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SMART IWRM at the Lower Jordan River Basin– Reviewing

models, results and uptake from large scale integrated water

resources research

L. Wolf1,10

, A. Subah2, A.Tamimi

3, J. Guttman

4, J. Bensabat

5, R. Mueller

6, S.Geyer

6, M. Sauter

7, H.P. Wolff

8,

A. Tiehm9, D.Riepl

10, W. Ali

10, H. Hoetzl

10

1 CSIRO Land & Water, Dutton Park, Queensland, Australia. leif.wolf@csiro.au

2 Ministry of Water and Irrigation, Amman, Jordan

3 Palestine Hydrological Group, Ramallah

4 MEKOROT, Tel Aviv

5 EWRE - Environmental Water Resources Engineering Ltd., Haifa, Israel

6 Helmholtz-Zentrum fuer Umweltforschung, Leipzig, Germany

7 University of Goettingen, Germany

8 QUASIR-Office, Ostfildern, Germany

9 Water Technology Centre, Karlsruhe, Germany

10 Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany

Abstract

This paper investigates the impact of large scale Integrated Water Resources Management

(IWRM) research programs in trans-boundary environments at the example of the complex water

resources of the Lower Jordan River Basin (LJRB). Under the current figures of demand growth,

large scale desalination is the paradigm to satisfy the rising regional demand but gains in energy

and cost efficiency are possible through the use of decentralized non conventional water resources.

Decentralised wastewater treatment was demonstrated at a pilot site and the research project

delivered regional implementation concepts jointly with the institutions. The major urban areas are

situated on vulnerable karstic aquifer systems with possibilities for direct stormwater recharge.

Most investigated springs were found to be affected by microbial contamination and persistant

organics. Major uncertainties are remaining in water planning due to the still evolving models for

groundwater recharge and missing monitoring data. IWRM needs to be tackled technically as well

as socio-economically at sub-basin level and must be accompanied by sufficient capacity building

& knowledge management to have an impact on implementation. We argue that IWRM research

needs to be linked closer to IWRM implementation programs in order to raise efficiency of both.

This will aid the size, speed and quality of capacity building.

Keywords

Jordan, Israel, Palestine, groundwater, sanitation, trans-boundary water management

INTRODUCTION

The Jordan River Valley

The investigation area covers the Lower Jordan River Valley and reaches from the southern shores

of the Sea of Galilee (Lake Tiberias) down to the northern part of the Dead Sea (Figure 1). It

comprises an area of about 8000 km2. The dominating tectonic element of the Jordan River Valley

is the Dead Sea Transform (DST) a segment of the East African – Red Sea Rift System. A

progressive closure of the basin means in this case that almost no water is left to be mobilized and

used while demand, notably in urban areas, keeps increasing (Venot, Molle et al. 2006). Owing to

diversion of tributary waters and intensive mineral extraction, the level of the Dead Sea is dropping

at a rate of up to one meter per year. As a result, the surface area of the sea has shrunk by one-third,

springs around the sea are drying up and sinkholes are forming, threatening historical sites and

infrastructure. The diversion of water from the Yarmouk River and the Jordan River are the main

drivers of this loss of the Dead Sea. In both cases, substantial amounts of this water are directed to

agriculture, which represents only 1.7 % of the gross domestic product in Israel (Central Bureau of

Statistics Israel 2004), and 3.4 % of the gross domestic product and 2.7% of the employment in

Jordan (CIA World Factbook, 2011).

Figure 1. Overview of the investigation area, sub-basins selected for detailed studies and extent of

the regional groundwater model.

The arguably largest upcoming decision for water management in the LJRB is the import of

desalinated sea water to satisfy future demand and to raise water levels of the Dead Sea. From a

technical viewpoint this can be achieved with seawater water from the Red Sea or the

Mediterranean. Using water from the Mediterranean locally and reducing East-West water transfers

in return would be the most energy-efficient solution but is difficult in the current political situation.

Either way, a better use of local non-conventional resources and consequent demand management

would reduce the need for energy intensive desalination and transport schemes and substantially

reduce the greenhouse gas emissions of the water sector (Guttman, Hoetzl et al. 2009; Rosenberg

2011).

New Frameworks for Integrated Water Resources Management

With its aim and promise of improving livelihoods and welfare by improved water resources

management, IWRM sets itself a high goal and is calling on an indicator set which lacks tools for

reliable prognosis. In accordance with Reichelt (2011) general challenges for IWRM research are

seen as (i) formal representation of scientific knowledge (ii) how societal preferences can be

described and elicited (iii) how such concepts can best be used for communication with authorities,

politicians and the public. The core of IWRM is about a more transparent communication of trade-

offs and an extended amount of criteria and opinions to be used in the assessment of different

management options. A shift in general attitudes needs to move from non transparent informal

water rights to the realisation that water is an economic good which requires optimal market

conditions in terms of accessibility and transparent formal regulations. Its costs may vary in places.

The water costs are bound to the cost of desalinisation and transport to the location of use as well as

to opportunity costs of alternative locations and uses.

At the Lower Jordan Basin, it is evident that there is no universally applicable IWRM concept

implementation for the three riparians, the situation in each is vastly different in terms of

institutional setting, capacity, awareness, economics and hydrogeography. Still individual technical

measures within an IWRM framework, e.g. decentralised wastewater treatment, are applicable to all

of them. Picking up those topics is a practical way forward to improved communication between

Israel, Palestine and Jordan. A common characteristic is also the indicator framework which can

serve as benchmark and provide political incentive for change. On the national level, it is

understood that there are three classes of indicators, namely (i) impact indicators on water resources

availability and trends (ii) process indicators of where a country is in the IWRM process (iii)

Performance indicators on how the IWRM framework works. Moving to the sub-basin scale the

impact indicators gain importance.

Table 1.Challenges, Responses and Uncertainties identified for the water management in the Lower

Jordan River Basin.

Key challenges Key responses Key uncertainties

Increasing water demand

Supply side measures

Seawater desalination

Economic viability

Public acceptance of

water price changes

Wastewater reuse

Technical viability

Groundwater desalination

Energy requirements

Controlling health risk

Stormwater harvesting

Institutional setting

Environmental

degradation

Reduction of network losses

Social impacts

Loss of resilience

Groundwater

recharge

Climate change

Demand side

measures

Water tariff structures

Environmental fate

of pollutants

Funding of local solutions

Efficient water use in

irrigation, industry &

households

Public acceptance

Understanding the role of

impacts from water

management on local

systems

Socioeconomic and

political uncertainties

Environmental

protection

Setting environmental targets

Reduction of over-utilisation

Groundwater protection zones

Surface Water protection

zones

Improving WWTP coverage

Capacity building &

Awareness raising

Knowledge management

Education programs

Demonstration activities

Regional cooperation projects

Table 1 is reflecting the key IWRM challenges specific for the Lower Jordan River Basin. In the

current political situation one of the key challenges is to gain sufficient public acceptance for the

inevitable changes in applied water tariffs which are needed as more costly resources and

technologies come into the supply mix. Rising costs of water also induce that low-value water uses

(as in some agricultural sectors) are not competitive anymore and that employment opportunities in

these sectors are lost. While this constitutes an overall efficiency increase on national level, this

process may have severe implications on individuals and individual regions. In order to gain public

acceptance, it is therefore of increasing importance to clearly communicate and inform about water

management and its constraints. Building public confidence requires more transparency and public

available information about the trade-offs associated with different management options. It also

requires significant amount of awareness raising and capacity building to teach from school level

not only that water is limited but also on the economics of water and the trade-offs between social

and environmental water demands. The last column in Table 1 denotes the key uncertainties in

IWRM and thus outlines also the research needs in IWRM. The large scale, multi-lateral IWRM

research initiative SMART at the Lower Jordan Basin, which includes more than 20 partner

institutions and 60 scientists focuses on reducing uncertainties in implementation of innovative

technologies, water balances & groundwater recharge, environmental fate of pollutants, selected

economical aspects of the new technologies and improved communication for public acceptance.

The large socio-economic and political uncertainties in the region are perceived as a major

challenge which lies outside the influence of IWRM. However, IWRM can contribute via the

establishment of regional cooperation projects and via provision of adaptive management strategies

which stipulate economic growth in water constrained societies.

METHODS

The umbrella of IWRM research covers a very wide spectrum of disciplines and scales, from the 1D

lab experiment to the water allocation modelling at river basin scale, from the analysis of rare earth

elements to the institutional mapping of decision processes within a ministry or nation. Table 3

provides an overview about the activities for data acquisition, for process based modelling as well

as for decision support and knowledge management activities.

The process based hydrological modelling using TRAIN-ZIM as well as the regional WEAP

Modelling and the application of the Scenario and Simulation tool SAS were performed within the

framework of the GLOWA Jordan project (Hoff, Bonzi et al. 2011) All other applications are

referenced in the SMART phase one project report (Wolf and Hoetzl 2011). The findings regarding

the impact of IWRM research are based on the consultation of key national stakeholders within a

series of 8 scientific coordination meetings, reviews of the evolving national water strategies since

the project inception in 2006, an analysis of project publications as well as reviews of media

interest.

Table 2. Methodologies for data generation, modelling and decision support applied in SMART

and associated projects in the region.

Spot location/

Household/Farm

Small natural

systems/Village Wadi / Metropolis

River Basin/

National level

En

vir

on

men

tal

Data generation Data generation Data generation Data generation

Climate stations

Runoff/Flow

measurements Runoff/Flow measurements

Water transfer

data

Infiltration tests

Sedimentation rate

monitoring Hydrogeological Mapping

Pumping test Pumping test

Soil moisture

monitoring Tracer tests Aquatic Ecology obs.

Water quality

sampling

Water quality

sampling Water quality sampling

Water quality probes Water quality probes Water quality probes

Soil water quality

Geophysical

exploration Geophysical exploration

Lab column studies Remote Sensing Remote Sensing

Tec

hnolo

gie

s

DWWTP DWWTP

Constructed Wetland Constructed Wetland

Recharge weirs Recharge weirs Recharge dams

MAR injection well MAR injection well

GW-Desalination

pilots

GW-Desalination

pilots

Soci

al Supply & Demand registers

Economic statistics & Pricing information

Demographic data

Interviews & Questionnaires on household and entrepreneurial economics

Tools/Models Tools/Models Tools/Models Tools/Models

Pro

cess

model

s

HYDRUS Analytical models for spring discharge

PHT3D MODFLOW MODFLOW

CXTFIT FEFLOW FEFLOW

MODFLOW FEAS GeoSys

TOUGH-REACT

PFLOTRAN

CODEBRIGHT

VASP VASP

JAMS JAMS

TRAIN-ZIM TRAIN-ZIM

BASINS-HSPW BASINS-HSPW

WEAP-MODLFOW

Dec

isio

n s

up

port

WEAP-MYWAS WEAP

WAM WAM SAS

AHP-Tool AHP-Tool AHP-Tool

GABARDINE-DSS GABARDINE-DSS

DWWTP site selection tool

Vulnerability/Suitability mapping

SMART-Knowledge Management

RESULTS

Water budget

The most recent figures for future water management plans in the region are summarized in Table

2, based on direct stakeholder information and public figures. Treated Wastewater Reuse (TWW) is

expected to double in Israel by 2050 and by 2025 in Jordan. In addition to the figures above, the

future water supply plan for Israel foresees an additional amount of 230 MCM/yr in 2020 and 520

MCM/yr in 2050 for neighbouring countries. For Palestine, the basic domestic water demand is 33

MCM, the 17 MCM are estimated as environmental needs and 338 MCM are required subsistence

farming. The figures in Table 3 for Palestine only relate to the small area of Jericho city for which a

detailed water master plan was recently developed. The potential for stormwater harvesting and

artificial aquifer recharge is not accounted for in these figures. As an example, the Jericho water

master plan sets a stormwater harvesting target of 600 earth pools by the year 2040 to deliver an

additional 1.2 MCM (approximate half of the agricultural demand).

Table 3. Forecasts of supply from different water resources versus demand and population.

Israel Jordan

Jericho City

(Palestine)**

Year 2010 2020 2050 2010 2015 2025 2010 2020 2050

TWW Reuse in

Agriculture MCM/y 450 570 930 117 165 247 0 0.8 1.2

Inland brackish water

desalination MCM/y 25 50 70 57 82 82 0 5 15

Seawater desalination MCM/y 280 750 750 210 370 0 0 0

Groundwater

(renewable) * MCM/y 1200 1140 1020 405 380 329 3.5 3 3

Groundwater (non-

renewable)** MCM/y 40 40 40 74 154 154 0 2 2

Total Demand*** MCM/y 2000 2440 3050 1315 1407 1652 2.57 3.32 7.19

Population

Mill.

Pers. 7.6 9.1 15.6 6.15 6.9 8.5 0.02 0.03 0.06

*Salinity below 400 mg/l. Yearly reduction due to climate change

** The abstraction depend on the decision what is the red lines.

*** For Israel: without the amount that is assumed as supply to Palestine and Jordan.

Recent studies suggest that the country faced during the past 35 years frequent non-uniform drought

periods in an irregular repetitive manner. Application of ECHAM5OM GCM models suggests

future droughts to become more intensive at the northern and southern desserts with 15% rainfall

reduction factor, followed by 10% reduction at the JRV, and 5% at the highlands (Al-Qinna 2011).

A reduction of rainfall by 10 % however is likely to result in a larger reduction of groundwater

recharge. Local studies (Salameh 2011) suggest that a declines in precipitation of 10% would cause

in the target area of the SMART project a 39% decrease in flood runoff, a 16% decrease in

groundwater recharge in rain rich areas (>500 mm/year) and a 59% decrease in areas receiving with

low precipitation of around 300 mm/year (Salameh 2011). Traditionally natural groundwater

recharge amounts in Jordan have been estimated as fixed proportions of the amount of precipitation.

But this approach does not seem to be accurate, especially because such an approach results in a

total recharge of 277 MCM/yr for the whole country, whereas extraction of about 500 MCM/yr (2 -

3 decades ago) from both springs and wells did not result in the expected sharp drops in

groundwater levels (Salameh, 2011). In future, more reliable estimates of groundwater recharge are

required, such as demonstrated at the Wadi Arab (Jordan) were a combination of JAMS modelling,

groundwater table fluctuation method and spring discharge measurements led to a confirmed

recharge estimate of 47 mm/y for Wadi Arab (Jordan) and 95 mm to 122 mm in Wadi Quilt (West

Bank) (Roediger, Siebert et al. 2011) (Schmidt, Toll et al. 2010). Groundwater models need to be

updated to accommodate the numbers.

Owing to the political setting, the Lower Jordan River Basin badly lacks large scale planning tools,

approaches and databases. A transnational database management system (DAISY) was established

on an oracle system and equipped with a web based graphical user interface. DAISY encompasses a

huge amount of data received from SMART project partners, former projects such as GIJP,

GLOWA, EXACT, from literature and the internet and out of local and foreign databases (Siebert,

Herrmann et al. 2009). Hoff et al (2011) report on the challenging application of a transnational

WEAP model for the Jordan River basin which constitutes the first dynamic water database on this

scale. In this valuable study WEAP is applied in its basic form as a water budget and allocation

model, without a process based simulation of runoff generation, groundwater recharge or vegetation

or crop water use. As such, the WEAP simulation results entirely depend on the quality of the input

data (e.g., river discharge, groundwater recharge, urban and agricultural demands, etc.) in

combination with the topology of the water system and the priorities specified for water demands,

supplies and allocations. Hence, calibration and validation of model‘s process parameters and

simulations in a strict sense (e.g., comparing simulated against measured river discharge) is not

possible (Hoff et al, 2011). The same holds true for many of the national WEAP model

applications, which are not including validation exercises on surface-runoff generation or

groundwater recharge. Work is still ongoing on the transboundary numerical groundwater model for

the Lower Jordan River Basin. The need for improved hydrological models however needs to be

viewed in light of the uncertainties in future economic & political developments and as such, a long

term scenario planning process might not be affected seriously by minor water balance

uncertainties. The current literature on future scenarios varies widely and includes statetements that

Israel, Palestine and Jordan are likely for the foreseeable future to have sufficient naturally available

water resources to permit social and economic development if water resources are equitably shared

and are managed effectively and extremely efficiently (Chenoweth, 2011). This is perceived as

idealistic and at least for Jordan strongly contradicted by the findings of most recent studies on

future water balances (e.g. 2030 Water Resources Group, Accelerating water sector transformation

in Jordan, forthcoming)

Decentralised Wastewater Treatment & Reuse

Within the project, a demonstration site for decentralized wastewater treatment technologies in

Fuheis was constructed using a combination of treatment technology options, both traditional and

innovative. To achieve a high hygienic standard and to be able to reuse the treated wastewater for

agricultural irrigation purposes, different technologies such as Sequencing Batch Reactors (SBRs),

Soil Filter Eco-technologies, anaerobic stabilization of sewage sludge and Eco-technological Sludge

Mineralization (Mueller 2011). The site was well received by decision makers and the public and

led to the planning of a number of implementation sites along with detailed cost and operational

models. Annual wastewater production available for DWWT&R in the rural sector of the

investigation area was calculated to be nearly 3.8 MCM at the end of 2007. The future need of

wastewater treatment and reuse facilities of the rural sector was estimated to be increasing by 0.11

MCM/y, with an overall potential of new treatment capacity of nearly 15,500 population

equivalents (pe) per year. The overall potential for implementing DWWT&R systems in the urban

sector was estimated as nearly 25 MCM of wastewater in 2007. Together with the decision makers

and the stakeholders, a map outlining the implementation potential has been defined for Northern

Jordan (van Afferden et al). SMART Socio-Economic research carried out with interviews and

questionnaires underscored the public perception that decentralized WWT&R contributes to solve

many of the problems Jordan currently faces, such as pollution of freshwater resources, social and

health problems resulting from overflowing cesspits and low income among farmers. However,

financing issues, risk of leakage, monitoring, odour and responsibility issues were major concerns.

Groundwater quality & groundwater protection

Water quality in the Jordan River Basin is responding to five stresses: (i) the overabstraction of

fresh groundwater which leaves mostly saline water behind and changes flow paths (ii) an increased

influx of salt and persistant organics with the steadily growing wastewater stream (iii) redistribution

of salt to the surface as a result of extensive irrigation (iv) spot contamination from lacking or

leaking sewer systems and septic tanks (v) infiltration of blended wastewater from wadis and

reservoirs.

Karstic and fractured aquifers with high hydraulic conductivities and preferential flowpaths

constitute the main aquifers on both sides of the Jordan Rift Valley. In the last 30 years various

proportions of effluents from cities and villages are flowing freely in few wadis downstream to the

Jordan Valley. Some of the effluents recharge into the groundwater and reach to the springs and to

some wells. The effect of this leakage is reflected in the frequent occurrence of faecal coliforms in

springs and wells (especially in the springs located in the upper part of Wadi Al-Qilt and Wadi

Shueib) (Margane, Subah et al. 2010) (Hassan & Guttman, 2011). Both Israel and Jordan have

existing regulations for groundwater protection zones, but the enforcement of the regulations. The

groundwater protection program in Wadi Shueib, Jordan (Margane, Subah et al. 2010) is taken as a

best practice example. No regulation is yet established in Palestine. A positive outcome of the

IWRM research is the stimulation of a legislative process for groundwater protection zones in

Palestine and the efforts to outline the first groundwater protection zones in Palestine with support

from the Israeli project partners (Hassan & Guttman, 2011)

In screening campaigns almost 70 % of the groundwater samples from the Jordan Valley alluvium

showed pharmaceuticals in detectable concentrations.(Wolf, Poeschko et al. 2009) Furthermore,

trialkyl phosphates were found in 54 % of the groundwater samples. The endocrine disruptors

nonylphenol and bisphenol A could be detected in 38 % of the groundwater samples. Five springs

in Wadi Shueib showed concentrations of iodinated x-ray contrast media as a result of infiltrating

wastewater into the karstic system. Column and batch tests demonstrated biodegradation under

favourable conditions for pharmaceutical residues such as ibuprofen, diclofenac and

bezafibrate(Tiehm, Schmidt et al. 2011). Research effort is continued to predict long term evolution

of persistent organics in the alluvial groundwater under constant influx of reclaimed water. A long

term sustainability question is the salt accumulation in soils and groundwater of the Lower Jordan

Valley. Soil salinity was mentioned as a problem or concern by 51% of the indirect reuse farmers in

a recent survey (Carr, 2011)

Managed aquifer recharge or artificial recharge was found to be effective at Wadi Shueib and Wadi

Kafrein dams and is the main contributor to the water balance of the alluvial aquifers below.

Numerous smaller studies on artificial recharge were initiated, e.g. at the Wadi Faria (Ghanem

2011) and Wadi ad Dardur. Studies now focus on the long term performance of the Wadi Wala dam

whose performance as buffer and recharge facility is threatened by sedimentation.

Knowledge Management & Capacity building

A key message from the large scale integration is that appropriate knowledge management is

necessary. The project has embarked on the set up of a semantic media wiki system which provides

both the opportunity for participation while being able to link to numerical and GIS databases and

selected simulation models. We propose to refer to this process as IWRM 2.0 in analogy to the

reform in world wide web technology, where WEB 2.0 signifies increased participation and a rapid

expansion of knowledge bases such as Wikipedia. Inspired by the IWRM Research project

SMART, the Jordan Ministry has now embarked on the process of setting up an own internal wiki-

based information system for the internal management of scenario information. The process of

multi-criteria decision making was demonstrated at the multiple supply mix of the Khalya region

(Bensabat, Guttman et al. 2010)

Capacity building was performed on three levels (i) workshops with institutional stakeholders on

groundwater protection, integrated management & decentralised wastewater treatment solutions

(DEWATS) (ii) PhD and Master student projects and (iii) with a pilot teaching unit for primary

schools based on demonstration technology and capacity building in the field of DEWATS. The

most long term effect is probably given by the PhD and master students from the region, from a

total of 12 PhD students of the first project phase, more than 5 are now in senior positions at

institutions in the project region. The highest visibility was achieved with the school teaching units

due to the resulting media interest (Cardonal, Van Afferden et al.). This is now expanded as a basic

support tool for the implementation of Jordan’s Water Strategy 2008-2022 (MWI, 2009).

CONCLUSION & OUTLOOK

Large scale research programs on IWRM are subject to similar challenges as national institutions

who implement IWRM; in both cases a number of experts with divergent views and motivations

need to be reconciled on a common output. Frequently, the goals of overall IWRM research do not

fit with the incentives of individual researchers whose success is measured in terms of publication

frequency rather than being rewarded for long term community engagement. Therefore, a closer

interaction with stakeholders and (in the case of Jordan and Palestine) a close relation to

international funded implementation projects is required to ensure that (i) sufficient continuity,

technical expertise and critical size is available (ii) the implementation projects are still subject to

an independent assessment (iii) the experience gained during the project implementation phase can

be directly utilised in the academic sector and therefore contribute more efficiently to capacity

building.

Key outcomes of the SMART research program were (i) transboundary water database (ii) refined

local and transboundary, conceptual and numerical groundwater models (iii) improvement of

monitoring networks for groundwater recharge springs and wadi runoff (iv) demonstration of

decentralised wastewater treatment technologies (v) national implementation strategy for

decentralised wastewater treatment in Jordan (vi) support for implementation of groundwater

protection zones in Palestine (vii) artificial recharge trials for feasibility assessment (viii) eliciting

social acceptance of decentralised wastewater treatment (ix) proving the occurrence and

environmental fate of emerging pollutants (x) provision of a semantic wiki system for knowledge

management.

For the Lower Jordan River Basin the full potential of alternative water management through a mix

of decentralised new infrastructure and conservation programmes needs to be quantified more

reliably as this will lower the requirements for costly and energy intensive desalination and water

transfer projects like the Red-Dead Canal.

The studies undertaken at the Lower Jordan River demonstrate that IWRM research can be efficient

in promoting innovative technologies which are not yet sufficiently supported by institutional

arrangements such as decentralised wastewater treatment solutions and which require successful

pilot demonstration, operational models and large scale implementation plans to be perceived as

viable alternatives in national water strategies. As a result of international IWRM research WEAP-

Models for water balance studies are now employed by institutions in Palestine and Jordan but

scenarios lack quantifications for the aggregated potential of local implementations like artificial

groundwater recharge, decentralised wastewater treatment, brackish groundwater desalination or

sustained use of springs through groundwater protection. IWRM research which focuses on the

understanding and optimisation of large scale networks is suitable to judge impacts of different

water management strategies but is much less suitable to develop viable alternatives to the current

paradigms. Consequently we argue that IWRM research on the sub-basin level of technology and

socio-economic consequences is required to achieve lasting impact, as recently also observed in

World Bank programs (Lenton 2011).

Key shortcomings of the IWRM research activities are the insufficient consideration of

environmental values and energy efficiency in ranking frameworks. Decision making is focused on

comparison of investment and operating costs but so far there is no established procedure to assess

different strategies in terms of their impact on community welfare, household income, system

vulnerability or environmental compliance. Further on, considerable uncertainties are present in

groundwater assessments due to the still evolving understanding of subsurface structure and

recharge processes. Uncertainty based frameworks are needed in future to allow for simplified

assessments.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank the BMBF for supporting this study through the SMART Project,

funding No.:02WM0801.

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