Solar photovoltaics in Sri Lanka: A short history

PROGRESS IN PHOTOVOLTAICS: RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS, VOL 2, 307-316 (1994)

Perspectives Broader Solar Photovoltaics in Sri Lanka: a Short History Lalith Gunaratne

Solar Power & Light Company Limited (formerly Power & Sun), 338 T.B. Jayah Mawatha. Colombo 10, Sri Lanko

With a signijkant unelectriJied rural population, Sri Lanka has followed the evolution ofsolar photovoltaic ( P V ) technology in the West very closely since the 1970s as terrestrial applications ,fbr photovoltaics were developed. It was not until I980 that the Sri Lankan government embarked on the promotion of solar photovoltaics for rural domestic use when the Ceylon Electricity Board formed the Energy Unit.

companies have been operating at diflerent levels with varying degrees of success- Vidya Sil'pa, agents for Arco and now Sho wa, selling solar photovoltaic systems on a small scale; Power & Sun (now S.P.&L. Co. Ltd) with its solar photovoltaic module assembling facility and a marketing operation; Sunpo wer Systems, agents for BP Solar Australia, focusing on institutional systems; and BP Solar Australia working on government-funded projects-so that private solar photovoltaic promoters have now gained valuable experience in a variety of dissemination methodologies.

In addition, Australian and Sri Lankan government-funded pilot projects such as the Pansiyagama 1000 home programme and the Uva Infrastructure Project with 74 large-scale solar photovoltaic systems for rural hospitals and water pumping schemes- both administered by the National Housing Development Authority ( N H D A b h a v e given all the local promoters further valuable insight into how and how not to promote solar photo voltaics.

non-governmentat organizations, such as the Sarvodaya Shvamadana Society and the newly formed Solanka Associates, has developed a novel approach to bridge the gap bet ween this state-of-the-art technology and the remotely located end-users.

The developments in the Sri Lankan solar photovoltaic scene have attracted the attention of the World Bank. To quote from a paper presented by Loretta Schaefier, Program Manager of the Bank's Asia Alternative Energy Unit in Washington at the Solar Energy Forum-SOL TECH '93-held on 28th April 1993 in Washington, DC: ' The Bank may get involved in providing P V-powered household systems throughout the country as there i s a strong private sector involvement and use of proven local experience in systems design, development, installation, operation and maintenance'.

Even though 702, of the 3.3 million homes are unelectrijied, acceptance of solar photovoltaics as a viable alternative by policy makers is yet to be fully realized in Sri Lanka. The main obstacle has been the relatively high cost of photovoltaics. In spite of

Since then, solar photovoltaics has attracted the private sector, where several

The establishment of community-based solar photovoltaic programmes by

CCC lO62-7995/94/040307-10 0 1994 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Received 29 October 1993 Revised 20 January 1994

308 L. GUNARATNE

this, the private sector companies, certain government agencies (such as the NHDA) and the non-government organizations view photovoltaics as a technology that could meet the basic needs for electricity ojthe rural people who, otherwise, would be left in the dark.

INTRODUCTION

ri Lanka is a tropical island located off the southern tip of India. The country has a popu- S lation of 17 million people inhabiting an area of

65 610 km2. Approximately 77% of the people live in rural areas, where they engage in agriculture. With a per capita gross domestic product (GDP, 1990) of USW30.00, the main sources of foreign exchange are tea, coconut products, rubber goods, garments and repatriated foreign exchange from Sri Lankan workers in the Middle East.’ ’ ElectriJication: current status

The Ceylon Electricity Board (CEB) is the government authority responsible for the generation of electricity in Sri Lanka. In 1988, the CEB, with an installed capacity of 1208 MW, generated 2799 million kWh of electricity. The CEB sold 2371 million kWh, which is 84.7% of the electricity generated, with the remainder being lost in transmission. Hydro-electricity accounts for 93% of the power generation capacity, with the remainder being generated thermally with oil and diesel.* In 1992, the CEB had to ration the power supply to users for 4 months owing to a drought that dried up the hydro reservoirs. To stop a repeat of such a situation, the CEB plans to install a 400-MW coal plant, but this is being met with opposition from local environmental groups.

Currently, out of a total of 3.3 million households in Sri Lanka, 2.3 million (or 70%) do not have access to the CEBs grid power. The 30% that are linked to the grid have their power distributed through the CEB, Lanka Electricity Company (a newly formed semi- government-owned distribution firm) and 50 local municipal and urban councils, depending on the location. Even though 10% of the presently unelectrified homes can be connected easily, the remainder cannot be linked to the grid even if there was sufficient generating capacity for years to come because of the dispersity of the population. Out of the households without electricity, about 400000 use automobile batteries to power a few 12-V fluorescent lamps, radios and televisions. The batteries are charged, usually twice a month, at charging centres located in the areas served by the grid, sometimes as far as 10 miles away. The remainder use kerosene for lighting, the price of which is subsidized by the government.

As for the future, the CEB says that they can power

80% of the homes with the grid in the next two decades. The Asian Development Bank, on the other hand, has concluded that about 60% of the country’s homes could be electrified if all the financial resources were used for the task. The CEB concedes that the remaining 20% without grid power will require the private sector to provide renewable technologies for their needs. Solar photovoltaics is recognized as the most suitable form of renewable, decentralized electricity.

The solar resource

Sri Lanka has an ideal climate for solar photovoltaics owing to its proximity to the equator. The average temperature is 28°C in dry areas and 15-25°C in the highlands. There is a large variation in the rainfall lately in spite of the monsoons, owing to the changing weather patterns and the fact that there are never any long continuous rainy periods. The wet zone (hill country) occupies the southwestern quarter of the country, the rest of the country occupies the dry zone and there is an intermediate zone in-between. The annual average solar radiation varies between 4.6 kWh m-’ at Ratnapura to 5.5 kWh rn-’ at Nuwara Eliya, and the entire country has an annual average daily radiation of 5 kWh m-2.11-5

The early 1970s: looking for alternatives

The Stockholm Conference on the Environment in 1972 and its focusing on the area of renewable energy provided an impetus for the Sri Lankan Government to study alternatives. Nuclear power had been an area of interest at the time, although others, such as solar photovoltaics and wind power, were also examined to complement the existing hydro and thermal power-generation ~ 1 a n t s . I ~

G. B. A. Fernando, a Director at the Planning Ministry of the Sri Lankan Government, was a key individual pursuing the alternative energy areas, especially solar photovoltaics, in the early 1970s. According to Mr Fernando, a publication called US Plan for Alternative Energy made by the US House of Representatives in 1972 indicated a great potential for solar power and also influenced early promoters of photovoltaics in Sri Lanka to identify it as a future alternative. With the 1973 energy crisis prompting the world to look towards alternative and renewable energy technologies, the Sri Lankan Planning Ministry appointed a committee to study the area. In 1975, the Ministry of Finance & Planning established an Energy Planning Cell, which continued to

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS IN SRI LANKA 309

keep abreast of the PV technology development in the world. The high cost of solar photovoltaics was seen to be a barrier to its immediate application to Sri Lanka, even though the prices were expected to reduce drastically.

The U N E P : rcnewuhle encryy demonstrution project

In 1975, The United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) under the guidance of Dr M. Usmani was looking to implement energy pilot projects in the developing world. Dr Usmani had stated that ‘only renewables will meet all the needs for power of the developing world’, and the UNEP decided to locate demonstration projects in Latin America, Africa and Asia. With Sri Lanka’s established interest in the renewable energy area, the UNEP along with the Sri Lankan government decided to situate the ‘Rural Energy Demonstration Centre for the Asian Region’ in the southern part of the country. The work began in 1977 in a village called Pattiyapola.’

The US.$200000 project, which included a 10-kW solar PV array, 20-kW wind power systems, a 300-kWh per day battery bank and a 50-kW biogas generator, provided electric power for lighting and a water supply for 200 inhabitants of the Pattiyapola village. The combined system was capable of generating 50000 kWh of energy per month at 230V AC, and was the first known system of solar photvoltaics to be installed in Sri Lanka. The PV modules were produced by the Solar Electric Corporation of the USA.

The project was commissioned in 1979 but began to fail after a few years of operation because the techno- logically sophisticated inverters and the system controllers were obsolete in a short space of time and replacement parts were not available. Also, the CEB, who were managing the project, did not have sufficient funds allocated to maintain the systems. However, the project manager kept part of the system operational by using locally available resources. Thus, only the biogas generator was operating for a few hours to provide some power to the village because even though the solar array produced electricity, the batteries and the inverters were not functioning. Nevertheless, the project served as a demonstration to school-children who would travel from all parts of the country to see what was now termed the ‘renewable energy grave yard’. The project site was finally closed down in 1990.

In the meantime, in February 1979, a country paper called ‘Applications of Solar Energy in Sri Lanka’ was presented by Sri Lankan government representatives at the Asian Institute of Technology in Bangkok, Thailand at a workshop called ‘Application of Solar Energy in South East Asia’. This paper reported that with a population of 14 million at the time, 7% of the villages and 10% of the homes had access to electricity. It also cited that over 90% of the homes use kerosene for

lighting. As oil imports in 1973 rose from 7% of the total import bill to 24% in 1977, as well as the increased use of firewood that was resulting in the fast depletion of forests, it concluded that it was important to look at solar power as an alternative both for lighting and cooking requirernents.l6

The CEBs solar energy programme

In 1980, the CEB established the Energy Unit to promote the use of PV and other renewable technologies. The idea was to develop the market until private sector organizations began to promote these on a commercial basis. With photovoltaics, the CEB Energy Unit (CEBEU) undertook to supply and install systems using imported PV modules and locally developed balance of systems from its head office based in the capital city of Colombo. Periodic newspaper advertisements attracted people from rural areas to travel to Colombo and purchase systems. The units were sold at approximately US$350- 500 and about 600 domestic systems were sold between 1983 and 1989. Over 150 systems using 8 5 , 32- and 44-W PV modules were sold in 1983/4, and from 1985 to 1989 the CEBEU sold 450 systems with PV modules ranging from 16.5, 20, 33 and 44 W. A typical system included the PV module, battery, 12-V lamps and the cable; no charge controllers were included. The installation was done by the user after receiving instructions from the CEBEU staff. The modules, ranging from ARCO, Hoxan, CEL (India), SUNTEC (Power & Sun, Sri Lanka) and other brands, were obtained through international tender. ’

It has been reported by the CEBEU that even though there was general satisfaction amongst users, frustrations stemmed from the relatively short life of the batteries (2 years) and the 12-V lamp circuits (6 months). Neverthe- less, most of the systems are operating due to the ingenuity of the users, who have learned to use the system through experience.

In 1985, the CEBEU established a solar-powered central battery charging station in a southern province village called Bundala. Ten 44-W PV modules served 52 homes using automobile batteries to power a few 12-V DC lamps and DC power televisions, and a trained technician from the village was employed to provide the service of charging batteries and collecting money. In 1987 a similar centre was established in a second southern village called Kolaweheramankade. Here, 32 33-W PV modules served a community of 100 homes. Both these stations have been abandoned since the period of civil unrest that plagued the country in 1988/89, affecting the rural areas most. A recent visit to the site of the Bundala centre by the author found only the metal frame for the solar modules remaining on the roof of the building. The villagers nearby said that the modules were removed and taken by a group of unidentified individuals during the period of unrest.

310 L. GUNA R A TNE

The CEBEU has since continued to sell systems, mostly to institutions such as the Livestock Development Board, the Freedom from Hunger Campaign and the Integrated Rural Development Programme for use in their rurally based offices, local schools and hospitals. In 1992, the CEBEU sold systems via the newly formed Ministry of Energy Conservation, which funded a special project to electrify 100 rural schools to power a television. This enabled rural students to benefit from televised educational programmes transmitted during

multiplied the demand. The fact that there was such a large number of people using and familiar with a 12-V system was found by the promoters of the private solar power companies to be a significant advantage in introducing solar photovoltaics to Sri Lanka.z*3

PRIVATE INITIATIVES

vidya - - - the day. The systems are also used by the community at night for entertainment. The CEBEU instructs local people to manage the systems because the importance of follow-up is now well known.13

The CEBEU continues to work with the Ministry of Energy Conservation to provide systems for such projects. The PV modules and balance of system components are purchased through public tender; the CEBEU does not engage in the sale of systems on a commercial basis because the private sector PV companies exist for this purpose.

The CEBEU has played a key role in the introduction and the development of solar photovoltaics in Sri Lanka and the credit goes to Shavindra Fernando, K. S. Fernando and the late B. P. Sepalage, who were the initial forces and they continue to keep the unit moving.

Popularizing battery-based systems (Prashakti)

In 1987, the National Engineering Resources & Develop- ment Centre (NERD), a semi-government science and research organization, developed a low-cost battery- based lighting system for rural homes without grid power. This was developed after NERD concluded that solar photovoltaics was too costly for the average rural householders in Sri Lanka. The system, known as ‘Prashakti’, used a battery to operate 12-V DC lights, television and radio. The battery would be taken periodically by the users for recharging at the nearest Prashakti agent appointed by NERD.3

Initially, NERD designed and produced DC/AC inverters for 6-, 8- and 10-W lamps to be used with the system. A locally made Exide 45-Ah automotive battery was adopted to use with the system. NERD then popularized the system by appointing over 60 agents islandwide who were also trained to manufacture the light inverters. The agents sold the Prashakti systems and became the battery charging centres for the users. A typical system was sold at US%50 and the users were required to recharge the battery bimonthly at a cost of less than one US dollar each

The Prashakti concept, in spite of the inconvenience of having to carry the battery for regular recharging, has gained wide acceptance islandwide by people who needed to replace their kerosene lamps at a low cost. Also, the wide availability of 12-V television sets has

Vidya Silpa, which began selling solar PV modules and systems in 1981, is a company that focuses mainly on the manufacture of scientific and laboratory equipment for schools and is the local agent for Siemens-Showa and was previously an agent for Arco. The company has sold about lo00 domestic lighting and water pumping systems. The head of the company, P. Sumanasekera, has been active in promoting solar power among other renewable technologies, such as wind and micro hydro power. Vidya Silpa sells PV systems through its Colombo- based office with no distribution network, and has introduced solar photovoltaics to schools by including a 4-W solar module with the school laboratory units. P. Sumanesekera has also played a crucial role in assisting the author and the partners to establish Power & Sun in Sri Lanka.

Sunpower Systems Limited

Sunpower Systems Ltd. was incorporated in 1987. It began as the agent for BP Solar Australia to promote small-scale domestic systems but has rapidly expanded to the marketing of professional systems for telecommunications, vaccine refrigerators and water supply schemes, to name but a few. The company has developed its expertise in areas of power electronics, advanced battery systems, power fencing, security systems and telecommunications. With its computerized design/analysis facilities backed by professional engineers, this company can meet all types of requirements, from .design to installation and commissioning. The company is also the agent for SAFT NIFE Power Systems, Gallagher (electric fencing) and NESTE Advanced Power Sys- tems.l0

Among other systems, Sunpower Systems has installed PV systems for microwave repeater stations for the local railways authority and electric fencing systems for wildlife protection and plantation authorities. It was also the sub-contractor in charge of installation and commissioning of the Pansiyagama solar project in the northwestern province, where lo00 BP solar domestic systems were installed, and the Uva Province infrastructure project where 74 large systems were installed for hospitals and water pumping schemes. These projects were jointly funded by the Australian and Sri Lankan government^.^.'^^^


Sunpower Systems Ltd. has also been promoting solar water heating systems in Sri Lanka and has an agreement as one of three parties (with BP Solar Australia and Power & Sun) where fabrication of BP PV modules is carried out by Power & Sun in its local facility.

BP Solar Australici

battery, with a casing that held the charge controller and the removable pump on a floating fibre-glass platform, was fixed on the base of the frame. The unit could pump about 750 gallons per day and was suitable for secondary crops, such as chillies and onions, in a quarter-acre plot of land. The water also could be used for domestic purposes. The prototypes created an interest in solar

BP Solar Australia established its own office in Colombo to implement the Australian-funded projects. They have been the principal contractors for the 1000-home Pansiyagama project and the Uva Province infrastructure project where 74 large-scale rural hospitals, community centres and water supply schemes were installed. Seven hundred and fifty units of 58-W BP Solar modules were used for the project, which serves as an effective demonstration of solar photovoltaics. BP Solar Australia continues to promote the implementation of large-scale projects int Sri Lanka.g-5

Power & Suri ( P l v ) Lirnirrd Power & Sun was established by the author and two others-Viren Perera and Pradip Jayewardene-in 1986. Initially in 1985, the promoters designed and built, with the encouragement of science-fiction writer and visionary Dr Arthur C. Clarke, a ‘mobile solar-powered water pump’ using an A R C 0 PV module and a Noria water pump. The local Arc0 agent, Vidya Silpa with P. Surnanasekera at the helm, gave the promoters technical assistance to develop the prototypes. Six prototypes were made at the Vidya Silpa premises, with Vidya Silpa producing the charge controllers and the circuitry for the units. The unit included a wheelbarrow-type frame with a swivelling PV module mounted on the handles. The

power and the unit was highlighted in the local media. Dr Arthur Clarke donated one unit for experimental purposes to the University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka, of which he is the Chancellor.

The Agricultural Development Authority expressed an interest in the units and arranged for the promoters to visit rural areas to demonstrate and test the system. After spending 1 month demonstrating the unit and talking to farmers, the promoters found that the requirement for lighting for their homes exceeded the need for water, which could be drawn manually. This pump, they said, was not sufficient for all their irrigation needs, so they preferred a system that could give them electric power to operate a few lights and a television. The promoters then switched the emphasis from PV water pumping to lighting systems and sought the technology to manufacture systems locally.

In 1986, a USAID-funded market study was commissioned by the promoters using Coopers & Lybrand Management Consultants. The study identified 200000 householders using ‘Prashakti’ battery-based systems amongst the then 80% of the unelectrified homes3 While in Canada, the promoters had obtained the assistance of Ontario Hydro t o find the module encapsulating and systems design technology with T P K International Inc. based in Ottawa, Canada. After the market and feasibility study indicated the viability for establishing a PV module

Figure 1. Photovoltaic module assembly facility of the Solar Power and Light Company (formerly Power & Sun) at Negombo, Sri Lanka

312 L. G U N A R A T N E

assembly facility and a marketing outfit, the promoters raised funds through the National Development Bank of Sri Lanka and Development Finance Corporation of Ceylon, among others.”

In 1988, Power & Sun began manufacturing PV modules under the SUNTEC brand name (see Figure 1). Initially, the company developed its own network of dealers islandwide. Most of the dealers were already vendors of batteries, TVs and other related products. Power & Sun sold only the PV module, aiming at the Prashakti battery-based system users. A high-profile advertising campaign introduced SUNTEC to Sri Lanka on the television, radio and newspapers. In addition, using three fully equipped vans, localized demonstrations were carried out at market places, community centres and religious centres to show the advantages of solar photovoltaics first hand to local people. Power & Sun manufactured and sold 18-W and 35-W modules using Kyocera and BP solar

Then, a series of unexpected events in the country’s political situation prevented the company from operating as planned. The rurally instigated civil unrest, which began halfway through 1988, prompted the company to take innovative directions in order to survive. The media campaign was curtailed because its effectiveness was reduced with the country heading towards anarchy. The company decided to choose and train rural youth on solar technology and give them an opportunity to promote and sell for commission in their own areas. About 200 youths were trained in a series of symposia on PV technology, balance of system components (battery, electronics for lights and controllers), installing, trouble-

shooting, promoting and financing. They became the link to the village because it was difficult to travel to rural areas formally to promote business.

From a core group of individuals, who were essentially working as freelance corresponding agents, the company was able to sustain sufficient sales to survive through the troubled period. The corresponding agents continue to work with area dealers, who purchase the PV modules from the company. The agents earn a commission from the dealer and from Power & Sun for sales. Through the corresponding agents the company was also able to keep in touch with the users (Figure 2).

At the initial stages, many user problems were revealed through the agents. It was found that the ‘Prashakti’ users who had merely linked the new PV module to the existing old battery, along with the use of inefficient 12-V lamps taking a high current, contributed to significant power losses in the system. It was not surprising that many systems failed in a matter of months. On the other hand, systems of former kerosene users failed less often because they purchased a new battery and wiring was done on a more systematic basis. This prompted the company to lay more of an emphasis on the after-sales service area. In fact, in time, the after-sales area was found to be a very crucial aspect of this business. The company organized further formal technical training programmes for rurally based technicians and developed acceptable wiring methods and standards for components. The company now markets standard lighting kits using 18-, 35- and 50-W PV modules.*

In the meantime, the company has developed its capability to market larger institutional systems. Systems

Figure 2. A village-based demonstration and youth training programme held at a community temple in Matugama, Sri Lanka. The temple’s electricity comes from a demonstration photovoltaic system provided by the Solar Power and Light Company (formerly Power & Sun), which was partly financed by the community through a fund-raising

event held that evening


for coastline lighting, telecommunications and larger Sarvodaya Shrarnadana Society Programme lighting units have been sold mostly to government institutions. Another market for back-up systems for urban homes and business has been developed where AC systems are used with inverters. Power and Sun also has an agreement with BP Solar Australia to manufacture BP modules for Sri Lankan consumption, providing about 2000 PV modules for B P s projects and about 200 modules for Sunpower Systems Ltd., BPs local agent. ’

The quest to find the ideal methodology to market to the rural masses continues. Power & Sun in the meantime has been reconstituted with a new financial investment and will be called Solar Power & Light Company Limited.

NON-COVERNMENTA L ORCANIZA TlONS

SoLanka Associates

The first non-government organization (NGO) dedicated to the promotion of solar PV was established in Sri Lanka in 1991 by Priyantha Wijesooriya, a holder of a Masters degree in PV Electrical Engineering from the University of Lowell in Massachusetts. Following the Richard Hansen SO-BASEC model in the Dominican Republic, SoLanka embarked on its pilot project using seed funds from the Solar Electric Light Fund (SELF) of Washington, DC under the guidance of Neville Williams. Like the SO-BASEC programme, the project established a solar cooperative in a remote coastal village called Morapathawa in the northwestern province. Initially, 44 systems were installed and the cooperative has already expanded the seed fund to purchase 20 more units through repayments. A total of 100 homes exist in the village. In addition, another project was started in Galgamuwa in the same province using Rotary Inter- national funds. Here, about 20 systems have been installed so far.’

SoLanka has taken the initiative to set up its own village-level facility to manufacture 12-V lamps and charge indicators-the ultimate form of technology transfer. Power & Sun who provided the systems also trained several technicians, who have now become self-sufficient. To supplement the seed funds in these areas. SoLanka has now negotiated to use funds from the People’s Bank, a local commercial bank that has a solar energy loan scheme. SoLanka will guarantee the loan on behalf of the user to the People’s Bank. This ‘grass roots’ method seems an ideal way of promoting solar photovoltaics in the developing world. Also, the fact that all the responsibility is passed on to the community leaves people to manage themselves effectively.

Sarvodaya is Sri Lanka’s largest NGO (active in 8600 villages) and was established 35 years ago by Dr A. T. Ariyaratne. ‘Sarvodaya’ means ‘active participation by everybody for the common good’ and it is an organization that helps people to help themselves.

The Washington-based SELF using Alton Jones Foundations funds collaborated with Sarvodaya to launch the first phase of an islandwide ‘Solar Intro- duction Project’. One hundred solar PV systems were installed in rural Sarvodaya offices, community centres and religious centres to serve as a demonstration to the communities. A 1-week comprehensive training programme was provided by Power & Sun to 16 Sarvodaya technicians who installed the 100 systems as their practical experience. Power & Sun also provided the hardware for the programme.’

The second phase is now under way, in which SELF‘S seed funds are used to sell 250 systems in the same areas where the 100 demonstration systems were installed. Sarvodaya’s highly effective rural credit programme has been adapted to sell the solar PV units and about 75 systems have been installed in the southern and northwestern provinces. According to Sarvodaya officials the demand is very high, which is due especially to the favourable credit scheme. Sarvodaya, which administers many other rural credit programmes for agriculture and house building, will continue to look for more funds to continue the solar PV programme.

GOVERNMENT PROGRAMMES

Apart from the work that the CEB and the Ministry of Energy Conservation has done to promote photovoltaics, the government through the National Housing Development Authority (NHDA) has done some significant projects, the Pansiyagama and the Uva Projects being among them.

Punsiyuguma project

This project was the result of a proposal from Sunpower Systems in 1987 to commence a pilot programme to provide PV systems to loo0 homes in the northwestern provinces, Kurunegala district. Pansiyagama, the 500th village to be included under the late President Prema- dasa’s village re-awakening programme, was chosen because it had a dispersed population. After the Sri Lankan government’s approval, the Australian government provided a total soft loan/grant of US$1.5 million for the project. BP Solar Australia was the principal contractor, the sub-contractors were Sunpower Systems for installation/commissioning and Power & Sun for the

314 L . GUNARATNE

manufacture of BP solar PV modules and the NHDA was the government’s implementing agency.’

All 1000 systems were installed by May 1991. Four types of BP Solar lighting systems were installed, two for AC power loads with a central lighting inverters and two for DC power loads. The users in the area were chosen by the NHDA on a random basis after applications were received. The systems that cost around Rs.40000 (US$lO00) were given with a subsidy through a favourable instalment payment method where the users made a downpayment of Rs.600 ( U S l 5 ) and paid Rs.lOO (US$2.50) per month for 20 years (equal to the monthly kerosene expen~e).~.’

As a ‘top down’ pilot project, this project encountered its own set of problem^.'^ The sophisticated central lighting inverter, thought to be over-engineered for the project, initially malfunctioned in a small percentage of the systems. Many other problems with lights and batteries also occurred during the initial period. However, most of the technical problems were subtle and could not be anticipated. The problems were initially attended to by the crew of Sunpower Systems, who later became overwhelmed as the initial technical problems gave rise to socially related issues. The technical problems provided the users with an excuse for not paying the monthly instalment. As other users found ways of not paying, many began to lodge complaints, at times false, of malfunctioning systems. This growing problematic situation meant that the ground-level technicians did not take the complaints seriously. Eventually, the entire project was receiving negative publicity, even in the news media.

Power & Sun as a commercial company marketing solar PV systems, was gravely affected by the bad publicity. At that time, Power & Sun offered their services to attempt to maintain the systems, as it already had its ongoing after-sales programme. As all parties agreed that a solution was important, Power & Sun was signed on temporarily from January 1992 to July 1992 as the maintenance contractor for Pansiyagama. Initially, through a systematic programme, a five-man uniformed crew began to win the confidence of the users. The team first embarked on a public relations campaign by organizing a series of user meetings where people were given an opportunity to voice their opinions. It was apparent that the expectations from the systems were very high. For instance, when the BP charge controller shut the system down in order to save the battery from over-discharging, this was looked upon as a failure of the system. In this event, the users were left in the dark until a technician was located to reset the unit, further compounding the problem. Clearly, people over-used the systems because they were not trained in how to manage them.

In the following months the crew systematically visited all the 1000 homes, fixing minor problems

such as shading of the PV module and, with the assistance of BP Solar Australia and Sunpower Systems, fixing the controller and battery problems. With effort, the repayments for the systems were raised from 20% in January 1992 to 80% in July 1992. After the contract ended, there has been no maintenance programme from August 1992 to date. The repayments were then reduced once again, owing to the lack of follow-up and collection, and in July 1993 Power & Sun signed a long-term contract with NHDA to maintain systems in Pansi- yagama on a long-term basis. Work began in September 1993.

Although this project has been controversial and has even given solar power a bad name, a lot of valuable lessons have been learned by all the parties involved. It is clear that ‘top down’ government projects for domestic solar electrification should not be done without total ‘grass roots’ involvement. It also shows that systems must not be given away at highly subsidized prices because the value of the concept diminishes. In this case, the making the monthly payment equivalent to the kerosene cost did not impress upon the people the added value of such a system. It also made it difficult for a commercially marketing company to sell systems at normal prices in the surrounding areas. Overall, in the author’s opinion the project is a success. Success can only be measured by judging user satisfaction, and user satisfaction is judged by repayment of the loan. The author is confident that the repayments will increase to July 1992 levels once the formal maintenance programme has been in operation for a short time.

The author visited the area prior to Power & Sun signing the maintenance contract and found that the users had matured vis-a-vis the use of their solar PV systems. An absence of any kind of organized maintenance for 1 year did not see a breakdown inQe systems. From the 20 users visited, all said that they were happy because they now understood how to get the maximum value out of their systems. The author also visited a householder who had moved to a new house and reinstalled the solar PV systems with the services of a local technician for a fee. This shows their self-reliance. Visiting non-users amongst the Pansiyagama users gave an indication that there is a high demand in the area and people are willing to pay commercial prices, as opposed to wanting the same subsidized finance scheme as before.

Uva infrastructure project

As a continuation of the Pansiyagama project, the Australian government provided a funding package of U S 6 0 million to instal 74 large-scale systems for rural hospitals, maternity clinics, doctors’ quarters, community centres and water supply schemes. The systems consisted of lights, water pumping and refrigeration for five hospitals, labour-room lighting, vaccine and normal

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS IN SRI LANKA

refrigerators for 12 maternity clinics, lighting for seven doctors’ quarters, lighting and colour TVs for 25 community centres, lighting and power to operate machinery for two vocational schools, lighting and TVs for 13 schools and temples and water pumps and tanks for 10 water supply schemes. BP Solar Australia was the principal contractor and Sunpower Systems installed and commissioned systems jointly with them. Power & Sun manufactured the 750 58-W BP Solar modules and, as with Pansiyagama, the NHDA was the government’s agency responsible for implementation of the p r ~ j e c t . ~

In February 1993 the project was completed and handed over to the Uva Provincial Council. The author attended the handing-over ceremony, which included a training session and a seminar organized by the NHDA, BP Solar Australia and Sunpower Systems. Each of the departments, such as the Health Authority, Water Resources Board and Education Authority of the Provincial Council, were present to take over the systems and learn about their operation. The programme also included a brainstorming session to ensure proper administration of the systems, which included allocation of budgets for maintenance and spares. This project now serves as a monumental example of how solar photovoltaics can meet the infrastructural needs of remote areas in developing countries.

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS AND ITS FUTURE IN SRI LANKA

It is clear that the majority of Sri Lanka’s population will remain without electric power for years to come. The high cost of generating and distributing grid power to Sri Lanka’s dispersed population will make decentralized renewable energy technologies such as solar photovoltaics es~ent ia I . ’~”~

Sri Lanka has come a long way with the use of solar photovoltaics. The first experiment at the UNEP project in Pattiyapola and numerous other projects, most of which have failed, have provided an opportunity for Sri Lanka to learn about how best to utilize the sun as an energy source. The lessons continue to be learned by both the private sector and the government authorities as to how best to meet the rural energy needs with decentralized solar PV systems. l Z

Solar photovoltaics, as such, is finally gaining recog- nition as a viable alternative. As a result, the Sri Lankan government’s Ministry of Power & Energy requested the World Bank to fund a 50000-home solar PV programme. The World Bank’s Asia Alternative Energy Unit has responded by sending a team to study how best to implement such a programme, which will essentially look at making finance schemes available to consumers through a line of credit to the Sri Lankan government.

315

REFERENCES

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

1 1 .

12.

13.

14.

M. Hankins, Solar Rural Electrijcation in the Developing World-Four Country Studies: Dominican Republic, Kenya, Sri Lanka and Zimbabwe. Solar Electric Light Fund, Washington, DC, 1993. Kenneth Abeywickrama Associates, National Devel- opment Bank-An Evaluation of the Market for Suntec Power Systems and Recommendations, 15 January 1991. Coopers & Lybrand, Study of the Market Potential for Photovoltaic (Solar Electric) Panels in Sri Lanka, Draft Report, October 1986. Marga Institute, The Pansiyagama Project: Socio Economic Impact of Solar Electrijcation, Draft Report, 1991. Australian International Development Assistance Bureau, Evaluation of the DIFF Supported, Pansi- yagama Photovoltaic Project in Sri Lanka, Final Report No. 15, Program Development and Review Branch, AIDAB, October 1992. L. Gunaratne and Viren Perera, ‘Using solar photovoltaics for domestic rural electrification; what has been done and what remains to be done’, Presented at Financing of Energy Services for Small-Scale Energy Users (Finesse) Workshop, Malaysia, October 1991. The Final Documents of the United Nations Con-

ference on New and Renewable Sources of Energy, Nairobi, Kenya, August 1981. K. K. Y. W. Perera, Energy Status of Sri Lanka Issues -Policy-Suggestions, Institute of Policy Studies, Colombo, Sri Lanka, March 1992. National Housing Development Authority, Solar Power Project-Uva Province, February 1983. The Sunday Observer, Sunpower Systems-Leading Supplier of Solar Energy in Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 4 July 1993. Natural Resources of Sri Lanka-Conditions and Trends, report prepared for the Natural Resources, Energy and Science Authority of Sri Lanka, 1991. L. Gunaratne and Viren Perera, ‘Photovoltaics enterpreneurship and Third World development: an insight into setting up a solar energy industry in Sri Lanka’, Proceedings of the 14th Annual Conference of the Solar Energy Society of Canada, Ottawa, Canada, June 1988. G. B. A. Fernando, Ministry of Power & Energy, Sri Lanka, personal interviews, 1992/93. L. Gunaratne, ‘Electricity for all by the year 2000: solar electricity and its role’, paper presented at Seminar on Electricity for All by the Year 2000, organized by the Association of Franco- Ceylonese Technologists, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 25 May 1992.

316 L. G W N A R A T N E

15. N. Williams, ‘Solar serendipity: photovoltaic rural electrification in Sri Lanka’, Sol. Today, 5(7), 22 (Nov-Dec 1991).

16. S. A. Abeysekera, M. Amaratunga, V. Ambalavarnan,

G. B. A. Fernando, P. Nagawela and D. S. R. Seneviratne, ‘Applications of solar energy in Sri Lanka’, Workshop on Applications of Solar Energy in South East Asia, AIT, Bangkok, February 1979.