Sample pages - Pearson Australia

PART BKnowledge Areas ..............................................................

In this part, detailed information is provided on each of ten dimensions or areas of English language knowledge. A grid lists the content knowledge to be taught in each grade from Foundation (Prep or Kindergarten) to Year 10. The numbers across the top represent the Year levels. The numbers inside boxes represent the Year level in which that content item and concept is taught. The letter “R” inside a box means “refer to item” and teach if you decide to. Every item or concept introduced in any year is to be further developed and broadened in application and use as the students move through the years. No item

or concept is taught in one year and then left. Therefore, the grid provides teachers, curriculum leaders and administrators with an overview of the range and continuity of curriculum implementation from early grades to Year 10.

Following each grid is further information and teaching ideas for the teacher.There will be some degree of repetition in the content items. This repetition represents differences in Australian Curriculum:

English content descriptions from one year to the next.

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32 . TEACHING ENGLISH GRAMMAR

1. TYPES OF TEXTS ..................................................

B.1 item P/K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Texts have purposes that shape structure 1

Texts tell stories and give information 1

Texts differ: imaginative, informative, persuasive 1

Texts have patterns of repetition and contrast 1

Texts invite preferences from readers and viewers 1

Literary texts entertain and invite personal preferences 2

Criteria for personal preferences for literary texts 3

Texts are used for narrative and poetry 1

Literary texts carry information about characters and settings 2

Language features suitable to type of text 2 3 4 5

Text structures and language features work together to meet the purpose of the text 6

Texts are written for specific audiences 2

Audiences and purposes of imaginative, informative and persuasive texts 3

Purposes and contexts of all types of texts 3

Texts vary in purpose, structure, topic and degree of formality, and contexts of use 4 5 6

Texts have stages to achieve their purpose. (A text stage may have more than one paragraph.)

6

Text stages and phases of development of content to inform and persuade 8

Text structures and language features of more complex texts, involving taxonomies, cause and effect, and extended metaphors

7

Text stages and phases of narrative texts 8

Identification and explanation of characteristic features of narrative, informative, persuasive and everyday texts (letters, invitations, etc.)

4 5 6

Text structures and language features can be analysed to show they shape meaning to suit audience and purpose

7

Text structures and language features of multimodal texts 7

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PART B KNOWLEDGE AREAS . 33

B.1 item P/K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Text structures and language features vary according to medium and mode of communication

8

Comparison of text structures and language features in traditional and contemporary texts

10

Poetry texts: Ballad, lyric, form poetry (haiku, cinquain, limerick, tanka), free verse (Years 3, 4) Rhyming couplets and quatrains—aabb, abab, abba (Year 5)Ode (Year 6)

3 4 5 6

Exploration of a wide variety of poetry forms and styles 9

Innovation on text structures and language to achieve particular purposes and effects 6

Author innovation on text structures for effect: aesthetic, humour, persuasion, etc. 6

Author innovation on text structure and language for effect and purpose 9

Longer texts, using headings to guide readers 7

Other devices for guiding readers using online texts 7

Texts rely upon devices that signal text structure for coherence and to guide readers

7

Rhetorical devices 8

Referred sources add authority to a text 8

Rhetoric use in persuasive texts 9

Texts can be interpreted using prior knowledge 7

The Australian Curriculum: English outlines more than the features and characteristics of types of texts, and their associated language features. Those two dimensions of each type of text are central to the curriculum; but there are other themes. For instance, the concept of register is implied, if not directly stated, in the content descriptions:. personal preference for literary texts, and the development of criteria for understanding those preferences; the

information is presented as part of the speaking mode of the language, literacy and literature strands. audiences for texts and for particular texts. development and shaping of meaning to suit purpose. purposes of texts. structures of texts. degree of formality (tenor). stages and phases of texts, particularly narrative texts. extended texts and their organisation. complex texts such as information texts that contain tables. texts and their medium and mode of communication. comparison of traditional and contemporary texts

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. exploration (and creation) of a wide variety of poetry. author innovation on the structures and features of texts and their language. devices and methods for guiding and directing readers. study and use of the full range of vocabulary, grammatical patterns and figurative language of English. rhetorical devices. citing and referencing of sourced texts and resources.

The Australian Curriculum: English provides three overall types of texts: imaginative, informative and persuasive. Reference was also made to everyday texts at various stages in the development of the curriculum. Poetry is definitely imaginative, but thousands of teachers have expressed their concern to us that poetry can be hidden and become overlooked, and that it merits a category of its own.

Therefore, in the categorisation of types of texts provided in this handbook, we have opted for five types of text, adding everyday texts and poetry.

The language features of paragraphing, sentence variety, punctuation, cohesion and expectations (conventions) are to be studied and used appropriately in all types of text. Figurative, evaluative and emotional language also feature in all types of texts. Pronouns and demonstratives must refer to their referent words and ideas in order to maintain clarity. Vocabulary choice requires constant attention, and correct spelling is vital.

In the tables below, we provide some additional information that is specific to each type of text. We have also placed some examples under two or more types of texts, and have used round brackets to point out the examples that function across more than one type of text. There are notes for teaching the three main types of texts: informative, persuasive and imaginative (“narrative” in the notes provided).

Types of texts Examples Selected language features

Informative Discussion (Reports)

Explanation

Questionnaire/Survey

ProcedureInstructions

Report News reportsScience reports Sport reports

Subject journals/learning logs

BrochuresPosters

(Biography Autobiography)

Interviews

Reviews: books, articles,films, TV, DVDs, CDs

Paragraphs: use TEEL.

Paragraphs: TEEL mainly.

Questions range from simple to difficult. Open-ended questions using Who?, What?, When?, Where?, Why? and How?

Imperative verbs begin each step in procedural instruction: take, place, turn. Ordinal and cardinal numbers used.

Paragraphs: TEEL but with varied length of paragraphs, using fewer elaborations, examples, etc.Use of textual contrast.

Short statements; use of dot points, and underlining and highlighting.

Mix of text, images and tables; aesthetic and efferent effects combine.

Paragraphs: author varies length.

Variety of questions: Who?, What?, When?, Where?, Why?, How? Open and closed questions.No “double-barrelled” questions.

Topic sentences begin paragraphs that vary in length for effect.

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Diaries: personal and imagined

(Recount/Retell)

Referencing sources of information

Sentence fragments and colloquialisms widely used as well.


Follow college requirement; e.g.MLA, APA, Harvard, Harvard Science, Chicago, etc.

Persuasive Argument Expository textDebateNewspaper editorial

AdvertisingPosters(Brochures)

Captions

Paragraphs: TEEL. Language of logical sequence, contrast and use of text connectives.Paragraphs: short.

Mix of text, images and tables.Aesthetic and efferent effects.Pitch or point of view.

Phrases; single words.

Imaginative NarrativeNote: Imaginative and narrative texts are not examples of “blurred genres” (Geertz 1983); but these texts can and do use language features from all other types of text.

(Recount/retelling)

Description factual(BiographyAutobiography)

Dialogue

Plays

Drama scripts

Paragraphs: author varies length.Structure: development, complication and resolution.Elements: plot, character, setting and mood.



Quotation marks: “…” include what is said by a character. All punctuation inside quotation marks.

Plot line/s with crises, problems, complications and disruptions.

Differ from a narrative in format.Colon after speaker’s name to show dialogue spoken.Stage directions in round brackets.Scene 1: A room in Cinderella’s houseSetting: Cinderella and the Fairy GodmotherDialogue:Cinderella: I have no way of going to the ball.Fairy Godmother: Find me a pumpkin.Cinderella: (Nods her head and leaves the room) I’ll look in the kitchen.

Everyday Internet: Formal emails

Informal emails

SMS, blogging

Tweet (Twitter post)

Correct according to text type used.No slang, errors, etc.

Sentence fragments.Punctuation for boundary between ideas.Abbreviations and acronyms.Chat slang (LOL, CUL).Emoticons ($_$ = greedy; :) = happy; =( = sad).Spelling abbreviated (thks).

Informal text with little use of punctuation, informal sentence structure, spelling abbreviated.

Limited punctuation, use of abbreviations (limited number of characters to send messages).

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LettersFormal (Business)Applying for a job Letters to the editor Letters of complaint or suggestionInformal (Personal)

Invitations and acceptances (Formal)

Directions

Business letters are formal and precise, with a set format following conventions. No abbreviations and contractions used. Correct spelling. Formal. Free of any errors.

Abbreviations and contractions used.Usually first draft only, and errors occur.

Have set formats. Usually one sentence per paragraph. No abbreviations and contractions.

Follows procedure.

Poetry BalladsNarrative poemsLyrical poemsLimericksRhymesRiddles/Jingles/Song lyricsForm poetry: e.g. Cinquain, Haiku Free verseBlank verse

Use:• rhyme• rhythm• figurative language• imagery• selective vocabulary• syntactic patterns.

Writing informational texts Starting the program with a research question allows teachers and students to develop the same sets of skills needed for both informational and persuasive texts. Persuasive texts require extra elements such as rebuttal, increased figurative and emotional language, and greater use of opinion. There are other elements in persuasive writing as well. Note that the use of these elements with imagination in an information report will demand very critical reading.

ResearchLook for key words (nouns, noun groups and nominalisations).Look also for evidence, examples, expert opinion, elaborations and expansions.Include details of the source of the information.

Report writing guideIntroduction: What your report is on (location/issue); why you chose it (e.g. to suggest workable solutions); outline of discussion to follow.

Paragraphs: Topic sentence and expanded information; may include links to the next paragraph. Use examples, evidence and expert opinion; then provide further elaboration and expansion of the topic.

Conclusion: Tie together the key points of the report in a summarising paragraph. Reinforce key points, and avoid introducing anything new here. You might choose to finish with a strong summarising statement, recommendation or question that drives home the message of your report.

Bibliography: List all books, journals, research papers and online documents used.

Acknowledgement: The useful scaffold for writing research reports was developed with James Bennett of Trinity Lutheran School on the Gold Coast. It provides students with an initial framework and information for writing both informative and persuasive texts.

Writing persuasive texts (argument)Persuasive writing is more complex than the information provided in this book, so once students can manage the following strategies, begin further development of the introduction, the following paragraphs and the conclusion.

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Students will then be able to use the paragraphs and conclusion as a means of checking and revising the introduction. The basic principle for writing is that the introduction is always a working document; so the introduction is reworked and rewritten as the last revision before completing a piece of writing.

Persuasive writing needs a clear introduction that states the thesis or argument clearly, and that also provides a list of reasons to support the thesis statement or argument. Each of these reasons becomes the topic sentence for the following paragraphs.

Suggested topicsThe topics listed below are listed from one point of view. The alternative view on each topic requires changing the verb into the negative: for example, Direct action on climate change will not slow global warming.

1. Direct action on reducing use of fossil fuels will slow global warming.2. Students need to undertake homework and home study activities.3. Students need to keep their school grounds clean and tidy.4. Part-time work is valuable for high school students.5. Voting in elections should be compulsory.6. AFL is the national football code in Australia.7. Sporting personalities are paid too much.

Children in Years 2 and 3 respond to topics such as 2 and 3 above.

Notes for writing persuasive textsIntroductionBegin with an opening thesis or opening statement. For example:

(a) Students should help keep their school grounds clean and tidy because … (and providing three reasons).(b) I believe/It is my opinion that students should help keep their school grounds clean and tidy.

The topic is turned into the thesis statement or argument with the addition of a dependent clause that begins with “because”. For example:

Direct action on reducing use of fossil fuels will slow global warming. Continued burning of fossil fuels releases carbon into the atmosphere, pollutes the environment and contributes little to the long-term support of the planet.

More can be added to that introduction, but each of those three reasons (underlined) provides the topic sentence for the following paragraphs. Students then know that they will write five paragraphs: introduction, three supporting paragraphs, and a conclusion or concluding paragraph.

Body Three to five paragraphs, one for each topic or point. The three points stated in the introduction (opening statement) can be expanded.

Paragraph structure: TEEL (or TEEEEEEEEEL). The topic of the paragraph should appear as close as possible to the start of the paragraph as an unmarked theme; that is, make your main point early in that first sentence.. Expand, elaborate and/or explain that point or topic.. Use examples and/or evidence to support the point or topic. . Quote expert opinion if credible and helpful to your argument. . Decide when to use evaluation, emotion and exaggeration.. Link the points or examples into the next paragraph, or to an overall thesis.

Conclusion (“Three S” conclusion: Signal, summary, slogan)Begin with a signal to the reader, and then provide a:. summary . judgement

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. synthesis of the points under a restatement of an overall theme, and/or . suggestion or recommendation for action. slogan.

If an overall theme has emerged, one that can be used to link all the points, then that theme should appear towards the end of the introduction, and then be used in a strategic place or sentence in the conclusion. For example:

In the final analysis, survival is more than a matter of rising sea levels and wild weather events; survival is a matter of life and death.

(Note the two paired items in parallel.)

Editing and revision1. It is good practice to reread and rewrite the introduction once the conclusion has been

written. 2. Add necessary information and figures of speech to support the body and conclusion. 3. Delete unnecessary information that has not been used in the body or conclusion.4. Rearrange ideas as necessary to suit the sequence of ideas throughout the body.5. Reconsider vocabulary, figures of speech, and any idea that survives deletion, as necessary to

support the body and conclusion.

Acknowledgement: The contributions of teaching staff in both the primary and middle schools of Trinity Lutheran School on the Gold Coast during Semester 1, 2011, have been invaluable. Janne Minge and Leesa Merifield were particularly helpful.

Writing narrative and imaginative textsNarrative texts are best described as a “mixed genre” or “mixed types of texts”. Novels provide story, but much of the text, and therefore many of the paragraphs, are about description, explanation, argument, content development to support the plot and the actions of the characters, and so on. Therefore, longer narratives require students to understand when to weave informative and persuasive paragraphs into the quilt of the overall narrative.

As well, the author enters the imaginative text in any one of a number of ways, and style is only the beginning. For example, many authors take on the role of a puppeteer, others interact directly with their reader (e.g. Thackeray and Calvino), and others use the narrative as a vehicle for their own agenda (e.g. Arundhati Roy, “The rats running across the ruined landscape with dollar signs in their eyes”, in The God of Small Things). Symbolism reigns throughout Tolkien, and intertextuality is woven through the nursery rhymes of Each Peach Pear Plum by the Ahlbergs. Imagery is supreme, and “to light a candle is to cast a shadow” (Ursula Le Guin, in her novel A Wizard of Earthsea). Atmosphere and mood are created by Joseph Conrad in Heart of Darkness, and by Harper Lee in the immortal To Kill a Mockingbird.

Characteristic features of narratives Features of narratives include:. characters (who) . setting: time and place (when and where). plot (what, why, how), storyline and theme/s.

The organisational features of narrative begin with the title, carefully chosen by the author to reflect an era, an event, a theory or a comment on life. Ernest Hemingway’s title For Whom the Bell Tolls derived from a 17th century paper by John Donne that addressed the value of human life and included the statements “No man is an island” and “Ask not for whom the bell tolls. It tolls for thee.” Author

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omniscience can be subtle, but it can also be too obvious, as in Thackeray’s Vanity Fair. Charles Dickens’s A Tale of Two Cities links place and time with its opening statement: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times . . .” And Rafael Sabatini begins his novel Scaramouche with a direct attribution of the main character whose name provides the title: “He was born with a gift of laughter and a sense that the world was mad.” The first line of EB White’s Charlotte’s Web is seared in the memory of most teachers and parents who have read it to young children: “ ‘Where’s Papa going with that axe?’ said Fern to her mother as they were setting the table for breakfast.”

Organisation features 1. Orientation (within the first page or two) is concerned with establishing the direction of the plot, introducing the major character/s, and describing the initial setting; all written in such a way that the reader is gripped by the text. A writer has only two pages in which to capture the reader’s interest, especially in contemporary times. An effective way to get students to develop interesting orientations is to watch an action movie for a few minutes, and then ask them to identify the techniques used to engage the audience’s interest immediately.

2. Plot development is achieved through presenting a sequence of events. Authors may use a variety of plot devices to develop their story: flashback and foreshadow are obvious ones; and dramatic stories may mix cliff-hangers with distracting events such as red herrings and mood builders. Modern television dramas now often feature parallel plots to maintain audience interest, but good scriptwriters and directors know how to use sub-plots and, occasionally, circular plots to build effect into the resolution and the denouement of the narrative. Long codas are popular, while deus ex machina is used mainly in the Greek tragedies (although it is a carefully used option in Golding’s Lord of the Flies).

3. Complications occur when there are problems to be dealt with or an issue creates tension between the characters; after all, plot is really about the things that characters do to each other.

4. Resolution and/or reorientation needs to be a logical consequence of the preceding events so that the conclusion is effective.

5. Conclusion. There may be many possible ways to end the text, but the ending must be credible. Having the god/s fly out of the machine, or (the modern equivalent) the main character awake from a dream or nightmare, is only a starting point on the way to developing more effective endings.

2. PARAGRAPHS (AND THEIR USE IN LONGER TEXTS)..................................................

B.2 item P/K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Paragraph has one or more sentences P/K

Paragraphs for narrative: vary in length according to author’s purpose 2

Paragraphs for narrative: new line for new speaker 1 2

Topic sentence in paragraph (use of TEEL) 2

Introduction to theme as first part of sentence or clause 3

Development of explanation, example, elaboration, expert opinion, etc. in paragraphs 3

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B.2 item P/K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Full development and use of Es: expansion, elaboration (exaggeration and emotion), explanation, evidence (with evaluation), examples and expert opinion

5

Development of understanding of differences between information and persuasive texts 4

Use of top-level structure to organise paragraph development and between-paragraph development 4

Use of text connectives at beginning of paragraphs to direct reader attention to the organisation of the longer text

5

Use of linking paragraphs (shown in and through guided reading) 5

Extensive use of Es in long paragraphs 6

Use of theme and modality in topic sentence 6

Use of topic sentence in narrative to mark changes—e.g. shifts in time and place (setting); introduction of new character; beginning of complication, etc.

6

Use of devices for guiding readers of longer texts: headings, overviews, indexes 7

Summary of main information across longer texts 7

Shift in conventional use of topic sentence (e.g. topic placed at end of paragraph to flow into example at the beginning of the next paragraph)

8

Complex use of cohesive devices (e.g. text connectives, lexical set) in paragraphs 9

Use of nominalisation in theme position of informative and persuasive texts 9

Awareness of the uses of rhetoric in speeches and other texts 9

Organisation of paragraphs Paragraphs are used to structure and contain the main ideas within a larger text. Informative and persuasive texts rely upon a “near-formal” organisation of the information and ideas they convey in standard paragraphs. Narrative texts use paragraphs more “freely”: they may vary in length from one word to many pages.

In this discussion about paragraphs, we will consider the organisation of paragraphs for presenting information and argument. The starting point of the paragraph is the topic sentence.

The topic sentence is placed as the first sentence in the paragraph; it is so named because it helps the reader to recognise the main or significant idea. Each topic sentence provides the main idea of each paragraph; so, collectively, the topic sentences provide a brief summary of the main ideas developed throughout a long text. Therefore, by reading the topic sentences of each paragraph, the reader can link the main ideas of a longer text.

The topic sentence is the first sentence in the paragraph and contains the topic, or main idea, of the paragraph. The topic can be made more effective if placed as an unmarked theme (as the subject, highly nominalised), at the beginning of the paragraph (Agricultural income was declining seriously), or immediately after a carefully selected text connective (Simultaneously, agricultural incomes were in serious decline).

The rest of the paragraph usually elaborates on the topic sentence, and may include findings of reports, explanations, arguments and descriptions. The following mix of simple, compound and complex

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sentences provides supporting details and examples to describe and explain the main idea in the topic sentence (see TEEL, below).

Thus, paragraphs group major ideas. Topic sentences signal and provide a framework for the development of the text and can make links between successive paragraphs.

Paragraph structure: TEEL (or TEEEEEEEEEL). The topic of the paragraph should appear as close as possible to the start of the paragraph as an unmarked theme; that is, the topic is presented as the subject, usually a noun or noun group, at the beginning of the topic sentence/paragraph. . Expand, elaborate and/or explain that point or topic.. Use examples and/or evidence to support the point or topic. . Quote expert opinion if credible and helpful to your argument.. Use exaggeration and emotion as appropriate.. Use evaluation as appropriate. . Link the points or examples into the next paragraph, or to an overall thesis.

Links can be made to ideas elsewhere in the paragraph, or to the next paragraph, or to the main direction of the information and/or argument. The link is made in the final sentence of each paragraph. However, few writers make those end-of-paragraph links as a regular feature in the first draft of their work. Instead, when later revising their text, they may add some links at the end of selected paragraphs in order to build their argument and try to persuade the reader.

It is useful to write all nine Es on a chart, and ask students to add to their paragraphs by:. using one E more effectively. selecting and developing sets of Es, as listed above. quoting an expert person in persuasive texts (Dr Smith of the CSIRO reported that . . .).. using the chart as a checklist for what information could be added to a paragraph. using a selection of Es in different paragraphs. using top-level structure to organise the Es in their paragraphs.

Specific types of texts use stages—one or more grouped sets of paragraphs—to build the message or argument through the longer text. Thus, information is grouped and sequenced in the topic sentences of each stage.

More teaching points1. Discuss and write different perspectives on the same event.2. Write extended paragraphs.3. Develop further use of topic sentences with a theme.4. Present personal viewpoints.5. Use cohesive devices and text connectives for effect.6. Study and understand uses of rhetoric in speeches and other texts.7. Develop use of citation systems and reference lists (bibliography) (upper primary and secondary).

Paragraphs in narratives and imaginative textsAs stated earlier, there are few rules. Be guided by the literature being studied. Usually, new paragraphs are required for:. dialogue between speakers; a new paragraph for each speaker. introduction of a new character. a shift in the development of the plot. a change in setting (time and place). a shift in atmosphere or mood. any other reason the writer may have.

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Go to “Types of Texts” (Section 1, above) for information about paragraphs in relation to informative, persuasive and narrative texts.

Notes for the curriculumAll of the items listed below link to higher-order thinking, and students give evidence of such thinking as they demonstrate: . effective use of the topic sentence . use of the topic sentence to mark shifts in narrative texts. use of the topic sentence in each paragraph as a summary of the ideas contained in a longer

informative or persuasive text. choices about the placement of information in the theme position. use of text connectives. development of paragraph content. development of information from one paragraph to the next across longer texts. devices for guiding readers through each type of text. use of all forms of cohesion, from simple to complex. use of evaluative, evocative and emotional language, as well as modality. use of nominalisation and abstraction for effect.

3. SENTENCE KNOWLEDGE AND CONSTRUCTION..................................................

B.3 item P/K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Noun + verb P/K 1 2 3 4

Adjective + noun + verb P/K 1

Adjective + noun + verb + noun 1

Adjective + noun + verb + noun + adverbial phrase 1

Adjective + noun + verb + noun + adverb + adverbial phrase 1

Adjective + noun group (NG) + adjectival phrase 2

Adjective + NG + adjectival phrase + adjectival clause 2

Adjective + NG + adjectival phrase + adjectival clause + simile 2

Adjective + NG (main noun) + adjectival phrase + adjectival clause + simile + verb 2

Adjective + NG (main noun) + adjectival phrase + adjectival clause + simile + verb + adverbs and adverbial phrases/clauses

3

Adjective + NG (main noun) + adjectival phrase + adjectival clause + simile + verb + noun group (NG) (inc. complex NG), etc.

4

Main clause and subordinate clause 2 3 4 5

Main clause and/but/or/ main clause 2 3 4 5

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B.3 item P/K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Subordinate clause + main clause 5

Modal conditional in clauses 5

Incomplete subordinate clause 5

Nominalisation and incomplete verbs,and clauses relying upon nominalisation 6

Embedded clauses 2 3 4 5 6

Compound sentences with embedded adjectival clauses and different subjects 7

Adjectival clause in apposition 9

Correlative conjunctions 9

Patterns of words make meaning P/K 1

Words are organised into sentences P/K

Sentences and phrases 1

Who, what, when, where, why, how 1

Patterns of simple sentences 1 2

Statements, questions and commands 2

Groups, phrases and clauses 2

Noun and noun group 2

Noun group (adjective + noun + phrase/clause/simile) 2 3

Very complex noun group R 3

Relative pronoun used in adjectival clause; that and which; who used only for people 2 3

Adjectival phrase and adjectival clause 3

A clause must have a verb (no verb for phrase) 2

Clauses have a subject and a verb 2

Prepositional phrase R 3 4

Complex sentences and joining word R R 3

Subject and object of the verb 3

Direct and indirect object R R R 6

Transitive/intransitive verbs 6

Adverbial: as word, phrase and clause (subordinate clause) R 3 4 5

Adverbial: prepositional phrase (as circumstance) R 3 4

Noun group before and after the verb 4

Verb group (one or more words for actual verb) 3

Relative pronoun: uses of whom and whose 5 6

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B.3 item P/K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10Three types of questions: interrogative pronoun (e.g. Where . . .?); helping verb (e.g. Have you seen . . .?); and tag ( . . ., isn’t it?)

5

Compound sentences of two or more clauses (and, but, or) 3 5

Complex sentences contain two or more subordinate clauses 2 3 4 5

Subordinate clause before main clause (loose and periodic sentences) 5

Compound complex sentences R 6

Conjunctions provide logical relationships: time, place, reason, condition, concession, etc. 5

Introduction to incomplete clauses 5

Theme adverbial (clause or phrase) 5 6

Theme prominence assists prediction of direction of content 5 6

Modal/wish clauses and sentences 6

Complex sentences elaborate and explain, etc. 6

Embedded clauses 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Incomplete verb or noun/nominalisation (gerund) 6

Nominalisation 6 7

Participants 6 7

Adverbial phrases for variety and effect 6

More variety of complex sentence use 7 8 9

Varied use of more sentence types 7 8 9

All types of clauses 7 8 9

Embedded subordinate clauses in noun groups R R 4 5 6 7

Nominalisation in reports and informative texts 7 8 9

Quality and range of nominalisations 8

Select and combine nominalisations, clause combinations, technicality and abstraction 10

Organisation of sentencesKernel sentence: noun and verb. For example: Children laugh (as subject and verb). (Children is the subject of the verb laugh.)

The sentence is an artefact of written language. The best definition of a sentence is that it begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop or some other boundary marker such as a question mark or exclamation mark. Halliday (1985; 2004) has reinforced this notion as a consequence of his seminal work in linguistics; people construct their talk in clauses, but those clauses need punctuation when they are written down.

Sentences usually contain a subject, its verb and further information following the verb. The part of the sentence containing the verb and the rest of the sentence is known as the predicate.

Children (← subject) (predicate →) laugh with their friends every day.

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You will see the development of sentence, clause, phrase and group patterns in the central column of Part A of this book. This part provides a summary of that information, and another perspective on sentence grammar.

We advise starting the teaching of grammar with the simple adjective–noun strategy and its derivative activities, and then move to the ANVA strategy (Adjective Noun Verb Adverb), particularly with students from Year 3 and above. The strategies are discussed in Part C of this book.

The overall approach we advocate is the teaching of a number of elements of English simultaneously. The ANVA strategy immediately sets up two sets of information: four parts of speech, and one figure of speech (alliteration). There is also a powerful introduction to learning about English vocabulary if students become proficient at trawling through the dictionary using the part of speech to locate interesting adjectives and verbs.

You can see these strategies in detail, ready for you to implement, in Part C of this book, and in Chapter 6 of Literacy for the 21st Century by Tompkins, Campbell and Green (2012). All the strategies are the result of the doctoral and post-doctoral work of Rod Campbell and his longtime publishing work with Graham Ryles.

Developing the subject and its information in noun groups, phrases and clausesWORDS

↓PHRASES (Two or more words in a syntactic unit that adds information but has no verb)

↓ADJECTIVE–NOUN STRUCTURE (Noun group, e.g. animal poems)

↓NOUN & VERB

↓VERB & ADVERB (Vocabulary & adjective/adverb & alliteration)

↓COMPLEX NOUN GROUP (Phrases & clauses)

Developing and writing a complex noun group

Teaching adjectival phrase and clause in the complex noun group

adjectival clause (the clause always has a verb)

“that” clause . . .

Adjective and noun

“with” phrase . . .

adjectival phrase (describes a noun)

Example:

Lethargic lizards that have their eyes closed laze languidly.A lethargic lizard with closed eyes lazes languidly.

(Noun group)

Figure 1

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Developing the predicateIn this section, we will develop the information that follows after the verb in the predicate.

1. Developing a complex noun group after the verb. For example: Lethargic lizards lick their eyes lazily. (noun group) Lethargic lizards lick their eyes that open occasionally. (complex noun group and embedded adjectival clause)

2. Developing the adverbial phrase (circumstance). (a) Prepositions and the prepositional phrase: Lethargic lizards lick their eyes at midday on the rocks

near the Equator.b) Adverbs: Lethargic lizards lick their eyes lazily and languorously.

3. Developing subordinate or dependent clauses (synonymous term: teach both).independent (main) clause conjunction dependent (subordinate) clause/sThe children went to the beach because they wanted to see the tropical sunset.

4. Developing very complex sentences with embedded adjectival clauses inside complex noun groups.When the snow that was freezing cold fell outside, the children went to the city because they wanted to buy lots of new winter clothes.Main clause: the children went to the citySubordinate clause: when the snow (that was freezing cold) fell outsideSubordinate clause: because they wanted to buy lots of new winter clothes.Complex noun group: the snow that was freezing coldAdjectival clause: that was freezing coldNote: The dependent or subordinate clause functions adverbially, and is also known as an adverbial clause.

Sentences styles in EnglishConsider the following elements of style, or choices for writing sentences and paragraphs:

1. purpose and use of the writing (text type)2. paragraphing and format 3. careful construction and use of sentence types (simple and complex; loose and periodic;

theme; parallelisms; etc.)4. choice and use of vocabulary5. personal opinions and values6. author’s voice7. the developing relationship with the reader.

Simple, compound and complex sentencesSimple sentencesThe old man owned a dog.

A simple sentence has one clause only. That clause obviously stands alone and is therefore an independent clause.

Compound sentencesThe children played on the beach and swam in the ocean from time to time.The children played on the beach and (the children) swam in the ocean from time to time.

A compound sentence consists of two or more main or independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or).

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A comma is used between the main or independent clauses if the subject of the second clause is different from the subject in the first clause.

The children played on the beach, and their parents played cards under the trees.

Complex sentencesThe old man owned a dog because he enjoyed its company.

A complex sentence contains two or more clauses, and one of the clauses is a subordinate clause. (The adjectival clause is also a form of dependent clause.) In the example above, the subordinate/dependent clause begins with because. The independent or main clause is The old man owned a dog.

In the example below, both adjectival and subordinate/dependent clauses add information.

The old man, who lived alone in the house at the end of the street, owned a West Highland terrier dog because he enjoyed its company at home and during walks in the park near the motorway.

The subordinate/dependent clause appears in bold; the adjectival clause is underlined and is embedded, in apposition, in the independent or main clause.

Complex sentences make use of dependent clauses that begin with subordinating conjunctions. Using subordinating conjunctions in complex sentences provides greater possibilities for logic, structure and power. Notice the logical possibilities of the relationships carried in conjunctions: time (when), place (where), reason (because), condition (if, whether, unless), purpose (so that), and so on.

However can be used as a conjunction, but is better left for use as a strongly contrasting text connective in persuasive texts and reports.

Coordinating or linking conjunctions signal an equal relationship between independent clauses and between phrases.

Correlative conjunctions are conjunctions that are paired to show closer links or relationships between ideas. Correlative conjunctions require the same pattern of word, phrases or clauses after each part of the correlative conjunction

Variations on complex sentencesLoose and periodic sentencesHe saw Tom as he was going down the road. (Example of a loose sentence.)

A loose sentence begins with the independent clause.

As he was going down the road, he saw Tom. (Example of a periodic sentence.)

A periodic sentence begins with the dependent clause. The beginning dependent clause is followed by a comma.

Sentence with an incomplete clause at the beginningGoing down the road, he saw Tom.Walking across the road, he was hit by a speeding car.Folding her arms against the cold and fear, she turned into the wind to look for her missing friend.Having spoken aloud, the boy was asked by the teacher to repeat what he had said.To see the sun rise over the sea, we had to get out of bed.

In each of the examples above, the verb in the dependent clause is incomplete, so the clause is an incomplete clause. The test for this type of clause is to place the dependent clause after the independent clause, using a subordinating conjunction. The verb will also become complete.

He saw Tom while he was going down the road.He was hit by a speeding car as he was walking across the road.

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She turned into the wind to look for her missing friend when she folded her arms against the cold and fear.The boy was asked by the teacher to repeat what he had said because he had spoken aloud.We had to get out of bed if we wanted to see the sun rise over the sea.

Cleft clauses/sentences (it was . . .)It was Tom whom he saw as he was going down the road.

Pseudo-cleft sentencesThese are sentences where a “wh”-word* is used in the theme or prominent position (at the beginning of the sentence). (*who, what, where, when, why)

For example: Those stories were told over open fires for generations. → Which stories were told over open fires for generations?

What was told over open fires for generations was stories.

Noun clausesTeach if necessary, in response to student request; more likely in senior high school.

That he had been hoping to attend the function became apparent in his reaction to the lack of an invitation.He said that he had never been so humiliated in his life.

In both examples, the clauses in bold italics function as nouns:. “What” had become apparent?. He said “what”?

NominalisationNominalisation is a technique for expressing more abstract ideas and arguments. The technique is to turn a verb into a noun; i.e. nominalise the verb:

The dog barked loudly → The dog’s bark was loud; or The loud barking of the dog . . .

Water storage systems are needed for communities and farms to survive in rural Australia.) → Survival of farms and communities in rural Australia depends upon water storage systems.

Nominalisation is used in both informative and persuasive texts. In informative texts, nominalisation is used overtly; in persuasive texts, nominalisation can be used to cloak the writer’s voice in order to represent opinion as fact.

To state the process in another way, nominalisation turns verbs (actions or events) into nouns (things, concepts or people). The text no longer describes actions; the text is focused on objects or concepts—for example:

We walked for charity last Sunday.

The verb walked can be nominalised to the noun “walk”.

→ Our walk for charity was last Sunday.

The trees were chopped down → the removal of the trees.

People advertise their products so they can sell more. → Advertisements increase product sales.

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ParallelismsParallelisms are sets of two or three items of the same structure, used within a sentence. For example:

Words: This employee is reliable, diligent and trustworthy.Phrases: A future where we harness the determination of all Australians, Indigenous and non-Indigenous, to close the gap that lies between us in life expectancy, educational achievement and economic opportunity.(The three examples here are really noun groups.)

You see parallelisms used effectively in songs, such as the hymn from Micah 6:8:To act justly, to love tenderly, and to walk humbly with God.

Or at the end of Tennyson’s poem Ulysses:To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield.

Embedded clausesEmbedding occurs when a clause or phrase functions as part of (or inside) a noun group. For example:

The old car (noun group) broke down on its first journey.The old car that he had bought cheaply broke down on its first journey.

The adjectival clause that he had bought cheaply is embedded in the “new” noun group that now comprises the original noun group and an added adjectival clause.

The old car that he had bought cheaply from a man broke down on its first journey.

The phrase from a man is now embedded in the noun group, and is ranked down from the adjectival clause that he had bought cheaply.

The old car that he had bought cheaply from a man (whom) he had met in the pub broke down on its first journey.

The adjectival clause (whom) he had met in the pub is now embedded in the noun group, and is ranked down from the phrase from a man.

Embedding phrases and clauses inside each other is called “downranking”, as each clause or phrase is embedded in the one before it. Each new phrase or clause (in the example above) functions to add or modify the information about the car.

Embedded clauses and phrases can include complete (or finite) clauses (adjectival and subordinate/dependent), incomplete (or non-finite) clauses, and prepositional and other phrases. For example:

. The old car rattling down the highway was a sound and sight to forget. (Incomplete adjectival clause; (that was) rattling down the highway.). The old car that he had bought because it was cheap was a moving junkheap. (Complete adjectival clause that he had bought and its embedded complete subordinate clause because it was cheap, ranked down from the adjectival clause.). The old car that he had bought in the pub because it was cheap was a moving junkheap. (The phrase in the pub is embedded in the adjectival clause and shares equal ranking with the subordinate clause because it was cheap.)

In this last example (The old car that he had bought in the pub because it was cheap), the noun group is very complex, comprising two clauses and a phrase that all link back to the main noun, “car”.

Teaching note: Use strips of paper to add clauses and phrases inside or to noun groups, and ask questions starting with who, what, when, where, why and how to elicit student input into the development of embedded clauses. The strips also allow students to identify and discuss the rank of each clause and phrase in the noun group.

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