in the Adriabc sr

Mycenaeans and the Adriatic: A nautical challengelnvestigating the beginnings of navigation in the Adriatic sea

Stavros Oikonomidis

id Mycenaeans ever navigate as organ izedcommuters along the Adriatic? lf they did,where were their efforts pointing to? Why

should the Adriatic be a sea of big challenges,trade opportunities, and right occasions for thesepeople? could the Adriatic have ever been awestern equivalent of the Aegean or other seasfrequented by the Mycenaeans? All the abovequestions accompany the most recent researches,which point to the investigation of the navigationalactivities of the Mycenaeans in the Hesperia, thewestern to Greece natural canal and its hinterland(Fig. 1). That proved to have been as important asthe Aegean, in Classical and later times.

ln two recent studiesl I have described the Adriaticas a difficult sea to sail with a ship made with thestandards of the Late Bronze Age technology2.Furthermore I enumerated the conditions thatshould lead any nautical expedition that is orga-nized on a regular basis, along the Adriatic. Notonly experience of long sea travels or a maritimetradition is necessary, but the good knowledge ofthe geography of the coasilines, both western andeastern, and of the periodicity of the peculiarmeteorological phenomena is essential as well.This knowledge gives not just safety but thepossibility of the periodical frequeney of theAdriatic, in relation to a standardized trade thatshould result fruitful and secure"

But apart from the technological requirements orthe deep knowledge of the natural amenitiesrelated to the Adriatic navigation the above que-stions are still there, needing decisive responses.

organ ized, repetitive sea travelling requires clearand well shaped targets that recompenseexpensive and risky voyages. ln the Late BronzeAge the only reason for collecting experiencedcrew, equipping a ship with suppries and sendingit far away from its native land, is to have a numberof seriously motivated targets. Reasonably, similarmarine expeditions are organized in order to

146 ENAATA Xt . 2a12

Fig. 1. Map of the Adriatic, with sites mentioned in the text.

provide the mother land with goods, which e,iotherwise not easily found and are vital for the l'ne"

being and the existence of the Mycenaean sociei*

But when did the [lycenaeans start to discol,e'these "Hesperian" routes? ln order to have a-already established knowledge of these seas the*should have spent much of their nautical effctsinto adventurous expeditions all over the Adriaticover the straits of Otranto and the already famil a,"

routes along the sicilian coasilines3 or th:southern part of Basilicata and Calabriaa ,

But in both cases, travelling along the lonian or in

the Adriatic is the product of specific goals: if takirncan indirect trade control of the territory around thegulf of raranto is the one, which could be theother?

Stanic$::0ikonornigiq

E!!U fr en. "a nr_g_n i n qgl-

lf copper can be found, even in poor quantities, all

over the eastern Mediterranean, natural bitumen is

rare and the areas that would produce abundant

and of good quality asphaltos are fewS. Apart from

the great and rich bitumen mines of Mesopotamia

posiibilities of coilecting natural bitumen in SE

Europe are limited and exclusive of restricted areas

such as Zante, Sicily and Albania6' Despite the fact

that both Greeks of the Classical periods and

Romans are aware of the existence of bitumen in

the above areas, not all of them could provide

bitumen suitable for ship construction. lndeed, the

Sicilian bitumen and that from Zanle acquire a

liquid state. Only the natural bitumen resources of

Albania could have been used practically, being of

the rock type, which can be elaborated through a

rather easy and fast technical procedureT. Most of

the uses of bitumen require mastic plasticity, such

aS construction material, or in our case here, aS an

isolative for boats and shiPs.

Bitumen can be found in its liquid state floating on

the surface of the springs. ln this case bitumen was

used as olive oil's substitute. ln ancient sicily the

Acragantine bitumen was known as: "sicilian oil"'8

Ancient resources of liquid bitumen are in the

island of Zanteg and the Kalamas River, in Epirus'

Albania's bitumen resources are located in the

mountainous northern half of the country, espe-

cially around Selenica, Vlore, Dukati and Kreme-

nare. Selenica's bitumen mines are considered to

be the oldest all over the Balkan Peninsula. Not

only in prehistoric times, but also in the classical

p"iioO the mines of Epidamnos and Apollonia

produced and exported "pissasphaltos"l0'

lf the Mycenaean use of bitumen will be proved

archaeologically in the future, then Mycenaean

sailing on a regular basis in the low Adriatic could

be validated by one rnore reasonable motivation.

On the research of the metallic ores, precious

[algralP and PSLtPrnP-

Bronze, the most precious metal in the Late Bronze

Age, is the product of a complex technical pro-

cedure. ln order to have finished bronze objects,

tin, copper and arsenic is needed11. All of the

above elements exist in nature but few are the

ENAAIA Xl '2012

Mt;d;.[ ;H;U*' 'i#'E i tili*'ntuticat chanenge. lnvestigating the beginnings or navigation.in the'Adriatleff

areas which can give enough possibilities for an

organ ized and prod uctive bro nze elaboration.

Cyprus is the major center of copper and a well

known destination of the Mycenaean tradersl2

The name itself of the island means copper and it

has been proved archaeologically that Cyprus'

copper mines were the principal resources used in

the Late Bronze Age and also in later times in the

Eastern Mediterranean. There are numerous other

copper Sources in the Balkans, and Anatolia,

though not all of them are documented to have

been in use already during the Mycenaean times'

The best alternative copper and other metallic

resources for the Mycenaean trade could be found

along the So called "Way of the Amber", via the

metallurgical centers and the protoemporia of

northern ltaly and the caput Adriae. The list of the

bronze products and other artifacts with north italic

or central European influence in the Aegean is

getting larger according to the most recent

itudiesl3. Metallic ores or finished metallic objects,

together with Baltic or Balkan amberl 4,Transylva-

niin gold15, Venetian glass16, perhaps techno-

logical know how and patterns, might only be

Some of the numerous products exchangedffound

in that kind of "trade paradise" that Caput Adriae

would be in the Late Bronze Age.

A reconsideration of geography and

phenomena: A decisive Parameter

local naturalfor Adriatic

al9!a9_ol_og)t _

The Adriatic canal is known to the scholars as the

"Way of the Amber"17. A term first invented in the

1gth century and used widely since then, lost its

original conventional character, through intermi-

nable efforts for presenting it as datum. The

philological sources of the ancient literature have

been taken as historical facta and on this basis

archaeological enquiries were formed until

recently. Notwithstanding the presumable historic

validity of the first conclusions about the pre

classical presence of the Aegean people in the

Adriaticls, direct field investigation today leads to

more concrete responses to these old questions'

Few are the studies that have put the navigational

possibilities and the knowledge of geographical

and meteorological data of the area on their primal

position for a well articulated investigation of these

possibilities.

147

Stavros,Oi ko no rnidis

Taking as a starting point the realistic conclusions known to the Greeks as the Etectrides or Ambe.of marine archeology and of a series of nautical tslands"22. The discontinuity of Mycenaean pre-observations on the Adriatic environment we might sence23 along Dalmatia, on ihe one hand, and tf.ecome to distinguish pragmatism from 19th century detection of Mycenaean pottery at Skrip, on thestyle imagination. The problematic of the Myce- other, "emphasize the strategic importance of thenaean presence in the Adriatic is more complex istands for trade, and is perhaps indicative c,than it seems from a first glimpse. Atmospheric, maritime trade tinks up to the head of the Acir -hydrologic and local weather conditions are to be atic'24. The existence of megalithic fortificatlonstaken as the real facta leading to scientific con- unusual architectural features for the locaclusions about any eventual reconstruction of the standards, like those of the above mentionecsea routes in the Late Bronze Age. Whether a islands, Monkodonja and Maklavun25 in lstria. areunique route or routes leading to the Baltic Sea indicative for the maritime possibilities or probab ethrough the Terramare had ever existed or not, the adversities that took place on the map of theconventional term, invented by thosel9 who study navigational activities across the eastern coast. yetthe archaeology of the Adriatic, might prove to the local natural phenomena and the geo-have a substantial core of pragmatism. morphology of the area can be proved prohibitive

for a safe approach to the straits between theA draft of the Adriatic maritime possibilities in the continent and the islands, as demonstrated els*

Despite the natural amenities that a Late BronzeAge ship faces on its way to caput Adriae and thevenetian Lagoon, the Adriatic maritime crossing isgreatly helped by the existence of a number ofsmall islands, in the midway between otranto andthe Po estuary. Palagruza, Mala paragruza, Hvar,Vis, Brac and skrip are only some of the nurnerousisles and islands of the Adriatic Dalmatian shore.Their strategic and nautical importance is easilyunderstandable to modern visitors, being thenatural "bridge" that links the rtarian with theCentral Dalmatian coasts.

For centuries, these Dalmatian islands have beenthe safest anchorage in times of tempest. lndeed,ships coming from Greec e20 and entering theAdriatic meet these formations before proceedingnorthwards and approaching caput Adriae.Situated in a certain distance from the Dalmatianshore, Palagruza and Mala palag ruza are almostimpossible to be avoided in sailing the Adriatic.Using the above mentioned isrands as safelandmarks on their way to the north, sailors cankeep sailing in sight of land. The island of skripproduced few but secure Mycenaean sherds foundin the context of its megalithic fortifications. Thestrategic position of Skrip makes it one of theselandmarks and at the same time " one link in thechain that stretched along the eastern Adriaticshore past the northern Dalmatian istands, later

148

the supposed discontinuity of the Mycenaea-presence here.

ln recent years scholars of the Adriatic archaeolog'rhave produced a plethora of studies based c-newly found archaeological material or reconside-ring old data, mainly from around the Venetia-Lagoon. lndeed, if Caput Adriae's Spi na27, theTimavo area29 and "emporia" like Frattesina2gMontagnana3O, Este, saletto3l, Torcello, Mazzcr-bo32 and many others have been important corn-mercial stations in classical antiquity, substantiafinds make them part of an entire networxengaged in the Mycenaeans' nautical universe.

Not tar from central and Eastern Europe thecenters of Caput Adriae present strong culturaaffinities with both the areas, Austria, SouthernGermany, Hungary and rransylvania traced bao<to the central European Middle and Recent Bro nzeAgs33. lndeed, the Timavo River is potentially thenatural e)rtension of the "way of the Amber" acrossthe European continent and plays the role of thegate to both directions on the axis of north ancsouth routes of communication. To Timavo areconnected more fluvial routes such as that of Oder.Morava, the Danube River and lsonzo34. At theend of all these natural routes the Venetian Lagoonstands as the receiver of complex procedures thatproduced the ideal environment for further culturalelaborations between North and South, the Adriatic

ENAntA Xt - 2012

-qea and continental Europe, the Danube Basin

:rd the Lake District of Southern Switzerland.

-aking as a serious parameter the testified,,lycenaean presence in Caput Adriae for thenaritime activities of the Late Bronze Age, we are

aDle to reconstruct the most crucial point of the-,,'lycenaean navigational expeditions across the{driatic Sea which is the focal interest for the arealf the Venetian Lagoon and the estuary of the Po

live r area. The metallurgical centers of the-lerramare along the tributary rivers of the Po,

settled on a huge hydrographical system of strong

communication potentialities, determine trade,transportations and exchange possibilities during

tlre ltalian Bronzo Recente e Finale.

Stavros OikonomidisArchaeologist,

Faculty member of The Arcadia Center, Arcadia

University for Education Abroad

President of the lnstitute of Transbalkanic Cultural

Cooperation (l.T.C.C)

Acknowledgmgp_ts_

I wish to express my appreciation to ProfessorYannos Lolos, Editor of the Enalia, for offering ffie,

for a second time, the possibility of publishing abrief article on the Enalia. I would like to thank Ms.

Christina Marabea, archaeologist (Ph.D.), for the

interest demonstrated, and her precious help. Last

but not least, I express my gratitude to Dr. C. K.

Williams ll, Director Emeritus of the AmericanExcavations ln Ancient Corinth, who funded my

maritlme researches along the Adriatic'

1 Oikonomidis 2009, 87-91 and forthcorning2 Pulak 1999.3 Vianello 2005, 106-175.4 Bettetta 2ooz.5 Forbes 1993, 43-44.6 Osmanlliu and Thanashi 1997.7 Forbes 1993, 56.8 ""..a thick asphattic crude oil", Forbes 1993, 44.9 "Pr.,lre and soft bitumen much emulsified water is found

ENA IA Xl .2012

in wells and pools"., Forbes 1993, 43,10 According to Dioskourides: "in the ','icintiJ of

Epidamnos there is pissasphaltos, a natural prccucr i,^a:

it comes from the Ceraunia Mountains, carrteO Ay l?J

force of the current and deposited upon the rlver ban<s,

into lumps". Strabo mentions the Same area together

with Nymphaeum, describing the rock asphalttc

formations deposited around the river bed and saying

that "the water is hot and the burning qualities of the

asphalt" (Forbes 1993, 44).ll Coghlan 195 1,26-49.12 Harding 1984, 46-48.13 Basakos 2003. Oikonomidis 2005 . 2007, 2009

Rahmstorf 2003, 397-407 .

14 Palavestra 2007 ,354.15 Davis 1983.16 Bellintani et al . 2001.17 Grilli ,, 197s.18 The myth relating Phaethon, the Eliades and the

collection of the amber along the Po River. in Veneto and

Lombardy, the foundation of Mantua by Manto, daughter

of Teiresias, and most of all the tradition according to

which the Pelasgians were those who founded pre-

historic Spina before migrating to Central ltaly and finally

settling in Crotona, are Some of the numerous ancient

tales about the earliest Greek presence in Caput Adriae

Hellanicus FGr Hist 4 f 4.19 Palavestra 2007 ,355.2o Papadopoulos 1991.21 Cace et al. 200 1, 236.22 Cace et al. 200 1, 235.23 Thomas 2005.24 Cace et al. 2001, 253.25 Thomas 2005,675.26 Oixonomidis 2009.27 Ferri 1959.28 Braccesi and Coppola 1993.29 Bietti Sestieri 1980,23 ff .

3o Bianchi Citton 1998.31 Gambacurta and Ruta Serafini 1998.32 di Filippo Balestrazzi 2000.33 Capoferri 1988, 183-202"34 Capuis 1992.

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ENAAIA xl '2012151