South Asia's Gendered Wars on Terror

South Asia’s Gendered “Wars on Terror”

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PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2014. All RightsReserved. Under the terms of the l icence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in OxfordHandbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy).Subscriber: Oxford University Press - Master Gratis Access; date: 14 July 2014

Subject: PoliticalScience,InternationalRelations,ComparativePolitics

OnlinePublicationDate: Jul2014

DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199943494.013.007

SouthAsia’sGendered“WarsonTerror”SeemaKazi

OxfordHandbooksOnline

AbstractandKeywords

ThischapterfocusesonthegenderdimensionsofthewarsinfourSouthAsiancountries:Afghanistan,Pakistan,India,andSriLanka.Beginningwithacritiqueofnormativenotionsregarding“terror,”ithighlightstheintersectionbetweenanoverarchingUS-led“waronterror”intheSouthAsianregionanddomestic“warsofterror”wagedbypostcolonialstateswithinnationalborders.Theimpactofthesewarsonwomen’slivesineachnationalcontextisemphasized,asisthecriticaloverlapamongthegenderedglobal,regional,andlocalmilitaryprocessesintheregion.Women’ssecurityandjusticeconcernsarehighlighted,andwomen’sresistanceagainstwar,staterepression,andimpunityareexplored.Thechaptersuggestsgreaterengagementandmobilizationbywomenandfeministswithintheregionandbeyond,toensureajustandenduringresolutiontoSouthAsia’smultiple,albeitinterlinked,conflicts.

Keywords:Afghanistan,gender,impunity,India,Pakistan,postcolonialstates,SouthAsia,SriLanka,security,“terror,”“waronterror”

Introduction

TheconceptofSouthAsiaasadistinctgeographicandpoliticalentityisacontemporary,roughlysix-decade-oldconstruct,formalizedbytheadoptionoftheSouthAsianAssociationforRegionalCooperation(SAARC)CharterbytheheadsofstateofIndia,Pakistan,Bangladesh,SriLanka,Nepal,Bhutan,andMaldivesin1985.AlthoughAfghanistanisnotpartofSAARC,itiscentraltotheongoingwarsintheregionandisthereforeincludedinthisdiscussionwithIndia,Pakistan,andSriLanka.

“Terror”isagenerictermusuallyassociatedwithnonstategroups;theimplicitassumptionisthattherearedistinctandself-evidentgroupsof“terrorists”specializinginauniqueandsingularformofpolitics—“terrorism”(Tilly2004,6).Thisassumption,however,isincongruentwiththeempiricalreality.Nonstategroupsormovementshavenotalwaysusedterrorasaformofpoliticalmobilization,evenasstatesacrosstheworldhavepracticed“terror”onafargreaterandgraverscalethantheiradversaries.Adisproportionatefocusandemphasisonantistateterrorobscuresthefactthatthemajorformof“terror”intheworldtodayisthatperpetratedbystatesandtheirallies,andthatquantitatively,nonstateterrorpalesintorelativeinsignificancebycomparison(Sluka2000,1).Itisequallythecasethatciviliansaretheprimaryvictimsofviolencebetweenstatesandnonstates.Itisthereforeprudenttodiscardreductiveorpartialnotionsof“terror”infavorofacitizen-centricunderstandingoftheterm.Terrorinthisdiscussionisdefinedas“politicalviolencethattargetscivilians,independentofwhethertheactorisanon-statemovementorasovereignstate”(Falk2012,242).

Warsbetweenstatesandnonstateswithinnationalbordersexistedlongbeforetheriseoftransnational,nonstateterrorgroupsattheturnofthetwenty-firstcentury.TheattacksinNewYorkandWashington,D.C.,onSeptember11,2001,underminedtheideathatstatesecuritycouldbeachievedbysecuringnationalbordersthroughmilitarymeans.TheUS-ledpost-9/11“globalwaronterror”unfoldedinageopoliticalvacuum,withlittleoppositiontoUSdominance.Itencouragedothernation-statesintheworldtouse“terror”asanexcusetocrushanddiscreditlocalmovementsforself-determinationandenhancetheirownrepressivepowers.Unableand/orunwillingtocounterthe


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UnitedStates,SouthAsianstatesbackedtheUS-led“waragainstterror”inaregionwheretherewerealreadylocal“warsofterror”withinstateborders.

Thechapterthusidentifiestwodistinctdimensionsofthe“warsagainstterror”inSouthAsia:thefirstrelatestotheUS-led“waronterror”inAfghanistanandPakistan,andthesecondconcernsdomestic“warsofterror”withinindividualnation-states,whichinsomeinstanceswerepromptedandreinforcedbytheformer.Thisdistinctionismaintainedthroughoutthechapter.Theneteffectofbothtypesofwarhasbeentorenderwomenincreasinglysubjecttostateandnonstateviolenceandunabletoinfluencedomesticorforeignpolicy,evenastheywereinvokedasajustificationfortheUS-led“waronterror”(StabileandRentschler2005)intheregion.The“waronterror”inAfghanistanprecededthe“warsofterror”inPakistan,India,andSriLanka.Itisthereforeappropriatetobeginthediscussionwiththeformer.

Afghanistan:FromColdWarto“WaronTerror”

LyingwestoftheIndiansubcontinent,AfghanistanisaconfluenceofIndian,Greek,Persian,Turkish,andCentralAsiancultures.Itremainedneutralduringthetwoworldwars,duringwhichtimeitwasruledbyseveralmonarchswhoseattemptsatreformmetwithlimitedsuccess.Untilthe1970sitreceivedaidfromboththeSovietUnionandtheUnitedStates.Afghanistan’sneutralityendedwiththedeepeningoftheColdWarandaseriesofdomesticeconomicandpoliticalcrises.In1973agroupofmilitaryofficersdeposedthemonarch,KingZahirShah;Afghanistanwasproclaimedarepublicbyanewsetofrulers whoselinkswiththeSovietUnionresultedinthecountry’salignmentwiththelatter.Tostrengthenitsregionalinfluence,theSovietUnionsenttroopsintoAfghanistanin1979andinstalleditsprotégé,BabrakKarmal,aspresident.

TheSovietinterventiontransformedAfghanistanintoatragicColdWarbattleground. AconglomerationofarmedIslamistguerrillagroups,themujahideen(holywarriors),belongingtodifferentethnicitiesandgeographicalareas,drewtogethertowagejihad(holywar)againstSoviettroopsonAfghansoil.WithinweeksoftheSovietinvasion,theUnitedStateshaddecidedtoarmtheAfghanresistance. TherealobjectiveofUSsupportforthemujahideenwasnottohelptheAfghansorpromotedemocracy.Rather,asPresidentJimmyCarter’snationalsecurityadvisor,ZbigniewBrzezinski,explained,itwas“togivetheUSSRitsownVietnam”(Sidky2007,858).AfghanistanwastobecomethetextbookcaseofaproxywarduringtheColdWar.SupportfortheUS-backedmujahideenwaschanneledthroughPakistan’sintelligenceagency,theInter-ServicesIntelligence(ISI),withthewillingconsentofitsmilitarydictator,GeneralZia-ul-Haq.Afghanmujahideenthuscametobefunded,trained,andarmedbytheUnitedStatesandPakistan.

Duringthe1979–1989decade,largepartsofAfghanistanwerelaidtowastebyfightingbetweenmujahideenandSoviet-backedforcesontheonehand,andrivalmujahideenfactionsontheother.Thewargreatlydamagedthecountry’spolitical,economic,social,andculturalsystemsandinflictedgreatmiseryonAfghancitizens.ForAfghanwomen,theimpactwasparticularlysevereandunrelenting:

Yearsofwarhaveleftmanysubjectedtoanunusualkindofpain.Wiveshavehadtocopewithhusbandsandfathersleavingtheirfamiliestotakeuparms,invariablyformonthsatatime,sometimesforyears.Mothershavewatchedastheirteenagesonshavebeenforciblytakenawaytocombat.AndforliterallymillionsofAfghanwomen,warhasmeantaforcedmarchtosurvivalasrefugeesinforeignlands.Cutofffromtheirhomesandsolelyresponsibleforthecareoftheirchildren,theyhaveenduredanextraordinaryburden.

(ICRC1999,9)

DuringthetwentiethcenturyAfghanrulershadintroducedmodestgenderequalityreforms,includingtheopeningofgirls’schools,theendofgendersegregation,andwomen’srighttovote. ThesepolicieswerefurtheradvancedbyKingZahirShah,whodeclaredKabulUniversitycoeducationalandgovernmentsupportforvoluntaryremovaloftheveil.However,thebenefitsofthesesocialchangesaccruedlargelytourbanwomen;only8percentofthetotalfemalepopulationreceivedawagedincome.Yetdespitetheirrelativelysmallnumbers,women’sprofessionalenrollmentandparticipationinpubliclifeincreasedduringthe1970s,andbythetimeoftheSovietinvasionurbanAfghanwomenwerefairlyactiveinpubliclife(Ahmed-Ghosh2003).

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MikhailGorbachev’sacknowledgmentthatthewarinAfghanistancouldnotbewonprecededacompletewithdrawalofSoviettroopsfromAfghanistanin1989.TheUnitedStateshadprevailedovertheSovietUnioninAfghanistanusingalocalarmyofmujahideen.YetthesocialandpoliticalimpactsoftheUSadministration’sColdWar“victory”werenomorethanachimeraforAfghanwomen.UponseizingKabul,mujahideenfactionssoughttoIslamizethestatethroughanexplicitlygenderedagenda.Womenweredismissedfromjobsandforcedtoweartheveil,andrestrictionswereimposedonfemalemobilityandemployment:

Whereaspreviously70%ofteachers,almosthalfofcivilservantsand40%ofdoctorshadbeenwomen,theywerealtogetherbannedfrompaidemployment,includingtrade,andprohibitedfromleavingtheirhomeswithoutamahram(malerelative).Forwarwidowswhohadbecomethesolebreadwinnersoftheirfamilies,thismeantlevelsofdestitutionthatreducedmanytobeggingorprostitution.

(Kandiyoti2005,7)

Paradoxically,withthefallofKabulanditscommunistregime,thecommonpurposebindingthemujahideenalliancedissolved.Intheabsenceofunityamongrivalwarlordfactions, eachofwhichcarvedoutitsownlocalareaofdomination,amilitiaofPashtunIslamists,theTaliban, tookadvantageoftheensuingpoliticalvacuumtoemergeasapowerfulforceacrossthecountry.TheTalibanwereaproductofthesocialforcesunleashedbytheColdWarinAfghanistanandofconvergingPakistaniandSaudi interestsinthewakeofSovietandUSdisengagementfromtheregion.By1996theyhadoverrunthemujahideenalliance,capturedKabul,declaredAfghanistananIslamicEmirate,andimposedapuritanicalandpunitiveversionofIslamonAfghansociety.Lackingpublicsupport,theTalibanexercisedpowerandcontrolthroughfearandterror.Theirregimewascharacterizedbybrutalrepressionofwomen.

Womenandgirlswereforbiddentoattendschool,leavetheirhomeswithoutamaleescort,orworkoutsidethehome.FemaleeducationwasrestrictedtotheageofeightandconfinedtoQuranicknowledge.Thedresscodeoftheburqa(abody-lengthrobecoveringthefaceandbody,withonlyameshforseeingandbreathing)wasforciblyimposedonwomen;houseswithfemaleresidentswereforcedtobemarkedwithpaintedwindows;womenandmenweresegregatedintoseparatehospitals;femalemedicalworkerswerebannedfromworkinginpublichospitals;healthandhumanitarianassistancetogirlsandwomenwasdisallowed;andwomenwerebarredfrompubliclifeandspacealtogether.TheTaliban-createdDepartmentforthePropagationofVirtueandSuppressionofViceenforcedgendersegregation,transgressionsofwhichwerepunishedbypublicbeatings. ThetragedyofAfghanwomenundertheTalibanwassummedupinareportbyPhysiciansforHumanRights:

Kabulin1998[was]acityofbeggars—womenwhohadoncebeenteachersandnurses[were]nowmovinginthestreetslikeghostsundertheirenvelopingburqas,sellingeverypossessionandbeggingsoastofeedtheirchildren.Itisdifficulttofindanothergovernmentorwould-begovernmentintheworldthathasdeliberatelycreatedsuchpovertybyarbitrarilydeprivinghalfthepopulationunderitscontrolofjobs,schooling,mobility,andhealthcare.Suchrestrictionsareliterallylifethreateningtowomenandtotheirchildren.(1998,2–3)

Duringthe1990ssignificantquantitiesofarmsandweaponssuppliedbytheUSCentralIntelligenceAgency(CIA)wereliberallyappropriatedbyPakistan’smilitaryintelligenceagency,theISI.Pakistan’sstrategyofsupportingthemostpoliticallyconservativeandsociallyregressivefactionsofAfghanmujahideenasameansofmaintaininginfluenceinAfghanistanproduceddrovesofIslamistextremistswhoeithercollaboratedwithorjoinedAfghanTalibanforces.

In1996OsamabinLadenrelocatedtoAfghanistanfromSudan.Afterthe1998bombingsofUSembassiesinKenyaandTanzania—allegedlymastermindedbybinLaden—andthelaterrefusaloftheTalibantoturnhimover,theUnitedStatesembarkedonamilitaryoffensive(“OperationEnduringFreedom”)inAfghanistaninlate2001todestroyal-Qaeda bases.BinLadensurvivedtheUSoffensiveandwentontocollaboratewiththeISIinextendingtheIslamistcampaignbeyondPakistanintoIndian-administeredKashmir—aninterventionthatreinforcedtheIndia–PakistanrivalryoverKashmiranddrewbothstatesintoamilitaryandnuclearconfrontation.

OnSeptember11,2001,al-QaedalaunchedaseriesofcoordinatedattacksontheUnitedStatesinNewYorkCityandWashington,D.C.FourpassengerairlineswerehijackedandcrashedintotheWorldTradeCenter,thePentagon,andafieldinPennsylvania;almostthreethousandpeoplediedintheattacks.TheUSresponsetothe

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9/11attackscommencedinOctober2001withanaerialoffensiveagainstTalibanandal-QaedabasesinAfghanistan,togetherwithagroundinvasionincollaborationwiththeNorthernAlliance, withtheaimofdislodgingtheTalibanregimeandcreatinganalternativegovernmentthatwouldfacilitateUSaccesstoal-Qaedahideouts.

Priorto9/11thesituationofAfghanwomenhadnotbeenpartofglobaldiscourseonthewarinAfghanistan.Indeed,throughoutthe1990stherewaslittleinternationalconcernorsympathyforthesufferingofAfghanwomeninflictedbytwodecadesofwar.Itwasonlyinthewakeofthe9/11tragedyandtheretaliatoryUS-ledOperationEnduringFreedommilitaryoffensiveagainsttheTalibanandAl-QaedathatAfghanwomenappearedintheUSforeignpolicydiscourseandtheinternationalpublicimagination.

ThestatedjustificationfortheUScounteroffensivewasdemocracy,humanrights,andtherightsofAfghanwomen.OperationEnduringFreedomwasconstructedasamoralmissiontorescueAfghanwomenfromTalibantyranny.Usingtheexcuseofwomen’srightstowagewarinAfghanistanprovedtobeparticularlypowerfulandpersuasive,giventheTaliban’sbrutaltreatmentofwomen.ThisargumentalsodovetailedwithWesternliberalopinion,whereinwomen’soppression,theTaliban,andIslamicfundamentalismexemplifiedthedangerposedbyanenemytobothAmericancitizensandWesterncivilization.TherewasaccordinglyconsiderablepublicsympathyintheUnitedStatesfortheUS-ledoffensivetoupholdAfghanwomen’srights.AstatementbyLauraBush,wifeofex-presidentGeorgeW.Bush,exemplifiedtheinstrumentaluseofgenderinUSforeignpolicy:“BecauseofourrecentmilitarygainsinmuchofAfghanistan,womenarenolongerimprisonedintheirhomes….Thefightagainstterrorismisalsoafightfortherightsanddignityofwomen.”

Theburqa-cladAfghanwomanthusbecameajustificationandrallyingpointfordevastatingaerialassaultsagainstanenemythoughtdeservingofpreciselysuchtreatmentduetoitscrueltiesagainstwomen.TheimageoftheoppressedAfghanwomanandthefundamentalistTalibanwasasmuchpartofUSnationalsecuritydiscourseasitsself-declaredmoralandcivilizationalmissiontobringdemocracytoAfghanistan.CouchingOperationEnduringFreedominthelanguageofwomen’srightsalsohelpedobliterateandeffaceadecade(1979–1989)ofdevastationwreakedonapoorcountrybytheUS–SovietColdWarrivalry.ItalsomaskedthedubiousandopportunisticlocalalliancebetweentheUnitedStatesandmujahideenfactionsoftheerstwhileNorthernAlliance—anotoriouslymisogynistgroupcomprisingsoldierswhohadledcampaignsofrape,torture,andslaughterinAfghanistanbeforetheTalibantakeover.NorthernAlliancememberswerealsocomplicitintheabductionofyounggirlsandwomen,gangrapes,andmurders(Rahman2012,3).AmongthegroupsfavoredbytheUnitedStateswastheHizb-e-IslamifactionledbyGulbuddinHekmatyar —amanknownforthrowingacidonthefacesofwomenwhorefusedtoweartheveil;hisfactionreceivedasmuchas50percentofUSaid.

TheRevolutionaryAssociationoftheWomenofAfghanistan(RAWA)—awell-knownAfghanwomen’sorganization—underlinedthebitterironyoftheUS-ledcoalition’sselectiveuseoftheterm“terrorist”andwomen’ssecurityandjusticeconcerns:

Western-supportedwarlordsstillcontrolmuchofthecountry….[T]heyarenotregardedasterroristssincetheyworkaccordingtothedirectionsofthePentagonandWhiteHouse….ProminentwarlordssuchasAbdulRashidDostum[akeymemberoftheNorthernAlliance]andmanyothershavetheirownindependent“governments”indifferentregionsofAfghanistan…[and]areinvolvedintheabductionandrapingofgirls…andmanyothercrimes.Thelocalpoliceandjudiciaryarecomposedofpeopleappointedbythesewarlords.Thereforethereisnoimplementationoflaw,justiceandsecurityinsuchplaces;andourpeoplehavenodoortoknockforhelp.

(RAWA2009)

By2011therewere150,000troopsinAfghanistan.YetthecrisisofsecuritypersistedandwasexacerbatedwiththeadvanceoftheTalibaninareasthathadbeenpreviouslypeaceful.Therewasalsowidespreadpublicresentmentagainstadiscreditedgovernmenttaintedbycorruption,policeabuses,arbitraryarrestofcivilians,executions,torture,andaproliferationofcriminalgangs.CivilianscontinuedtopaythehighestpriceforAfghanistan’sdeficitofsecurityandgovernance:between16,725and19,013Afghancivilianswerekilledduringthe2001–2012period(WatsonInstitute2013).

ThiscrisisgreatlyimpactedAfghanwomen’saccesstohealthcare,education,employment,mobility,andpoliticalparticipation.In2012agroupofwomeninthecityofKandahartoldresearchersthattheirliveswerenotmuch

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differentthantheyhadbeenundertheTaliban:

ItisliketheTalibantimesforwomennow.Weareinthesamesituationasthen.Wecannotcomeoutofthehousetoearn…moneyorgetaneducation.Theonlydifferenceisthatourhonourwassafethenbutitisnotnow.Theemergenceofacriminalizedeconomyproducedadramaticincreaseinchild,forcedandearlymarriageofgirlsandwomenduetoincreasedfearsregardingthreatsofrapeandthepotentialthreatofforcedmarriagetomilitiacommanders.

(CortrightandWall2012,20–21)

InastatementtotheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncilin2002,Dr.SimaSamar,ministerforwomen’saffairs,highlightedthelinkbetweenageneralclimateofinsecuritycreatedbytheUS-led“waronterror”inAfghanistanandAfghanwomen’sparticipationinpoliticsandpubliclife:

Therightsofwomen,inparticular,areputatriskbytheabsenceofsecurity.WomencontinuetofearviolenceandtoworryabouttheimpositionofTaliban-likerestrictions.Unlessgreatersecurityisprovided,theinclusionofwomenintheloyajirga[tribalcouncil]maybeunderminedandthedistributionofidentificationcardstoenablewomen’sparticipationinfutureelectionsimperiled.WomeninAfghanistanarefinallybeginningtoseealittlelightafteraverylongdarkness.Butthegainsthathavebeenmadeinthepastfourmonthscouldeasilybelostunlesssecurityisgreatlyimproved.

Inthesameyear,inatraditionalAfghangrandtribalconference,theloyajirga,HamidKarzaiwaselectedpresident.Theelectionwasdominatedbyformerwarlordsandmarredbycomplaintsofinterferenceandnoninclusionofmarginalizedgroups.Dr.SimaSamarwasstrippedofherpostforopposingtheSharia. Astheonlyfemalememberoftheinterimadministration’scabinet,Dr.Samarprotestedagainsttheloyajirga’spatriarchalpolitics:“Thisisnotdemocracy;it’sarubberstamp”(Veit2002,8).

AUN-supportedconstitutionalloyajirgain2003ensuredthat20percentofrepresentativeswerewomeninthedeliberationsforformulatingadraftconstitution.Yetwomen’ssubstantiveparticipationwassubvertedbywarlorddominationandintimidation.MalalaiJoya—afemalecandidateandfoundingmemberoftheRevolutionaryAssociationoftheWomenofAfghanistan(RAWA)—wasprovidedspecialprotectionafterherpubliccriticismofAfghanwarlords.AnAfghannongovernmentalorganization(NGO),WomenforAfghanWomen(WAW),drewupabillofrightsforwomenforinclusionbytheConstitutionalCommission.Uponreleaseofthedraft,however,manyofwomen’sdemands,including,amongothers,therighttoequalitybeforethelawasmenandthereservationof25percentofseatsinthewolesijirga(lowerhouseofparliament),wereexcluded(Grenfell2004,22–25).

ThecreationofagovernmentthroughelectionscouldnotensurepoliticalstabilityinAfghanistan.TheKabulgovernmentwaswidelyperceivedasalliedwiththeUnitedStatesandthereforeillegitimate.Acombinationoffactors—weakcentralauthority;popularangeragainsttheWesternmilitarypresence;corruptionandadestroyedeconomy;increasedtensionswithPakistanoverallegedal-QaedacampsalongthePakistan–Afghanistanborder;frequentairstrikesbytheUnitedStatesagainstallegedTalibanandal-QaedatargetsonAfghanterritory;increasedciviliancasualtiesduringsuchoffensives;andnumerous,oftenbloodyskirmishesbetweenWesternforcesandTalibanmilitantsthroughout2004–2009—contributedtoaclimateofinsecurity,instability,andsocialchaosacrossthecountry.

Thegravesecuritysituationimpededwomen’sparticipationinpubliclife.Womencontestedthepresidentialandprovincialcouncilelections,yetduetotheescalatingviolence,femalevoterturnoutwaslow,withreducedwomen’sparticipationascandidatesforprovincialcouncilelections.Women’spresenceinthecivilservicesregisteredamodestincrease(from22percentin2006to25percentin2011),whilewomen’spresenceinthejudicial(4.7percent)andsecurity(5percent)sectorswasminimal.In2012therewere1,300femalepoliceofficersinaforcewithmorethan143,000members(CortrightandWall2012,15).

ThenewconstitutionofAfghanistan,drawnupin2004,guaranteedgenderequalityandwomen’srighttovote;25percentofseatsinthewolesijirga(lowerhouse)werereservedforwomen,andaseparateMinistryofWomen’sAffairs(MOWA)wascreated.Importantasthesegainswere,theydidnottranslateintosubstantivechangeforAfghanwomen.TheAfghanParliamentcomprisedanumberofreactionary,conservativeelementshostiletowomen’srights;femalemembersofparliamentlackeddecision-makingpower;andthefewwomeninparliament

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andthecabinetwerefrequentlyalignedwithwarlords(CortrightandWall2012,10).ThecontradictionbetweentheAfghangovernment’sstatedpolicyandactualpracticeregardingwomen’srightswasapparentonthedayofthesigningoftheUNConventionontheEliminationofAllFormsofDiscriminationagainstWomen(CEDAW)intolaw.OnthatdaytheKarzaigovernmentalsosignedablatantlydiscriminatoryShiitefamilylaw. Womenwhoprotestedagainstthelegislationweredeemedun-IslamicanddenouncedasWesternagentsandprostitutes(CortrightandWall2012,11).

Generallyspeaking,theUSadministration’sself-declaredmissionto“save”Afghanwomenachievedlittleinitsdiscreditedandunwinnable“waronterror”.ItsmilitaryinterventioninAfghanistanalsoservedtodiscreditthewomen’srightsargument,becauseitwaswidelyperceivedtobeassociatedwithWesterninterests.AfterthekillingofbinLadeninPakistanin2011,theUSadministrationannouncedanearlierthanscheduledwithdrawalofUSforcesfromAfghanistan.Atthetimeofwriting,USforceswerebeingwithdrawn,withprospectsofdirectpeacetalksamongthegovernmentinKabul,theUnitedStates,andtheTaliban.

ThepoliticalforcescreatedandcultivatedbytheCIA–ISImilitarystrategicallianceinAfghanistanduringthedecadeofthe1970s–1980sintersectedwithandreinforcedthosecreatedbyapost-9/11binLadenandal-QaedapresenceintheAfghanistan–Pakistanregion.Inanironictwist,theIslamistmilitantsnurturedbyPakistan’smilitaryintelligenceagency,theISI,asstrategicassetsinAfghanistanturnedtowagingwaragainstthePakistanistate.

Pakistan:WarWithoutEnd

Pakistan’sdescentintoviolenceandchaosinthetwenty-firstcenturyisrootedinthesameColdWarmachinationsthathadinflictedcollectivesufferingandmiseryonthepeopleofAfghanistan.Throughoutthe1979–1989decade,theUnitedStateschanneledaidtosomeofthemostchauvinistandmisogynistIslamistgroupsinPakistan,breedingviolence,extremism,anda“Kalashnikovculture”acrosstheAfghanistan–Pakistanborderlands(Riedel2008,33).DuringmuchthesameperiodGeneralZia-ul-Haq’smilitaryregime(1977–1988)transformedPakistanintoasiteandconduitforbankrollingCIA-backedmilitaryoperationsbymujahideenfightersinAfghanistan.

ThePakistanregime’scollaborationwiththeUnitedStatesinAfghanistanparalleledadomesticpolicyofIslamization.WomenborethebruntofanovertlygenderedIslamizationprogram:nonmaritalsexandadulterywerecriminalized,andthousandsofwomenaccusedof“honorcrimes”wereimprisoned.Womenwereunabletoseekredressthroughthecriminallaw,asvictimsofrapeandsexualabuseweredeemedguiltyofillicitsex,andthevalueofawoman’stestimonywasdeemedhalfthatofaman’s(Lau2007,1296).TheselawsformedpartofalargerIslamizationagendathatincludedanantiblasphemylawwithamandatorydeathpenaltyforanyonedefamingtheProphetMohammed;itwasroutinelymisusedagainstreligiousminoritiesbyextremistgroups(MRG2010).

StatepolicyofusingIslamtopromotemisogynistandsectarianagendaswastakenfurtherbytheISI,whosecultivationofmujahideengroupsincludingal-QaedatomaintaininfluenceinAfghanistanbredacultureofweapons,violence,andanarchyinPakistan’snorthwesternborderlandsadjoiningAfghanistanandaclimateofviolence,fear,andintolerancewithinthecountry.ThecoreidiomofbothGeneralZia-ul-Haqandthemujahideenwasreligion.WhiletheformerhadusedSharialawtoIslamizePakistanduringthe1980s,theTalibanandalliedIslamistgroupsadvancedavariationofthesameagendaduringthe1990sthroughindiscriminateviolenceandterror.

Pakistan’scorruptanddiscreditedciviliangovernments(BenazirBhutto,1988–1990,1993–1996;NawazSharif,1990–1993,1997–1999),togetherwiththecontinueddominanceofthemilitaryanditscollaborationwithIslamistgroups,weakenedtheauthorityofthePakistanistateanditscapacitytoimposelawandorder.In1999GeneralPervezMusharrafseizedpowerthroughamilitarycoupd’état.Inthewakeof9/11andtheUS-led“waronterror”againstbinLadenandal-QaedainAfghanistan,PakistanonceagainbecameacloseandcrucialUSally.GeneralMusharraf’sdomesticandforeignpolicieswereatoddswithhispubliccommitmenttoclampdownonextremistgroupsinPakistan:violencebyIslamistgroupscontinued,andTalibanandal-Qaedafugitivesremainedelusive(Mir2009,383–384).Musharraf’slackofapopularmandate,hisfixingofelections,andattacksagainstPakistan’sinstitutions—especiallythejudiciary—andthemilitary’scontinuedpatronageofIslamistextremistgroupsunderhiscommandfurthererodedthefalteringintegrityandauthorityofthestate(LevyandScott-Clarke2007).

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PakistanwasostensiblycommittedtotheUS-ledpost-9/11“waronterror”intheregion.Yetitsinternalcontradictionsimpededanymeaningfulprogresstowardeliminatingthedomesticrootsofthisterror.Forpreciselythisreason,ademocraticallyelectedciviliangovernmentin2009possessedthemandate,yetlackedthepowerorauthority,tocontainIslamistterror.Thestate’scapacitytogovern,eliminateinternalthreats,orprotectcitizen’srights,especiallythoseofwomenandreligiousminorities,wasdangerouslyundermined.Islamistgroupssteppeduptheirwaragainstthestate,heighteningthedriftandchaoswithinPakistan.In2010aspateofkillingsofreligiousminoritiesbytheTalibanwentunpunishedevenasitsperpetrators“congratulatedPakistanisfortheattacks,callingpeoplefromtheAhmediyyaandShiacommunities‘theenemiesofIslamandcommonpeople’andurgingPakistanistotakethe‘initiative’andkilleverysuchpersoninrange”(HumanRightsWatch2010).

Moreominously,therewasincreasingevidenceoflinksamongthePakistanimilitary,itsintelligenceagency(theISI),andIslamistmilitants. UnderinternationalpressuretocurtailtheactivitiesofPakistan-basedIslamistmilitantgroupsinAfghanistanandIndian-administeredKashmir, IslamistmilitancyrelocatedtoPakistan’sfar-flungtribalareasadjoiningAfghanistantoperpetrateattacksagainstthestate.Thisplacedthemilitary—theprincipalpatronofIslamistterrorinPakistan—intheparadoxicalpositionofhavingtowagewaragainsttheveryconstituencyithadsupportedfordecades.

UnderassaultfromTalibanforcessince2007,theSwatValleyinnorthwesternPakistanadjoiningAfghanistanfelltotheTalibanin2009.AgenderedparalleladministrationwasswiftlyestablishedbytheTaliban,withprohibitionsagainstwomen’spresenceinmarketsandotherpublicplaces. TheTalibandestroyedapproximatelytwohundredgirls’schools,bannedfemaleeducation,andimposedSharialaw. ThewarintheSwatValleyhadaprofoundeffectonwomen,whereadeeplycompromisedandweakenedPakistanistatecededitssovereigntytoIslamistsandwasnolongerinapositiontoprotectwomen’srights.

AccordingtoPakistan’sNationalCommissionontheStatusofWomen,womenfactoryworkersinMingora,Swat’smaintown,wereunabletoreturntowork.AwomanfromSwatdescribedthegenderedfalloutofthesecuritydeficitcreatedbyPakistan’sdomesticwarofterror:“‘WeworrytheTalibanwillreturnandthepersecutionwillstartagain.Ineveryneighbourhoodtherearepeoplewhoarelinkedtothemilitantsandwhokeepaneyeontheactivitiesofuswomen,’saidSumiraBibi,20,whoworksatacosmeticsfactoryinMingora”(IRIN2010a).Women’spremonitionsinSwatwereeerilyprescient:theTalibanpresenceandassaultagainstwomencontinued.Talibanmilitantsgunneddownayounggirl,MalalaYousafzai,inSwatforendorsinggirls’education. BythetimethePakistanimilitaryretookSwat,thewarhadcreatedtensofthousandsofrefugeesandahumanitariantragedy.

UnderpressurefromtheUnitedStates,thePakistanimilitarylaunchedoffensivesintheremote,mountainous,andsociallyconservativeareasofNorthandSouthWaziristan,whichhadbecomeTaliban andal-Qaeda havensafter9/11andtheUScounteroffensiveinAfghanistan;militantsfleeingtheUSassaulthadcrossedthebordertotakeshelterinWaziristan’smountainousterrain.FacingstiffresistanceandunabletooverwhelmTalibanforcesinWaziristan,themilitaryenteredintoahastyandtemporarypeaceagreementwiththelatter,whichworkedtotheiradvantage.InSouthWaziristanTalibandecreesenforcedagenderedregime,includingadresscodeforwomen.AlocalresidentofMiramshah,NorthWaziristan’smaintown,describedthestricturesagainstwomenbytheTaliban:

Tribesmenwereinformedthroughmosqueloudspeakers…thatnowomanwouldbeallowedtoleavehomeandcastavote….[P]amphletswerehandedoutinMiramshahwarningtribesmennottoletwomenvoteinthegeneralelections,threateningpunishmentforthosewhodid.“Takeourwords,thiskindofdisgracefulactwillnotbetoleratedandanyoneinfluencingwomentocastavotewillbepunished,”saidthepamphlet,signedby“mujahideen”andthrownfromvehiclesintoshops.

(Al-Arabiya2013)

Women’srightsworkersfacedever-presentdanger,especiallyintheAfghanistan–Pakistanborderlands,whereideologiesnurturedduringtheColdWarandfortifiedbyapost-9/11“waronterror”andISI-backedIslamizationcontinuedtoextractadeadlypricefromwomen:

FaridaAfridi,a25-year-oldwomanworkingforTribalNGOsConsortiumintheKhyberAgencywasshotdeadbymilitantswhileonherwaytowork.“ThemilitantsarelabellingtheNGOs,especiallywherewomenareworking,asspreadingobscenitiesandvulgarities,”saidatribalelderintheregion,who

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spokeanonymouslyforfearofbeingtargetedforhiscommentsandfortalkingtoafemalejournalist.

(Langevine2012)

By2011thedeadlyportentsofIslamistterrorhadseepedintoPakistan’sPunjabheartland.ThegovernorofPunjabwasmurderedforcriticizingthemisuseofablasphemylawagainstreligiousminorities.Pakistan’sonlyChristiancabinetmember,ShahbazBhatti,metwiththesamefate.Ahmadis,Christians,Hindus,andShias,aswellasmoderateSunnis,weretargetedbyIslamistgroups. Suicidebombings,killings,andassassinationsbyTalibanandal-Qaeda-alliedgroupstargetedallsectionsofPakistanisociety,includingjournalists.

Pakistan’s“waronterror”hadtheeffectofheighteninginstabilityandreinforcingolderconflicts.Baluchistan—Pakistan’spoorest,albeitmineral-richprovince—turnedintoastrategicTalibanbase andahideoutfortheQuettashura,aTalibanwarcouncilheadedbyMullahOmar,anAfghanwarveteranleadingmilitaryoperationsagainstWesterntroops.TheanarchycreatedbytheTalibanincursionintoBaluchistanreignitedolderfaultlinesofconflict:anongoingBaluchiantistatemovementforself-determinationmorphedintodeadlyattacksagainstnon-Baluchicivilians.During2008–2010ethnicandreligiousminority(PunjabiandShiite)teachersweremurderedbyBaluchinationalistsinaretaliatoryresponseagainstthePakistanistateforabusesbyitssecurityforces(HumanRightsWatch2010).

TherewasanadditionalgenderdimensiontotheUS–Pakistanjoint“waronterror.”DuringtheruleofGeneralPervezMusharraftherewasadramaticincreaseinthedisappearanceofterrorsuspects.Womenformedassociationstodemandaccountabilityfortheir“disappeared”malekin.Oneofthewomen,AmnaMasoodJanjua,hastriedinvaintolocateherhusband,whodisappearedmysteriouslyfromabusstationintheirhometownofRawalpindiinJuly2005.Shebelievesherhusband,aschoolprincipalandbusinessman,isoneofthehundredsofpeoplewhohavebeendetainedwithoutchargebyPakistan’sintelligenceagenciesinthestate’swaragainstmilitantorganizationsandhavenotbeenseensince(Masood2009).AUSsecurityofficialconfirmedthatthedisappearancesintheimmediateaftermathofthe9/11attackswereanoutcomeof

theclosecooperationwithPakistaninthefightagainstterrorism,andthat“Pakistanhadhandedoverterrorsuspectstous.”TheallegationsofwomenlikeMrs.Masood“wouldn’tsurpriseme,”theofficialsaid,stressinghoweverthattheywereunproven.Inoverfiveyears,Mrs.Masood’sgroupregistered1,030disappearances.“Somehadbeentakenbypoliceandplainclothesmenforquestioningandnevercameback,”Mrs.Masoodsaid.“Othersjustmysteriouslydisappeared,likemyhusband—laterwefoundoutthattheyhadbeenarrested.”Ninety-ninepercentaremen.

(Mekhennet2012)

TheinstabilityandinsecuritygeneratedbytheUS–PakistancollaborationduringtheColdWarandpost-9/11“waronterror”createdaclimateinwhichwomenweresubjecttohighlevelsofviolenceandkillingacrossthecountry.Inits2009report,TheHumanRightsCommissionofPakistanreported1,384murders,928rapes,and604“honorkillings”ofwomen.In2012therewasa7percentincreaseinviolenceagainstwomen(TheNation2012).NeitherciviliangovernmentsnorPakistan’spowerfulmilitaryhasbeenabletocontrolthegamutofIslamistforcesproducedbybothwars.Indeed,themilitaryisitselfgreatlycompromisedbycolludingwiththeveryforcesitwassubsequentlybattlingtosubdue.Ontheotherhand,USpolicytopromote“democracy”inPakistanisatoddswithitsclosecollaborationwithmilitaryregimesinthecountry,itscomplicityinarbitraryandillegaldetentions,anddronestrikesintheremotenorthwesternregionthatpromoteacultureofimpunityandincreaseIslamizationoflocalpopulationsintheregion.AnewdemocraticallyelectedgovernmentheadedbythePakistanMuslimLeague(PML)wassworninafterelectionsin2013.Whetherithasthecapacity,competence,orwilltostemthetideofviolenceandextremismacrossPakistanremainstobeseen.

India:DemocracyatWar

DemocracyismodernIndia’ssingularandmostenduringachievementinaSouthAsianregioncharacterizedbywar,militaryintervention,andauthoritarianrule.Indiahascontinuedtobeafunctioningdemocracy,yetithassimultaneouslywitnessedincreasingpoliticalviolenceandadeepeningcrisisofgovernabilityoverthedecades(Kohli1990).Thepostindependencesecular-nationalistconsensusraisedhopesforastable,secular,and

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democraticIndia.However,withinthefirsttwodecades(1947–1967)ofindependence,theorderandstabilityprovidedbyapan-IndiaCongressPartyhaderoded,togetherwithadeclineintheoveralllegitimacyofthepoliticalsystem.

OnemajordimensionofthecrisishasbeentheIndianstate’sfailuretoaccommodatetheaspirationsofethnicminoritiesandtheconsequentemergenceofanumberofsecessionistmovementsinthenortheasternregion,wheredemandsforgreaterautonomyorself-determinationweremetbymilitarilybackedrepression.Thestate’sresorttoextralegalmeanstoaddresspoliticalgrievanceresultedintheriseofextremist/militantgroups,whosetargetingofstatesecurityforcesrationalizedeverhigherlevelsofrepressionagainstciviliansandself-perpetuatingcyclesofviolenceandabuse.Linksbetweenlocalmilitantgroupsandsympatheticcross-nationalconstituenciesreinforcedastate-centricdiscourseof“terror”thatsoughttodiscreditanddelegitimizelocalpopularresistancepreciselyonthiscount.Presentlymorethanfifty-sixmillioncitizensineightstatesacrossIndia(seetable1)livedailyunderpatentlyundemocraticandextraordinarilyrepressiveconditionsevenasIndiais,simultaneously,theworld’slargestdemocracy.

Table1:StatesandPopulationundertheArmedForcesSpecialPowersAct(AFSPA)

StatesinIndiaundertheAFSPA StatePopulation

Assam 31,169,272

Manipur 2,721,756

Meghalaya 2,964,007

Mizoram 1,091,014

Nagaland 1,980,602

Tripura 3,671,032

ArunachalPradesh(TirapandChanglangdistricts)

259,949

JammuandKashmir 12,548,926

TOTAL 56,406,558

Source:PopulationCensusofIndia(2011).

India’sdomesticconflictshavenotbeenaccordedtheinternationalattentiontheydeserve.TheIndianstatedoesnotacknowledgetheexistenceofdomesticarmedconflictforfearofaccordinglegitimacytoarmedgroups. Ithasemployedargumentsaroundsovereigntytodeflectcriticismregardingitshumanrightsrecordinconflictzones.TheempiricalcontextofconflictzonesinIndiaisbroadlysimilarintermsofapervasiveandintrusivesecuritypresence;repressivesecuritylegislation;andthesuspensionof,amongothers,therighttolife,therighttofreespeechandpeacefulassembly,therighttobefreeofinhumanordegradingtreatment,andtherighttoafairtrial.India’sparadoxofademocracyatwarissynonymouswithincreasedrelianceonthemilitaryasameansofassertingauthorityinthenortheasternregionandinKashmir:

Indiahasnotfoughtanywarinthepast25yearsbutitsarmedforcesremainthebusiestpeacetimearmyfightinginternalwars.Officialsrefusetoprovideexactforcedeployment.However,morethanone-thirdofthearmyisengagedinJammuandKashmirandthenorth-easternstates.

(Navlakha1997,299)

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Amongotherlaws,securitylegislationsuchastheArmedForcesSpecialPowersAct(AFSPA),inforceinallconflictzones,empowersthemilitarytosearchhomesandarrestcitizenswithoutwarrant,destroyhousesandvillages,andshootunarmedcivilianswiththeintenttokill.Soldiersandsecurityforcesareaccordedimmunityfromprosecutionforcommittinganyoftheseacts,evenascitizensinconflictzonesaredenieddemocraticrightsandcivilliberties—includingtheextraordinarydenialoftherighttolife.TheAFSPAviolatesthenonderogableprovisionsofinternationalhumanrightslaw,includingtherighttolifeandtherighttobefreefromarbitrarydeprivationofliberty,torture,andcruel,inhuman,ordegradingpunishment,asenshrinedintheInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights(ICCPR),towhichIndiaisasignatory.TheAFSPAalsoviolatesarticle21oftheconstitutionofIndia. RepressivelegislationsuchastheAFSPAallowsmilitaryforcestowagewaragainstrecalcitrantpopulationswithimpunity.AnAmnestyInternationalreportonthenortheasternstateofManipurcapturesthemethodologyoftheIndianstate’soffensiveagainstdomestic“terror”:

AhardlinecombingoperationlaunchedinAugust1987haskilledatleast14Manipurvillagers,torturedothersanddetainedmanymore;125houseshavebeenburnedanddismantled,[and]grainstores,vegetableplots,domesticgoods,andlivestocklooted.Womenhavebeensexuallyabused[and]beaten;norhavechildren(severaldozen)beenspared.

(Talwalker1991,89)

India’sdomesticconflictzonesaredeeplygendered.Reliableinformationregardingthenatureandscaleofviolenceandrepressionagainstwomenintheseregionsisnotavailable;forculturalreasonsmanyrapesgounacknowledgedandunreported.However,anincreasingbodyofevidencetestifiestothemultipleanddauntingchallengesfacedbywomeninIndia’sconflictzones:asvictimsandsurvivorsofdirectviolencebystateforcesandnonstategroups;widowsgrievingforthelossoftheirhusbands;femaleheadsofhousehold,burdenedwiththeresponsibilityofensuringtheeconomicsurvivaloftheirfamilies;orcitizensdemandingjusticeandaccountabilityfromthestateforthedeathordisappearanceoflovedones.Thetraumaoflosingkinmembersandthestressofwidowhoodandresponsibilityforthefamilyinflictmentaldisorders,depression,insomnia,andpoorphysicalhealthonwomen.Widowhoodaffectsnutritionlevelsbecauseitisoftenaccompaniedbypoverty,andaccesstohealthcareisespeciallydifficultinruralareas.Therearelargenumbersofyoungwomenandwidowswithverylittlehopeofformingamaritalrelationshipintheabsenceofeligiblemales(HumanRightsLawNetwork2010,34).

SexualviolenceagainstwomenhasbeenintegraltotheIndianstate’scounteroffensiveinconflictzones.ItisusedasaweaponofwartoinflictindividualandcollectivedishonoronethnicminoritiesunwillingtointegratewithintheIndianUnion.InthenortheasternstateofNagaland,forexample,inalettertoPrimeMinisterIndiraGandhidatedSeptember14,1971,KuhoviJimomicondemnedthesexualoffensiveoftheIndianArmyagainstgirlsinherstate,whichsheassertedwascondoned,ifnotactivelyendorsed,bythehighestexecutiveauthoritiesoftheIndianstate:

Hon’blePrimeMinister,

InthewakeofthebestialdebaucheryexhibitedbyofficersoftheIndianArmy,IsendherewithaprotestnotetotheGovernmentandpeopleofIndia.MassrapecommittedbyIndiantroopsagainstwomenresidentsofCheswezumion9-12-1970when18girlswereraped;9marriedgirlswereraped.TheanimalpassionoftheIndianarmypersonnelthatfelluponthefemalepopulationofMaoSongSongtownon24March1971….ThesexualdepravityoftheIndianarmypersonnelagainsttheNagagirlsisatacticalmoveoftheIndianarmyoffensiveinNagaland.IthasbeenwidelydemonstratedinallpartsofthecountryduringthesixteenyearsoftheIndo-Nagaconflict.ThereisglaringevidencethattheIndianArmyisconductingmilitarismandsexualdebaucherythroughunderhanddirectivesreceivedfromtheHighCommand.

(Desai1991,81–82)

Women’ssexualsubjugationbystateforceshasremainedunchangedfordecades.In2004inthenortheasternstateofManipur,ThangjamManoramaDeviwasarrestedatherhomeatnightandtakenintocustodybysoldiersoftheAssamRiflesonsuspicionoflinkstoseparatistmilitantgroups.Hercorpsewasfoundbyvillagersalittledistancefromherhome.Shehadbeenshotthroughthelowerhalfofherbody,raisingsuspicionthattheshooting

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hadbeenusedtohideevidenceofrape.TheAssamRifles(astate-supportedparamilitaryoutfitinIndia’snortheasternregionresponsibleforthekilling)claimedshehadbeenshotwhiletryingtoescape.AfterManorama’smurder,agroupofManipuriwomenprotestedbystrippingnakedinfrontofthemilitaryheadquartersatthestatecapital,Imphal,holdingabannerthatread,“IndianArmyRapeUs”(HumanRightsWatch2008,2–4).

Impunityforperpetratorsofviolenceagainstwomeninconflictzones,aself-servingpolicythatdeniestheexistenceofdomesticwarzonesandsupportsaprotectiveveneerofformaldemocracy,allowsIndia’sappallingrecordinitsconflictzonestogounquestioned.Justiceforcrimesagainstwomenbysecurityforcesisrarely,ifever,enforced.Nineyearsafterherdaughter’sdeath,

thefrailmotherofManoramaThangjam,whowasarrested,rapedandshotdeadallegedlybysomepersonnelof17AssamRiflesonJuly11,2004,[told]Ms.Manjooaboutthetragicdeathofthegirl[and]ferventlyappealedtoherforjustice.RashidaManjoo,U.N.SpecialRapporteuronviolenceagainstwomen,itscausesandconsequences,brokedownandweptforafewminutesuncontrollably…duringaconsultativemeetinghere.Itwasattendedbyabout200humanrightsdefenders,familiesofvictimsandcivilsocietyorganisations.

(Laithangbam2013)

Inanextraordinaryprotest,IromSharmilaChanu,awomanfromthenortheasternstateofManipur,hasbeenonahungerstrikeforthirteenyearstopressfortherevocationoftheAFSPA.ShewaspreventedfrommeetingRashidaManjooduringthelatter’svisittoManipur.

AmongalltherebellionsbyethnicminoritiesagainsttheIndianstate,therevoltinIndian-administeredKashmirwasdifferentbyvirtueofitsinternational/externaldimensions.Kashmir’srevolt(1989–1990)reignitedafesteringrivalrybetweenIndiaandPakistanovertheterritoryofKashmir.Kashmir’srevoltagainsttheIndianstateanditsdemandforself-determinationwasmetwithacounteroffensivebasedoncoerciverepression.SensinganopportunitytopindownarchrivalIndia,Pakistan’spolitical-militaryestablishmentdivertedaconglomerationofIslamistgroupsfromAfghanistanandPakistantofightIndianmilitaryforcesinKashmir.Pakistan’smilitaryinterventioninKashmirinflamedtheIndian–PakistanirivalryovertheterritoryevenasitprovidedtheIndianstatewithanopportunityto(mis)representtheKashmirimovementforself-determinationascross-border“terror”emanatingfromPakistan.Asaresult,thelong-standingpoliticaldisputebetweenthepeopleofKashmirandtheIndianstatethatwas,infact,thesourceoftherevolt,wascompletelyovershadowedbythemilitarizedandnuclearizedIndian–PakistanirivalryoverKashmir’sterritory.Intheaftermathof9/11andinternational,especiallyWestern,fearsregardingIslamistterror,itbecamerelativelyeasyforIndiatoclaimtobeavictimofPakistan-sponsored“terror”inKashmir.India’sself-servingofferof“unconditionalandunambiguous”(Puri2001,3805)supporttothepost-9/11US-led“waronterror”intheregionhelpedpaperoveritsownextraordinarilyrepressive“warofterror”inKashmir.

TheexperienceofKashmiriwomenundertheformidableantiterrorcounteroffensivebytheIndianstatewasnotverydifferentfromthatofwomeninNagalandorManipur.Indeed,Kashmirhasthedubiousdistinctionofhavingthehighestincidenceofsexualviolenceintheworld(MSF2006)—alittle-knownfactinternationally.RapeandsexualabuseofKashmiriMuslimwomenbyIndianstatesecurityforcesisfrequentandroutinelygoesun-investigatedandunpunished.AcaseinpointistheKashmirivillageofKunanPoshpora.InFebruary1991hundredsofIndiansoldiersarrivedatKunanPoshporaatnight.AccordingtoAmnestyInternational,themenfromthevillageweretakenfromtheirhomesduringthenightandinterrogatedandtorturedaboutmilitantactivity,whilelargenumbersofwomenandgirlsbetweenthirteenandeightyyearsofagewererapedatgunpointintheirhomes.ThereportquotedlocalmagistrateS.M.Yasin,whotestified:

Thearmedforceshadturnedviolentandbehavedlikebeasts.Villagerssaidthatlocalpolicehadnotpermittedthewomentobemedicallyexamined.Mr.Yasinrequestedaninquiryintotheincidentandpunishmentfortheculprits.ThestatecommissionerofKashmirsaidthatofficialsinDelhihaddeniedthechargeswithoutfirstcheckingwithKashmiriofficials.MembersofaKashmirihumanrightsdelegationweretoldthatthepoliceinvestigationorderedintotheincidenthadnotproceededbecausethepoliceofficerassignedtocarryouttheinvestigationwasonleave.

(AmnestyInternational1991)

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Officialresponsetosexualabusebystateforcesinconflictzoneshascenteredonsilence,denial,orobfuscationofevidence.UndertheAFSPA,enforcedinallconflictzones,legalimpunityforsexualviolenceimpedesinvestigationandprosecutionoftheperpetratorsandpreemptsjusticeforthevictims/survivors.TheIndianStatePartywasreprimandedbytheCEDAWCommitteeforitscontinuedtolerationofabusesbyitsarmedforcesinconflictzonesandwasurgedtoabolishtheAFSPA:

WhentheCommitteeontheEliminationofDiscriminationagainstWomenconsideredIndia’ssecondandthirdperiodicreportsin2007itnotedthegenderaspectoftheabusescreatedortoleratedbythecontinuedapplicationoftheArmedForcesSpecialPowersActinthedisturbedareasofIndia.IturgedtheIndianauthoritiestotakestepsto“abolishorreform”theActandto“ensurethatinvestigationandprosecutionofactsofviolenceagainstwomenbythemilitaryindisturbedareas[includingManipur]andduringdetentionandarrestisnotimpeded.”

(AsianHumanRightsCommission2011,15)

The“warsofterror”wagedbytheIndianstateagainstethnicminoritiesinthenortheastandinKashmirareindicativeofadeepandcorrosivepoliticalcrisiswherebyalldemandsforgreaterautonomyareconstruedasathreattothenation-state.Thosemakingsuchdemandsaredeemed“undeservingofrights”andaresubjecttorepressionwithimpunity.ThepoliticalcostsofIndia’sdomestic“warsofterror”arehigh;ethnicgrievancesandasenseofinjusticerundeep.Therationalizationofevergreaterlevelsofrepressionagainstdissidentpopulationsinconflictzones,includingsexualandotherformsofviolenceagainstwomen,reinforcespopulargrievancesandpreemptsthepossibilityofdemocraticandlegalconflictresolution.

SriLanka:StateofTotalWar

ThesituationinSriLankaisparticularlytragic,giventhecountry’spostindependencesocioeconomicachievements.Untilthe1970s,priortothebeginningoftheSinhalese–Tamilethnicconflict,SriLankawasadevelopingcountrymakingimpressiveprogress.Asubstantialsocialwelfareprogram,includinghealthandeducation,contributedtosignificantincreasesinwomen’slifeexpectancyrates,from41.6yearsin1946to74.2yearsinthe1990s,andinwomen’sliteracy,from67.3percentin1963to87.9percentin1994(Basu2005,6).Despitethewar,SriLankacontinuedtoregisterhigheconomicgrowthratesandsocialindicators;thecripplingeconomic,social,andphysicalcostsofwarwerelargelyconfinedtotheTamil-inhabitedareasofnorthernandeasternSriLanka,whichwitnessedsomeofthemostdestructiveandbrutalfightingduringtheclosingphaseofthewar.

TheSinhalesearethedominantethnicgroup,comprisingapproximately75percentoftheSriLankanpopulation.TheTamilminority residesinthenorthernandeasternpartsoftheisland.TamilsarepartoftheDravidianethnicgroupofpeninsularIndia,alsoregardedasthecommunity’sculturalhomeland.MuchlikeIndia’sdomesticwars,thewarinSriLankawasprecipitatedbytheaccumulationofpopulargrievancesinthewakeofinstitutionalizeddiscriminationagainsttheTamilethnicminority:

TheSinhala-OnlyActof1956,making…SinhalathesolelanguageaffectedtheadvancementofTamilsinpublicsectoremployment.[The]landdistributionpolicybythestatefacilitatedanincreaseinthenumbersofSinhalasettlersinareaspredominantlyoccupiedbyTamilsandMuslims.Accesstoresources,electoraloutcomesandpoliticalrepresentationforTamil-speakingpeopleswereallaffected.Thefrustrationatnon-violenteffortsbypost-independenceTamilpoliticalpartiestohavetheirgrievancesheardbySinhala-dominatedgovernments,andsubsequentlytosecureself-determinationthroughpeacefulmeans,ledtotheriseofmilitancyamongTamilyouthinthelate1970s.Eventsleadingtotheanti-TamilpogrominJuly983aredeemedtheofficialbeginningofthearmedethnicconflict.

(Tambiah2004,79)

Sinhalesenationalism,itsoppositiontoTamilmovesforpoliticaldecentralization,andtheprogressivedemiseofmoderateTamilgroups allowedtheLiberationTigersofTamilEelam(LTTE)toemergeasthesolerepresentativeofTamilaspirationsforself-determinationinthetraditionalTamilhomelandsofnorthernandeasternSriLanka.Both

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areastransformedintositesofwarandterrorastheLTTElauncheditsarmedstruggleagainsttheSriLankanstate.

WomenwereintegraltoLTTE’sideologyandagenda.In1983theLTTEestablishedawomen’swingwhosecadresincludedyounggirls.Intheearlyphaseofwomen’srecruitmentintotheLTTE,theywereengagedinpropaganda,surveillance,andmedicalandfund-raisingactivities.Subsequently,duetoashortageofpersonnel,womenwereincorporatedintoawell-organizedwomen’smilitarywingandgivencombatroles.TheywerealsopartoftheLTTE’ssuicidesquadsanditsnavalforce(Basu2005,9).AmritaBasuarguesthatfemalerecruitsjoinedtheLTTEbecausetheycouldrelateculturallytoitsgenderedappealsregardingsacrificeandnation(2005,10).Thismay,however,beonlyapartialexplanationinacontextinwhichinordinateattentionpaidtotheLTTEfemalesuicidebomberandthestereotypingoffemaleTamilresistancefightersbytheLTTEandtheSriLankanstatehaveimpededpublicdisseminationofinformationregardingthesubjectivelives,thesocioeconomicandeducationalfactors,aswellastheevents,politicalchoices,andconvictionsthatshapedanddrovewomen’sdecisionstojointheLTTE(DeMel2007,199).

TheeliminationofmoderateTamilgroupsbytheLTTEanditsestablishmentofadefactostateinnorthernandeasternSriLankaprecededaNorwegian-brokeredtwenty-monthcease-fire(2002)betweenLTTEandgovernmentforces.Repeatedcease-fireviolationsoccurredthroughout2006.Inthesameyearmilitaryoperationsinthenorthernandeasterndistricts promptedLTTEattacksagainstSriLankanforcesinbothregionsandaspateofsuicideattacksandbombingsintheSouth,includinginColombo,thecapital.TheLTTEalsoassassinatedTamilsaffiliatedwithotherpoliticalfactions, Tamildissidents, andMuslimandSinhalesecitizens(Tambiah2004,80).TheSriLankanstate’scounteroffensivecenteredonbombingandshellingTamilcivilianareasinthenorthandeast;attacksonTamilcivilians;andtheuseofterror,torture,disappearance,andrapeasweaponsofwar.

Thedestructionandruininflictedbydecadesofwarisevidentinthephysicaldesolationofthenorthernandeasternprovinces,wheremanytownsresembleEuropeancitiesaftertheSecondWorldWar(Sebastiann.d.).By2002itwasestimatedthatsome70,000peoplehadlosttheirlivesintheconflict;upto600,000peopleweredisplaced:75,000livingincampsinSriLankaforinternallydisplacedpeopleandapproximately500,000havingleftSriLanka(Alison2003,38).

ThecostsofthreedecadesofwarforwomeninSriLankahavebeengruesomeandchilling.SexualviolenceandabuseofTamilwomenbySriLankansecurityforceswasintegraltothestate’soffensiveagainsttheLTTE.ThepresenceofarmedfemaleLTTEcadresimpartedasexualizededgetotheanti-LTTEcounteroffensive.Therehasasyetbeennosubstantivestudyonsexualcrimesagainstwomenduringthewar,althoughagrowingbodyofevidencepointstothecomplicityofstateforcesinthewidespreadsexualabuseofTamilwomeninthenorthandeast.Women’saffiliationorlinkswiththeLTTEbecameajustificationforrapeandsexualabusebystateforces:

TheyaskedallsixofusifwehadanylinkswiththeLTTE.IdidnotwanttolieandgetcaughtsoItoldthemthatIhadworkedfortheLTTE.IwastakentoVeppankulamcampinVavuniya.IwasquestionedandtorturedbySriLankanarmypersonnelandsomewereinuniform.Iwasrapedmanytimes.Icannotrecallhowmanytimes.Iwaskeptindetentionfor15days.Finally,IagreedtosignpapersandadmitthatIwasafullmemberoftheLTTE.Ijustwantedtherapesandtorturetostop.

(HumanRightsWatch2013,1)

Rapewasalsousedasaninstrumenttoinstillfearandterror.UM,atwenty-five-yearoldwoman,wasdetainedatArunachalamcampaftershemanagedtofleethefightinginthenortherndistrictofMullivaikalduringthefinalweeksoftheconflictinApril2009.InhertestimonytoHumanRightsWatch,shenarratedherordeal:

TheyquestionedmeaboutmylinkswiththeLTTEandaskedaboutmyactivities.IsaidIwasforcedtoworkforLTTEanddidn’tknowanything.Theydidn’tbelieveme.Theybeatme,pulledmyhair,andbangedmyheadonawall.Theybeatmewiththeirhandsandkickedmewiththeirboots.Oneofthesoldierssaid,“Wewillteachyoualesson.”IlostconsciousnessthatdayandwhenIcameto,IrealizedIhadbeenraped.Thenmoresoldierscameandrapedme.Thiswentonformanydays.Ican’trememberhowmanytimesandhowmanysoldiersrapedme.

(HumanRightsWatch2013,1)

TheSriLankancivilwarendedafterclosetothreedecades,withtheSriLankangovernmentclaimingvictoryover

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LTTE“terror”in2009.CrediblechargesofwarcrimesandsexualviolencehavebeenconsistentlydeniedbySriLankanauthorities.OfficialinvestigationsbytheUNhowever,concludedthat

whileboththegovernmentandtheLTTEcommittedatrocitiesinthefinalmonthsofthewar,thegovernmentwasresponsibleforthemajorityofdeathsandallegationsofwarcrimeswerecredible.Some40,000civilianswerekilledinthefirstfivemonthsof2009.Familiesandcommunitiesweredestroyedbeyondrecognition.Inonesurveyofthewar-tornareas,80%ofwomenwereeitherwidowed,unmarried,divorcedorlivingseparatelyfromtheirhusbands.Amongthem,70%wereheadinghouseholdsandthemajorityhadnojobs.

(“WhattheWomenSay”2013,2)

ThespiralofsexualviolenceproducedbythewarpermeatedtheintersticesofSriLankansociety,leadingtoadramaticescalationinsexualviolenceagainstwomeninthewar-affectednorthernandeasterndistricts,withatleastfivereportedincidentsofrapeeveryday;bothregionsalsoreportedincreasesinsexworkandforcedmarriage(“WhattheWomenSay”2013,2).Thedestructionofthesocialfabric,togetherwiththegeneraldevastationofthewar,fueledincreasedalcoholismamongTamilmenanddomesticviolenceinTamilhouseholds;women’seducationandemploymentwereseverelycurtailed(InternationalCrisisGroup2011).EvenaftertheformalcessationofmilitaryhostilitiesandthedecimationoftheLTTE,thereislittleofficialconcernforhumansecurity,andwomenremainmarginalizedfromdecisionsregardingsecurity:“Whiletherearesomefemalecivilianofficialsandsomeprogramsnominallydirectedatwomen,allactivitiesoccurwithinamale,Sinhalesemilitarystructure.Thevisionofsecuritythegovernmenthaspursuedisamasculine,militarizedone”(ibid.).Inadditiontobeingunderstatesurveillanceandthreat,femalekinofthedead,disappeared,ordetainedaresubjecttosuspicionandhostilitybythelargercommunity.Forinstance,familiesofthosewhowerekilledordisappearedduring2006–2008feltstigmatizedandtargetedatthetimeandfearedtheywouldbeidentifiedasafamilythatsupportedtheLTTE.Thesefamilieswereshunnedbythecommunityduetofeartheywereunderarmysurveillance.Oftenwomenhavelittleknowledgeofthelegalsystemandhavethereforebeenunabletoseeklegalrecoursetopursuecasesofdisappearanceanddetentionofmalekin.Inaddition,fearofostracism,socialstigma,andretaliationbytheperpetratorsforcewomentokeepsilent.TheirordealisheightenedduetothecultureofimpunityenforcedthroughlegislationsuchasthePreventionofTerrorismAct(“WhattheWomenSay”2013).

Againstthebackdropofphysicalandeconomicdestruction,femalesurvivorsofwarhavelittlemeansofearninganindependentincome.Thekilling,detention,ordisappearanceofalargenumberofTamilmenhasinflictednewformsofvulnerabilityonTamilwomen.Economicallyunderprivilegedwomenlacktheresourcestotakecareoftheirfamiliesorofthoseinjuredormaimedinwar.Foreconomicallyunderprivilegedwomen,thedeath,disappearance,ordetentionofmalefamilymembersdeprivesthemoftheirmajorsourceofeconomicsupport.Therehasbeenariseinthenumberoffemale-headedhouseholds,withincreasingnumbersofwomenseekingeconomicopportunitiestosupporttheirfamilies.AccordingtothereportbyaUNagency:

FifteenmonthsaftertheendoffightingbetweenSriLankangovernmentforcesandtheTamilTigers,womeninthenortharetakingupanewandchallengingroleasbreadwinnerswithmoreandmorebecomingdaylabourerstosupporttheirfamilies.AsurveyconductedbytheJaffna-basedCentreforWomenandDevelopment,anon-profitgroup,revealedthatthenorthernregionhadapproximately40,000female-headedhouseholds.“Threefactorshavereducedthemale-headedhouseholdsinnumber:thewar,disappearancesorbeinginmilitarycustody,”saidSarojaSivachandran,thecentre’sdirector….Althoughup-to-datestatisticsarehardtocomebybecausemanypeopleremaindisplaced…governmentofficialssaythenorthernandeasternregionscombinedarehometosome89,000warwidows.

(IRIN2010b)

Emergencylawsputinplaceduringthewarhavebeenextended.Lawsunderwhichsuspectscanbearrestedandputindetentionwithouttrialandsecurityforcescancarryoutsearchoperationswithoutawarrantareusedagainstdissenters,includingSinhaleseoppositionpoliticiansandjournalists.TherehasbeenaconcentrationofpowerwithinthecurrentrulingRajapaksafamilysincetheendofthewar.Asaresult,thesuppressionoffreemediaandofcriticalcivilsocietyactivismisrelativelyeasy,asisimpunityforperpetratorsofviolenceandsexualabuseagainstwomen.TheSriLankanstate’sunwillingnesstoenditsmilitarypresenceandoperationsinTamil


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areasortodevolvepoweronprovincialandlocalinstitutionsensuresthepersistenceoftheverygrievancesthatproducedSriLanka’stragicanddevastatingwar.

Conclusion

Afghanistan,Pakistan,India,andSriLankasharearichethnicdiversity.However,postcolonialstatebuildinginIndiaandSriLankahasbeenpremisedontheforcedassimilationofpoliticalunitspeopledbyethnicminoritieswithinaunitaryconceptofthenation-state.Minoritieswhorejectintegrationhavebeensubjecttopunitiverepression,generatingpowerfulantistatemovementsandtheriseofmilitantgroupsopposedtothestate.India’sandSriLanka’sdomestic“warsofterror”originatedinthefailureofbothstatestohonor,craft,and/orimplementdemocraticpower-sharingagreementswithethnicminoritiesandasingularcontemptonthepartofbothstatesforthelegitimateclaimsofsuchminoritiestoself-governanceintheirtraditionalhomelands.The“legitimate”/stateterrorand“illegitimate”/nonstateterrorbinaryintheIndianandSriLankanstatenarrativeismisleadinganddivertspublicattentionawayfromthepoliticaloriginsofthesewars.Italsomaskstheuseofterroronagrandscalebybothstatesagainstnonstatemovementsforself-determination.

ThewarsofterrorinIndiaandSriLankainvolvedhighlevelsofviolenceandsexualabuseagainstwomen.AlthoughSriLanka’swaragainsttheLTTEhasended,thelackofpublicaccountabilityandthepersistenceofhighlymilitarizedpostwarsystemsofgovernanceinthenorthandeastofthecountryareinimicaltothehumansecurityordevelopmentinterestsofTamilwomen.Unlesswomen’sconcerns,vulnerabilities,andinterestsaretakenonboard,thereislittlepossibilityofanenduringorsustainablepeaceinSriLanka.India’srefusaltodeclaretheexistenceofdomesticwarzonesdenieswomenintheseareastheprotectionoftheGenevaConventions.Further,theIndianstate’spolicyofnegotiatingpoliticalconflictthroughmilitarymeans,itsenhancementoftherepressivepowersofthestate,itsdenialofcitizens’rightsandlibertiesinconflictzones,andtheimpunityprovidedtosecurityforcesguiltyofhumanrightsabusegreatlydiminishIndia’sclaimtodemocracy.

Incontrasttothe“warsonterror”inAfghanistanandPakistan,whichweretheoutcomeofarangeoffactors—theColdWar,dominanceofthemilitaryinpolitics,Islamization,andISIcollaborationwiththeUnitedStates—IndiaandSriLanka’sdomestic“warsofterror”werelegitimizedthroughinvocationsofsovereigntyandnationalsecurity.Paradoxically,both“democracies”haveretainedhighlymilitarizedandrepressivesystemsofgovernanceintheirrespectiveconflictzones,withfarhigherlevelsofsexualviolencethanintheirweakerandIslamistmilitancy-riddenneighbors(AfghanistanandPakistan).

TheoriginsofthewarsinAfghanistanandPakistanarerootedintheUS–PakistancollusionduringtheColdWarandthepost-9/11“waronterror”thatfosteredandstrengthenedextremistmilitantgroupsintheregion.RemnantsofolderAfghan-basedColdWarmujahideengroupsmergedwithnewerpost-9/11localandforeignIslamistmilitantgroupsinPakistan.ThesereconfiguredgroupscarriedoutcampaignsofterroragainstthePakistanistateinurbancitiesandremotemountainousareas,wagedwaragainstgovernmentandUSforcesinAfghanistan,andfoughtIndiantroopsinIndian-administeredKashmir.

TheUnitedStates,India,andAfghanistanclaimedtobefighting“warsonterror”againstPakistan-basedIslamistgroups.Yettheirdominantpatriarchal,state-centric,andsecurity-centricnarrativeeffacedthehistory(1979–1989)ofUS-ledviolenceandterrorinAfghanistanincollaborationwithamercenaryandmisogynistarmyoflocalwarlords;ignoredtheKashmiristruggleforself-determinationandtheIndianstate’styrannyinKashmir,whichinturnwasexploitedbyIslamistmilitantgroupsintheAfghanistan–Pakistanregion;andoverlookedthecollaborativeroleofsectionsofthePakistanistateincreatingandsupportingIslamistmilitantgroupsintheregion.EachofthesestrandsfueledtheparallelandintersectingwarsonandofterrorinSouthAsiathathavegeneratedextraordinarylevelsofmilitarizationacrosstheregion,reinforcedacultureofimpunity,createdgenderedformsofinsecurityandvulnerabilityforwomen,reinforcedgenderinequality,andgreatlyerodedinstitutionalmechanismsofjusticeandaccountability.

WomenhaveresistedandsurvivedtheoverarchingUS-led“waronterror”againstIslamistgroupsintheAfghanistan–Pakistanregion.AfghanwomensurvivedtheviolenceoftheUS–SovietColdWarconfrontationinAfghanistanandresistedtherestrictionsanddepredationsforcedonthembytheTaliban.DespitetheretreatoftheTalibanandtheemergenceofaciviliangovernment,Afghanistancontinuestoexperienceacripplingcrisisofsecurityandgovernance.Afghanwomenremainfarfromsecuringsubstantiverepresentationindemocratic


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structuresandprocessesoraccessingeducational,social,andpoliticalspaces.Western-backedpro-womenpolicieshaveoftenproducedabacklashagainstwomenandgirlsbecauseoftheirperceivedassociationwithWesterninterests.RealtransformativechangeremainscontingentuponthewithdrawalofWesternmilitaryforces;demilitarization;thecreationofinstitutionsandmechanismsforsocialinteractionandmediation;andarepresentative,inclusive,gender-responsive,andwarlord-freegovernmentreceptivetowomen’ssecurity,development,andjusticeconcerns.Pakistan’scollusionwiththeUnitedStatesina“waronterror”inAfghanistanledto“warsofterror”withinPakistan.Bothwarsrenderedwomenevermorevulnerabletoviolenceanddiscriminationbymilitantgroups,withanincreasinglycompromisedPakistanistateunabletoprotectwomen’srights.

Thereexistsabroadregional/transnationalfeministpoliticaloppositiontowarandmilitarization. Thisisreflectedinthegrowingbodyofscholarlyliteratureinthearea,whichhasthepotentialtodevelopintoamoresubstantivetransnationalallianceintheregion.Partofthereasonthishasnotyethappenedliesinthedeeplyentrenchedstate-andsecurity-centricdiscourse,whichwomenhavechallengedyethavebeenunabletodislodge.AstheexamplesoftheRAWAoppositiontoUSforeignpolicyinAfghanistanandIromSharmila’sthirteen-yearprotestagainstrepressivelawsinIndia(discussedpreviously)indicatewomen’soppositionisignoredbygovernmentsandthemedia.Further,asecurity-centricdiscourseprivilegingthenation-stateconflatescriticismwithtreasonandsupportforthe“enemy,”makingitmuchmoredifficultforwomentochallengethe“nationalist”paradigmandwidentheanalyticframe.Feministscholarshiphasunderscoredtheillegitimacyofnationalsecurityregimesfromagenderperspective.Ithasthepotentialtouseitsknowledgeandresourcestodevelopacomparative,transnationalanalyticframetochallengethegenderedinsecuritiesandinequalitiesinflictedbyandrocentric,state-centric,andsecurity-centricnational,regional,andinternationalregimes.

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Notes:

( )AmongthemwereAbdar-Rahman(1880–1901),Habibullah(1902–1919),Amanullah(1919–1929),KingNadirShah(1930–1933),andKingZahirShah(1934–1973).

( )DaudKhandeposedZahirShahtoproclaimAfghanistanarepublic.HewasfollowedbyNoorMohammedTarakki,HafizullahAmin,andBabrakKarmal,allofwhomwerealignedwiththeSovietUnion.Tarakkiwasmurdered,allegedlyontheordersofhissuccessor,HafizullahAmin,whointurnwasassassinatedbytheSoviets.

( )SovietprotégéBabrakKarmalresignedin1986andwasreplacedbyanotherprotégé,MohammedNajibullah(1987–1993),whowasmurderedbyadvancingTalibanforcesin1996.

( )“TwodecadesofwarinAfghanistanhaveleftthecountrydevastated,itspopulationdepleted,andthesurvivorsphysicallyandmentallyexhausted.Thenumbersaredevastating:1.7milliondead,2millioninjuredormaimed,5milliondrivenfromtheirhomes….WarhassweptacrossAfghanistanlikewildfire,leavingbrokenlivesandbarrenlandscapesinitstrail….Warfare…hasphysicallyerasedmanyof[the]country’snaturalresources,reducedtorubblethemonumentsofitsproudhistoryandforeverscarreditspeople”(ICRC1999,5).

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( )“ThedecisiontoarmtheAfghanresistancecamewithintwoweeksoftheSovietinvasion,andquicklygainedmomentum.”In1980PresidentCarterallocatedUS$30milliontotheAfghanresistance.TheReaganadministrationcontributedUS$250milliontoAfghanistan,withSaudiArabiacontributinganequalamount.By1987annualAmericanaidtoAfghanistanreachedUS$630million.ThisfiguredidnotincludecontributionsmadebyotherIslamiccountries,Israel,China,andEurope(Rubin2002,6).

( )TheAmericanCentralIntelligenceAgency(CIA)oversawthepurchaseofweaponsandtrainingfortheiruse;thePakistanISIcontrolledtheirdistributionandtransporttothewarzone.“UpontheweaponsarrivalattheportofKarachiortheIslamabadairport,theISIwouldtransporttheweaponstodepotsnearRawalpindiorQuetta,andthenontotheAfghanborder”(Rubin2002,7).

( )CortrightandWall(2012,7).

( )ThemujahideenalliancedeclaredBurhanuddinRabbanipresidentofAfghanistanin1992.In1996RabbaniandGulbuddinHekmatyar(Hizb-e-Islamifaction)signedanagreementmakingHekmatyarprimeminister.TheaccordcouldnotwithstandtheTalibanadvance.TherewasheavyfightingbetweenTaliban(Pashtun)forcesandthenon-PashtunNorthernAllianceledbyAhmedShahMassoud—anethnicTajik.InMarch1999aUN-brokeredpeaceagreementbetweentheTalibanandtheNorthernAlliancelapsedintorenewedfightingbetweentheforces.

( )TheTalibanemergedinthePashtunprovinceofAfghanistanandiscomprisedlargelyofPashtuns.TheywereledbyMullahOmar,aveteranoftheAfghanwarandaformerstudentatamadrasaormadarsa(religiousseminary)inPakistan.“OmarwasoutragedbytheinfightingofthemujahideenandespeciallybytheincreasingdeprivationstheyexactedontheAfghanpeople”(Riedel2008,34).

( )PakistancreatedandusedtheTalibaninordertomaintaininfluenceinpost–ColdWarAfghanistanandtoachieve“strategicdepth”againstIndia.TheSaudiscultivatedtheSunniTalibanasabulwarkagainstIraniansupportforShiagroupsinsideAfghanistan(Sidky2007,864).

( )SeePhysiciansforHumanRightsAfghanistan(1998,2–3).

( )“TheISIrefusedtorecogniseanyAfghanresistancegroupthatwasnotreligiouslybased.NeitherthePashtunnationalistAfghanMillatparty,normembersoftheAfghanroyalfamilywereabletooperatelegallyinPakistaniterritory”(Rubin2002,7).

( )Al-QaedaisgenerallyassumedtobeanorganizationestablishedbyOsamabinLaden.However,theterm“al-Qaeda”isnotsomuchanorganizationasitisamodeofactivismfollowedbyindividualscommittedtodefendingMuslimsagainstoppression.Theword“al-Qaeda”wasusedbyIslamistswhofoughtinAfghanistanandwhodecidedthattheirstruggledidnotendwiththeexitofSoviettroopsin1989(Burke2004,2–3).

( )In1998,promptedbytheirdeepeningrivalryoverKashmir,IndiaandPakistanconductednuclearteststhatwerewidelycondemnedacrosstheworld.In2001anattackontheIndianParliament,allegedlybyPakistan-basedIslamistmilitants,ledtothedeploymentofoveramilliontroopsontheIndia-PakistanborderinKashmirandfearsofanuclearconfrontation.

( )TheNorthernAlliancewasamujahideengroupopposedtotheTaliban.ItwasledbyAhmedShahMassoud,whowasassassinatedbytheTalibanin2001.

( )LauraBush,quotedbyAinabRahman(2012).

( )WhenquestionedaboutUSsupportforHekmatyar,aCIAofficialinPakistanexplained,“Fanaticsfightbetter”(HirshkindandMahmood2002,343).

( )HirshkindandMahmood(2002).

( )StatementbyDr.SimaSamar,Vice-ChairoftheInterimAdministrationofAfghanistanandMinisterforWomen’sAffairs,totheUNSecurityCouncilonApril25,2002.

( )TheShariaisabodyofIslamicdoctrinallawregulatingthelivesofMuslimsthathasbeensubjecttovaryinginterpretationsovertime.Amongitsmostcontestedprovisionsarethoserelatedtofamilylaws,especiallywomen’s

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rightstodivorce,inheritance,property,andtheguardianshipofchildren.

( )Amongothercontroversialprovisions,thelawmandatedawifesubmittingtosexualintercoursewithherhusbandeveryfourthnight(CortrightandWall2012,11).

( )In2010SaleemShehzad,areporterforAsiaTimes,reportedthatISIofficialsknewthehideoutofthetopTalibanleadershipinKarachi,yetdidnotpickthemup.ShehzadalsoexposedlinksamongtheISI,al-Qaeda,andOsamabinLaden.ForafullerexposéseeFilkins(2011).

( )ThestateofJammuandKashmir(includingtheValleyofKashmir,thelocationofthepresentconflict)wasdividedin1948betweenIndiaandPakistanwithouttheconsentofthepeopleofKashmir.Theterm“Indian-administeredKashmir”referstotheterritoryunderIndiancontrol.

( )Self-styledTalibancleric“Fazlullah’sholywarriorsissuednewrulesthatreflecttheirowninterpretationofSharia.Womenarealreadybannedfromvisitingmarkets,underpenaltyofdeath,andgirlsprohibitedfromattendingschool.PoliceofficerswhoobeyordersfromIslamabadriskhavingtheirearscutofforbeingkilled.Some800policemenhavealreadydesertedtheirpoststojointheTaliban”(Koelbl2009).

( )EconomicandPoliticalWeeklyofIndia(2009).

( )“ATalibanspokesman,EhsanullahEhsan,confirmedbyphonethatMs.Yusufzaihasbeenthetarget,callinghercrusadeforeducationrightsan‘obscenity’”(Walsh2012).

( )“SouthWaziristanbecameastrongholdoftheTehrik-e-TalibanPakistan(TTP)—anumbrellagroupofmilitantsthatPakistaniofficialssayhavebeenbehindsome80%ofterroristattacksinthecountryoverthepastfewyears,includingthe2007assassinationofBenazirBhutto”(Baker2009).

( )TherewerereportedlyonethousandUzbekandforeignfightersinSouthWaziristanaffiliatedwithAl-Qaeda(Baker2009).

( )AgovernmentofficialconfirmedthewarningandtoldAFPthatlocalmilitantgroupshadpreviouslybannedthesaleoftightorsee-throughclothes(Dawn2013).

( )ThetrialjudgewhosentencedGovernorSalmanTaseer’sassassintodeathwasforcedtogointohiding.InJanuary2011thirteenShiaworshipperswerekilledinthecityofLahore.InJune2011asectarianorganization,AllPakistanStudentsKhatm-e-NubuwatFederation,distributedpamphletsinthecityofFaisalabadinPunjab,callingforthemurderofmembersbelongingtotheAhmadiyyacommunity.InSeptember2011athirteen-year-oldChristianschoolgirlfromAbbottabadwasaccusedofblasphemyandwasexpelledfromschool,andherfamilywereforcedtogointohiding,formisspellinganUrduword(AmnestyInternational2012).

( )“InBaluchistan,militantsbroadlyknownasthe‘AfghanTaliban’operatewithoutfearorhindrance.ThelongandlargelyunpatrolledbordertouchesKandahar,ZabulandHelmand,wherealmost10,000Britishtroopsarestationed.CommanderstherecomplainthattheTalibanaresuppliedinmen,weaponsandbombpartsfromBaluchistan”(Walsh2009).

( )ThepeopleofNagaland,Mizoram,Manipur,andAssaminthenortheasthaveresistedintegrationwithintheIndianUnion.

( )In1984therewereapproximatelyfortymillionIndianslivingundermilitaryrule,ifnotmilitarylaw,makingIndiaoneofthelargestmilitary-dominatedstates,evenasitwastheworld’slargestdemocracy(Cohen1990,100).

( )BasedontheCommonarticle3ofthe1949GenevaConventionsandarticle1oftheAdditionalProtocolII,theICRCdefinesinternalconflictsas“protractedarmedconfrontationsoccurringbetweengovernmentalarmedforcesandtheforcesofoneormorearmedgroups,orbetweensuchgroupsarisingontheterritoryofaState[partytotheGenevaConventions].Thearmedconfrontationmustreachaminimumlevelofintensityandthepartiesinvolvedintheconflictmustshowaminimumoforganization.”ItispossibletoapplythisdefinitiontothecaseofanumberofarmedconfrontationsinIndia.AlthoughIndiadoesnotofficiallydeclareanyofitszonesofviolenceasconflictzones,ithasbeenfightingarmedgroupsfordecadesinmanyofitsstates(HumanRightsLawNetwork2010,6).

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( )AccordingtoArticle21oftheIndianConstitution,nopersonmaybedeprivedoflifeorpersonallibertyexceptaccordingtoproceduresestablishedbylaw.

( )KashmirwasnotformallypartofBritishIndia.Afterindependence,IndiarenegedonitspromisetoallowthepeopleofKashmiritodeterminetheirpoliticalfuturethroughaplebiscite.TheunresolvedstatusofKashmirwasrecognizedbytheUnitedNations.TheLine-of-ControldividingKashmir,India,andPakistanhasneverbeenacceptedorendorsedbythepeopleofKashmir.

( )Approximatelyfortythousandfemale-headedhouseholdsareknowntoexistinthenorthernareas,mostofthemcreatedbythelossofhusbandsormalekin(Vasudevan2012).

( )TheTamilsofSriLankaaredividedintotwogroups.TheSriLankanTamilscomprisethelargergroup,andtheIndianTamilsaredescendantsofIndianTamilimmigrantswhomigratedtoSriLankatoworkontheplantationsduringthecolonialperiod.

( )TherewereseveralTamilgroupscommittedtofightforTamilrights,includingTamilEelamLiberationOrganisation(TELO),thePeople’sLiberationOrganisationofTamilEelam(PLOTE),theEelamPeople’sRevolutionaryLiberationFront(EPRLF),theEelamRevolutionaryOrganisation(EROS),theTamilUnitedLiberationFront(TULF),andtheEelamNationalDemocraticLiberationFront(ENDLF).

( )TherewasintensefightingandshellingofthenortherndistrictsofJaffna,Mullaitivu,andKilinochhi,andofTrincomalee,Batticaloa,andAmparaidistrictsintheeast.

( )TheLTTEassassinatedleadersandcadresofmoderatefactionsasastrategytoadvanceitsclaimtobeingthesolerepresentativeoftheSriLankanTamilcause.ItisresponsiblefortheassassinationofTULF’sAmrithalingamandYogeswaran,UmaMaheshwariofPLOTE,K.PadmanabhaoftheEPRLF,andTELO’sSriSabaratnam.

( )Amongothers,KetheshLoganathan,LakshmanKadirgamar,andNeelanTiruchelvamwereprominentTamildissidentsdedicatedtocraftingaconstitutionalsolutiontotheconflict.AllthreewerekilledbytheLTTE.

( )TheSouthAsianFeministDeclaration(1989)expressedconcernatthemilitarizationofsocietiesacrosstheSouthAsianregionandviolenceagainstwomenbyuniformedguardiansofthestateunderthebannerofnationalsecurityandsovereignty.

SeemaKaziSeemaKazi(Ph.D.)isFellow,CentreforWomen’sDevelopmentStudies(CWDS),NewDelhi.ShehasworkedonMuslimwomenandminorityrightswithwomen’sgroupsandwithNGOsinIndiaandabroad.HerrecentworkfocusesonwarandgenderinIndian-administeredKashmir.SeemaistheauthorofBetweenDemocracyandNation:GenderandMilitarizationinKashmirandispresentlyengagedinacomparativestudyongenderandgovernanceinSouthAsianconflictzones.

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Documents

South Asia's Gendered Wars on Terror