Renova Town of Boyle Town of Shaw Town of Benoit Town of Beulah City of Rosedale Town of Gunnison Town of Pace

Non-governmental Entities Cleveland Chapter of the American Red Cross Bolivar County Chamber of Commerce Bolivar County Medical Center


Jul. 10

20

Pafford Emergency Medical Services Bolivar Commercial Cable One Cleveland News Leader Delta Electric Entergy Mississippi YMD Mississippi-Yazoo Levee Board

Bolivar County Hazard Mitigation Plan:

The task force faced with developing the hazard mitigation plan for Bolivar County began the

planning process officially in May of 2005; three years after FEMA mandated high risk

communities to develop mitigation plans. The entire process has taken over three years of

planning and is currently in the final stages of design. The plan sets forth many goals that are

focused on strengthening existing resources and utilizing new technologies in order to help

improve disaster response and recovery. The complete plan is over four hundred pages long

and provides a comprehensive overview of county resources, needs, and threats. The plan

provides a history of disasters and the impact to communities. It establishes well-defined goals

and objectives that if met will help strengthen the capacity of the overall region to deal

effectively with natural disasters, including floods. The challenge with this document, as noted

by task force members, is whether or not the region has the resources and funding to implement

each of the goals outlined in the mitigation plan. There are several questions that remain in

regards to the hazard mitigation plan:

1. Were local resident viewpoints, especially those members of vulnerable populations

such as the disabled and homeless, represented in the development of this plan?

2. Does this plan pay enough attention to the potential likelihood of future levee breaks?

3. Does the plan effectively utilize the strengths of faith based and smaller not-for-profit

agencies in the region?

Community Strengths and Resiliency:

Although the residents of Bolivar County face many challenges including low socio-economics,

constant threats from flooding, and a lack of financial resources, the region has numerous

strengths that help communities demonstrate resiliency over time. One strength of Bolivar

County is the fertile nature of the region. The area of Bolivar County is well suited for

agriculture making it perfect for growing crops such as cotton, corn, and soy beans. The

agriculture of the region has helped provide both food and jobs to numerous residents over the

years. Another, strength of the region is Delta State University, located in Cleveland, which

provides higher education opportunities for area residents, research expertise, tax revenue, and

countless jobs, to the county. The levee system which protects Bolivar County from the flood

waters of the Mississippi River is one of the best in the nation. The levees are maintained by

the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and have protected the region from severe flooding since

1928. The county also has a wealth of parks and recreation that provide residents with outside

entertainment and brings tourism dollars into the local economy. The single greatest resource

that Bolivar County has is its residents. The people of Bolivar County have faced many


Jul. 10

21

obstacles, including floods, over the course of time and demonstrated a high degree of

resiliency to rebuild after each disaster. This is evident in the literature associated with regional

flooding and is often cited as an important strength in the local hazard mitigation plan. Even in

times of crisis when flooding destroyed communities, it was the response of local people, faith

based organizations, and small not-for-profits that helped to mitigate the damages and rebuild

communities. The people were the ones who advocated to the federal government for funds

and support when levees broke and it was local people, who together helped one another

rebuild homes. Despite the fact that Bolivar County is one of the poorest in the nation, people

have still demonstrated over time to be self-sufficient both during and after flooding, further

making the case that they are highly resilient.

Community Challenges and Barriers:

The communities in Bolivar County have a wealth of resources with people being the most vital.

Despite all of the resources Bolivar County also have many challenges and barriers that impede

community’s ability to respond to floods and other disasters. One of these challenges is a lack

of emergency care hospitals. The main county hospital is located in Cleveland with another

located eight miles away in Rueville, which lies in Sun Flower County. This means that much of

the rural population of the region is miles away from the nearest emergency medical center.

This can be further compounded during a flood when waters may cover entire roads making

emergency vehicles travel miles out of the way to reach people in danger. Another community

challenge is that there are no current levee systems to protect residents from the flooding of

smaller tributary rivers such as the Bogue Phalia, Sun Flower River, and Jones Bayou. These

smaller rivers may not create the severe flooding of a larger body of water like the Mississippi

but there is a greater likelihood of flooding with these smaller tributaries. Although the levee

systems that protect communities from the waters of the Mississippi River are some of the best

designed and maintained in the nation, the threat still remains. The impact of a massive flood

on the entire county would be far reaching and devastating. The fear of flooding was

documented by many area communities in their hazard assessment surveys, utilized in the

county wide hazard mitigation plan. The flowing table identifies the type of flooding risk

assessed by local communities. The last column identifies if the community is addressing the

threat of flooding in there hazard mitigation goal planning.


Jul. 10

22

Table 2.6 Self-Identified Flood Risk for Communities in Bolivar County17

Community Flooding Documented as a Risk Addressed in Mitigation Goals

Gunnison Localized Flooding No

Renova Nuisance Flooding Improve Drainage

Mound Bayou Nuisance Flooding Improve Drainage

Shaw Bayou and Nuisance Flooding Improve Drainage and dredging

Cleveland Localized Flooding None Directly

Alligator None Identified None Directly

Benoit Nuisance Flooding None Directly

Rosedale Nuisance Flooding None Directly

Pace Nuisance Flooding None Directly

Beulah Localized Flooding Improve Drainage

Boyle Nuisance Flooding Dredging

Shelby Nuisance Flooding None Directly

Merigold Localized Flooding Dredging Duncan and Winstonville Nuisance Flooding Dredging

According to the information provided by the communities of Bolivar County, flooding was a

documented threat by almost all communities. This demonstrates that communities are aware

of the issue of flooding at some level. There were no communities however, that stated direct or

catastrophic flooding from levee breaks as a persistent threat. Thirteen out of fourteen

communities indicated risk from localized or nuisance flooding as an issue, but only six of those

communities have directly addressed flooding in their mitigation goals. The most common

method for addressing flooding in the remaining communities was through improving draining.

This would seem to point out an incongruity between communities that identify flooding as an

issue or threat and their ability or desire to improve existing systems.

Final Recommendations:

Overall the challenges which affect Bolivar County have a great deal to do with financial

resources which the area lacks. This has led to depleted community services such as hospitals,

emergency response, police, and fire rescue services. The low socio-economics of the area

also impact people’s ability to provide basic needs, such as food, shelter, and clothing. The low

socio-economics of the area along with depleted services puts many communities in danger if

severe or catastrophic flooding occurred in the region. No communities listed severe flooding

as a threat on their risk assessment surveys, which may point out a need to increase awareness

and conduct further research on the likelihood of more severe flooding in the future. Another

interesting point arose when I read the risk assessment survey provided by the Port Authority of

Rosedale, who indicated that flood risk was only a minimum to moderate threat as indicated by

17



Jul. 10

23

the score of five but indicated a need for levee repair or construction as the highest level need

of the community. The communities that lie closest to the Mississippi River may need further

education on the benefits of flood insurance. There is also a need for government to become

more involved with helping local residents subsidize flood insurance. I would recommend that

the Federal Emergency Management Administration provide subsidized flood insurance to at-

risk populations in the region. It may also prove worthwhile to conduct a cost analysis study of

flooding in the county, to further provide evidence of the need for affordable flood insurance.

The hazard mitigation plan developed with the help of Delta State University is a comprehensive

plan to help strengthen the entire region. It may be more beneficial to also have a sub-

committee formed to pay special attention to flooding in the region, as it is one of the most

frequent hazards documented in this study. It is my further recommendation that the state and

FEMA help to invest in the implementation of at least a portion of this plan, due to the limited

financial resources present in the region.

The last recommendation that I provide advises not-for-profits and faith based organizations to

work collaboratively with local government, FEMA, and larger organizations such as the Red

Cross, in order to develop more efficient disaster response plans. I further recommend to

funders, both foundations and governments, to provide an easier and more efficient way for

community entities to apply for and receive emergency disaster funds during a catastrophic

event. Every community in the delta has smaller organizations that are usually the first to

respond to disasters, these organizations should be identified by FEMA and the Red Cross as

such before a disaster occurs. These organizations would then provide necessary

documentation and profiles ahead of time to the funding organizations, allowing for emergency

funding to be dispersed more rapidly to these organizations during a disaster. I would

recommend that funding entities set up special accounts tied to these specially identified

organizations that would only be utilized during a disaster. If a disaster occurred the funding

organizations would then bypass traditional grant procedures and release funds into these

accounts for the already identified organizations to utilize during times of disaster.

Organizations would be responsible for keeping detailed records of all transactions and must be

able to demonstrate that all funding utilized from these accounts was for the purpose of disaster

response. This could be facilitated through having organizations utilize a specific disaster

issued debit/credit card that would require authorization from funders or a third party for any

cash with drawl over a certain limit. After the disaster is declared over and/or all funding is

absolved, the community organizations would provide financial summaries and necessary

receipts to the funder for that period of time. Some training may be necessary to help smaller

community organizations have the necessary knowledge to participate in the program. Overall

the communities of Bolivar County have demonstrated high resiliency in the face of disasters.

Through utilizing existing community strengths, such as faith based organizations, not-for-

profits, and institutions of higher education, Bolivar County can create even stronger disaster

response strategies for the future.


Jul. 10

24

References: Bourque, L. B., Siegel, J. M., Kamo, M., & Wood, M. M. (2006). Weathering the Storm: The Impact of

Hurricanes on Physical and Mental Health. The Annals of the American Academy , 604, 1-23.

Comfort, L. K. (2006). Cities at Risk: Hurricane Katrina and the Drowning of New Orleans. Urban Affairs

Review , 41 (4), 1-16.

Faust, D. S., Abrahams, J. P., Black, F. W., & Warner, M. S. (2008). After the Storm: Katrina's Impact on

Psychological Practice in New Orleans. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice , 39 (1), 1-6.

Green, J. (2008, June 19). Associate Researcher, Center for Community and Economic Development at

Delta State University. (S. R. Brady, Interviewer)

Green, J. J., Kleiner, A. M., & Montgomery, J. P. (2007). The Texture of Local Disaster Response: Service

Providers' Views Following Hurricane Katrina. Southern Rural Sociology , 22 (2), 28-44.

Kapucu, N., & Van Wart, M. (2006). The Evolving Role of the Public Sector in Managing Catastrophic

Disasters: Lessons Learned. Administration and Society , 38 (3), 279-308.

Krishna S, V. (2004). Risk, Vulnerability, and Asset-Based Approach to Disaster Risk Managment. The

InternationalJournal of Sociology and Social Policy , 24, 1-48.

Levine, J. N., Esnard, A.-M., & Sapat, A. (2007). Population Displacement and Housing Dilemmas Due to

Catastrophic Disasters. Journal of Planning Literature , 22 (1), 1-13.

Marlow, I. M., Slatter, M., & Wozniak, T. (2006, May). The Fury: Preparing for Natural Disasters. Risk

Management Magazine , pp. 10-15.

McCool Management Systems. (2008). A Hazard Mitigation Plan for Bolivar County, Mississippi.

Cleveland: Delta State University.

Stehr, S. D. (2006). The Political Economy of Urban Disaster Assistance. Urban Colloquy , 41 (4), 492-500.

Talen, E. (2008). New Urbanist, Social Equity, and the Challenge of Post-Katrina Rebuilding in Mississippi.

Journal of Planning Education and Research , 27, 277-293.

The Lower Mississippi Development Comission. (1990). The Lower Mississippi Development Comission

Papers. Delta State University, Caps Archives. Washington D.C.: Author.

United States Army Corp of Engineers. (2000, April 30). Levee Construction. Retrieved June 10, 2008,

from United States Army Publications: http://www.usace.army.mil/publications/eng-manuals/em1110-

2-1913-/c-7.pdf

United States Census Bureau. (2008, Jan 02). State and County Quick Facts. Retrieved June 3, 2008, from

U.S. Census Bureau: http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/28/28011.html

Documents

Risk and Resiliency Community Assessment