STRATEGY AND STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS

Business Administration and Management

43DOI: 10.15240/tul/001/2014-1-004 1, XVII, 2014

Introduction

When reviewing strategic thinking, we realizehow this phenomenon has gone through differentphases and semantic contexts. With a millen-nium distancing the word from its origins, theword strategy has had several meanings butwithout ever losing its semantic roots. In thebeginning, strategy took on a militarysignificance and represented the action ofcommanding or leading armies in times of war,i.e. a military campaign [30]. It meant a way ofprevailing over the adversary, a tool of victory inwar and only afterwards was it applied to othercontexts and fields of human relationships:political, economics, business, among others,but always retaining in all its uses the semanticroot, to define paths [76].

After several phases and meanings, theconcept of strategy has evolved into a field ofknowledge in management, strategic mana-gement, with content, concepts and practicalreasoning, ending up by carving out its ownrole in the academic and business fields [25].Management uses this old military concept toassociate the activities of a general with thoseof an organization’s manager [76]. Since itrepresents an important tool for businessmanagement in a competitive and turbulentmarketplace, the main objective of strategyinvolves preparing the organization to confrontthe current hostile environment, to this endsystematically and objectively deploying theskills, qualifications and internal resources ofthe enterprise [25]. On the other hand, theconcept of strategy still seems to be a veryvague concept and subject to variousinterpretations [14].

An exact definition of strategy may notactually be fundamental, however, within the

context of organizational knowledge management,specifically the knowledge that newprofessionals bring into companies, graspingwhich type of strategic understanding newmanagers bring into the organization is clearlyof importance [15], [58], [74]. Thus, we mayquestion whether concepts of strategy andstrategic management are understood bybusiness managers, especially the younger, thenewly graduated in management. Therefore,this research aims to assess the acquiredknowledge of university management studentsrelating to strategy and strategic managementconcepts with the purpose of answering thefollowing question: What is strategy andstrategic management to future managers? Arethey understood and recognized?

To answer this question, this study seeks toexamine management student understandingas to the meaning of these two concepts. Asspecific objectives, we seek : (i) to builda model explaining the definition of strategyaccording to the perceptions of studentsgraduating in management, and (ii) to identifywhich concept of strategic management in theexisting literature comes closest to theperceptions of current management students.

To understand the perceptions of indivi-duals about a particular concept, we adoptphenomenography type research practices.The main feature of the research method is itsdescription of a phenomenon as it is expe-rienced, emphasizing the collective significanceof the studied phenomena, and should in noway be confused with phenomenologicalstudies. Phenomenology is far more concernedwith the individual experience of the peopleinvolved than with the phenomena studied [2].

The study is justified due to the sheerimportance of the themes of strategy and

STRATEGY AND STRATEGIC MANAGEMENTCONCEPTS: ARE THEY RECOGNISED BYMANAGEMENT STUDENTS?Emerson Wagner Mainardes, João J. Ferreira, Mário L. Raposo

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strategic management to contemporaryorganizations [74]. In this sense, the surveysought to contribute towards managementknowledge in the organizational environmentby clarifying what is the real understanding ofmanagement graduates on the themes ofstrategy and strategic management.

According to Tseng [83] and Obembe [60],knowledge management in an organizationbegins by identifying the knowledge thatindividuals bring in from outside the company.In this case, the development of organizationalstrategy depends on understanding theperceptions of their managers on what strategyand strategic management actually is. Theidentification of perceptions of future managerson the two concepts, as used in this study,contributes significantly to organizational mana-gement practice. This enables the organization’smanagement strategies as organizationalknowledge on the field of strategy can hardly bemanaged should each manager understand theconcept differently.

The study findings may also be expected tocontribute to Higher Education Institutions(HEI), by identifying what level of understan-ding their graduating management studentsattain regarding the subjects under analysis.The research contribution also extends to theacademic world by presenting the concepts ofstrategy and strategic management mostpresent and active in the minds of futuremanagers, findings rarely encountered in theliterature. There are few studies relating strategyas a theoretical approach and its practicalapplication in organizations [42], [68]. Thus, thisstudy contributes to research on strategy demon-strating that the field of strategy, comprising asit does of several concepts and approaches,generates confusion among managementpractitioners. After all, the same phenomenonis approached in several distinctly differentways and individuals working in managementwould also seem to hold various perspectives,often understanding neither the real meaning ofstrategy nor its management [41], [62].

Furthermore, this research aims to providesome insights for lecturers bearing in mind thatstudent opinions and knowledge on this matterreflect the efficiency and the effectiveness ofthe strategy related learning process [31],potentially revealing a need to change thedidactics of these classes.

Another reason that led to this study wasthe method adopted, phenomenography,whose main characteristic is its ability tocapture the perceptions of a group of peopleabout a concept. After an exhaustive search ofavailable scientific databases, only one study ofa similar nature was found, the Shanahan andGerber [75] research on the concept of qualityin HEIs, which proved the inspiration for theresearch set out here. Most of the otherphenomenography studies found deal witheducational teaching methods [5], [13], [19],[36], [63], [82] or, in fewer cases, the behaviourof consumers [88]. In the field of strategy, theyboth represent an innovation and a newalternative for research.

The paper is structured as follows: firstly,a literature review of the strategy and strategicmanagement concepts from a historicalperspective is carried out. Afterwards, thephenomenography research is described andexplained. The methodology adopted in thesurvey is presented in the next section.Subsequently, the collected data are analysedand our model is tested. The article ends upwith final considerations and future recom-mendations.

1. Strategy and StrategicManagement: a HistoricalPerspective

Strategy was created by the Greeks, whoendowed the concept with a military conno-tation. The term derives from the Greek strategos,translated as a general in command of troopsor the art of the general or plan to destroyenemies through effective use of resources[18], [76], [78]. This term in itself contained theidea of objectives to be achieved and plans ofaction to be performed in various scenarios,depending on the enemy’s behaviour [73].

According to Mintzberg and Quinn [53],strategy was already considered as an orga-nizational skill at the time of Pericles (450 BC),meaning management skills (administrative,leadership, public speaking, power). However,it was only after World War II that strategy fullyentered into the business world, which hassince grown significantly and needed guidance,lines and paths to be followed by their entirestructures [18]. This growth increased organi-zational complexity and, together with theaccelerated pace of environmental changes,

Ekonomika a management

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began requiring enterprises deploy greatercapacity to create and manage strategiesenabling them to meet the challenges of themarket, reaching their objectives in the short,medium and long term [25].

According to Mintzberg [51], it was only inthe 1980s that strategies underwent greatdevelopment within the corporate environment.Phenomena such as corporate restructuring,joint decisions and actions impacting onorganizational size, financing and portfolios[87] were driven by the technological advancein means of communication and transport and,since then, an interactive dynamic and integrationon a global level have become predominant.Nowadays, thinking strategically has acquiredthe status of an indispensable factor in leadingand managing organizations, whether for profitor otherwise [55]. After all, strategy addressesthe link between the inner world of businessand its external environment [68].

Considering its importance, talking aboutstrategy opens up a discussion of theoreticalapproaches, ranging from the more conventional,considering strategy as a business logic,rational and sequential [21], to the most dynamic,that understand this process as associated withcultural and learning factors, politics and powerrelations [54]. Thus, there are two majorproblems affecting the understanding of whatthe concept of strategy really means: confusionbetween strategy and effectiveness tools andconfusion between strategy and strategicplanning [27], [56], [67]. The root of the problemseems to be the lack of a full understanding asto what strategy really is.

1.1 Definitions of StrategyAs can be seen, strategy is historically linked topre-empting different scenarios and actionplans to be triggered on encountering them[73]. However, there has never been a singleand definite definition of strategy. The term hashad several meanings, different in scale andcomplexity [25], [29], [35], which can meanpolicies, objectives, tactics, goals, programs,among others, in an attempt to express theconcepts necessary for its definition [51].However, the concept of strategy has beenused indiscriminately in the field of management,meaning anything from a precisely formulatedcourse of action, a positioning in a particularenvironment, through to the entire personality,

the soul and existential rationale behinda company’s existence. It is a concept often putforward in the academic and business worlds,filled with a great diversity and width, which insome aspects is complementary whiledivergent in others [68].

According to Fahey [28], there are fewwords subject to as many abuses in itsutilisation in enterprises, as poorly defined inmanagement literature and exposed to suchdifferent factors as strategy and hence it isa term that causes widespread discussions,especially among theorists. Mintzberg et al.[54] argue that strategy is the enemy of thedeterministic and mechanistic approaches,because they minimize freedom and choice.Strategy is not only one way of dealing with anadversary in a competitive environment ormarket, as treated by much of the literature andits popular use [53], as it cannot onlysummarize the ideas, proposals, guidelines,indicative of paths and solutions [68]. Strategyinstead has a breadth and scope that encirclesthe concept of operational efficiency [67] andcannot be confused with its tactics. In otherwords, strategy is not something static,finished, which renders the concept complexand difficult to grasp [25].

This fact has an explanation. Strategy inorganizations, as a field of study, is muchnewer than its current practice [69], and itsknowledge remains under construction. Thiscan be perceived through analysis of theliterature review displaying several differentdefinitions of strategy over time (table 1).

Considering the definitions listed in Table 1,along with the hundreds more available, itwould appear that the definition of whatstrategy means is neither closed nor simple toestablish a consensus on. We cannot say anyparticular definition is correct. Each existingdefinition is correct but contains limitations in itsset of assumptions and related dimensions [14].

1.2 Definitions of StrategicManagement

According to Bhalla et al. [14], strategicmanagement was born as a hybrid discipline,influenced by both sociology and economics. Itmay be considered an evolution of theories oforganizations. It only began receiving moreattention, from both the academic and thebusiness worlds, in the 1950s, with its

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Tab. 1: Definitions of strategy in organizational contexts (part 1)

Author(s) Definitions of Strategy

[10] Barnard (1938) Strategy is what matters for the effectiveness of the organization, the external point of view,which stresses the relevance of the objectives against the environment, in terms of internalstresses, the balanced communication between members of the organization and a willingnessto contribute towards actions and the achievement of common objectives.

[85] von Neumann Strategy is a series of actions undertaken by a company according to a particular situation.& Morgenstern (1947)

[26] Drucker (1954) Strategy is analyzing the present situation and changing it whenever necessary. Incorporatedwithin this is finding out what one’s resources are or what they should be.

[21] Chandler (1962) Strategy is the determinant of the basic long-term goals of a firm, and the adoption of coursesof action and the allocation of resources necessary for carrying out these goals.

[7] Ansoff (1965) Strategy is a rule for making decisions determined by product/market scope, growth vector,competitive advantage, and synergy.

[49] Mintzberg (1967) Strategy is the addition of the decisions taken by an organization in all aspects, as muchcommercial as structural, with the strategy developing in accordance with the learning processof the firm’s manager.

[20] Cannon (1968) Strategies are the directional action decisions which are competitively required to achieve thecompany’s purpose.

[43] Learned, Christensen, Strategy is the pattern of objectives, purposes, or goals and major policies and plans for Andrews & Guth (1969) achieving these goals, stated in such a way as to define what business the company is in or is

to be in and the kind of company it is or is to be.

[59] Newman & Logan Strategies are forward-looking plans that anticipate change and initiate action to take advantage (1971) of opportunities that are integrated into the concepts or mission of the company.

[71] Schendel & Hatten Strategy is the basic goals and objectives of the organization, the major programs of action(1972) chosen to reach these goals and objectives, and the major pattern of resource allocation used

to relate the organization to its environment.

[84] Uyterhoeven, Strategy provides both direction and cohesion to the enterprise and is composed of several Ackerman & Rosenblum steps: strategic profile, strategic forecast, resource audit, strategic alternatives explored, tests (1973) for consistency and, finally, strategic choice.

[1] Ackoff (1974) Strategy is concerned with long-range objectives and ways of pursuing them that affect thesystem as a whole.

[61] Paine & Naumes (1975) Strategies are macro-actions or patterns of actions for achieving the objectives of the company.

[45] McCarthy, Minichiello Strategy is an analysis of the environment where the organization is located and the selection & Curran (1975) of alternatives that will direct the resources and objectives of the organization, taking into

consideration the risk and potential profits, and the feasibility that each alternative offers.

[32] Glueck (1976) Strategy is a unified, comprehensive, and integrated plan designed to assure that the basicobjectives of the enterprise are achieved.

[47] Michel (1976) Strategy is to decide which resources should be acquired and used so they can take advantageof opportunities and minimize factors that threaten the achievement of desired results.

[46] McNichols (1977) Strategy is embedded into policy-making: it contains a series of decisions that reflect the basicobjectives of the organization's business, and how to use the capabilities and internal resourcesto achieve these objectives.

[78] Steiner &Miner (1977) Strategy is the formulation of missions, purposes and basic organizational goals, policies andprograms to meet them, and the methods needed to ensure that strategies are implemented toachieve organizational objectives.

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[8] Ansoff (1979) Strategy is a set of rules for decision making under conditions of partial ignorance. Strategicdecisions concern the firm's relationship with its ecosystem.

[50] Mintzberg (1979) Strategy is a mediating force between the organization and its environment: consistent patternsin streams of organizational decisions to deal with the environment.

[72] Schendel &Hofer (1979) Strategy provides suggested directions for the organization, which allows the company toachieve its objectives and to respond to opportunities and threats in the external environment.

[18] Bracker (1980) Strategy has two characteristics: situational or environmental analysis that determines thecompany's position in the market and the proper use of company resources to achieve itsobjectives.

[37] Hambrick (1980) Strategy is the pattern of decisions that guide the organization in its relationship with theenvironment, affect the processes and internal structures, as well as influencing theperformance of organizations.

[65] Porter (1980) Strategy is the company choice as to key decision variables such as price, promotion, quantityand quality. The company, to have good performance, must be correctly positioned in its industry.

[52] Mintzberg &McHugh Strategy is a pattern in a chain of actions or decisions. It disrespects the possibilities for different (1985) strategies for several environment conditions.

[66] Porter (1985) Strategy is a set of offensive or defensive actions to create a defensible position in an industry,to cope successfully with competitive forces and thus get a higher return on investment.

[28] Fahey (1989) Strategy explains how the company will use its resources and capabilities to build and sustainthe competitive advantages that favourably influence customer purchasing decisions.

[39] Henderson (1989) Strategy is the focused use of imagination and logic to respond to the environment so that asa result it generates competitive advantage for the company.

[9] Ansoff & McDonnell (1990) Strategy is a set of rules for decision making to guide the behaviour of an organization. Thereare four distinct types of rules: standards by which the present and future performance of thecompany is measured (objectives, targets); rules for the development of relationships with theexternal environment (product strategy and marketing, or business strategy), rules forestablishing relations and internal processes in the organization (organizational concept); andrules by which the company shall conduct its activities in the day-to-day (operational policies).

[6] Andrews (1991) Strategy is the pattern of settlement in a company that determines and reveals its objectives,purposes or goals, produces the principal policies and plans to achieve these targets andascertains the scale of business that the company should get involved in, the type of economicand human organization and the nature of the economic and non-economic benefits generatedfor shareholders, employees and communities.

[38] Henderson (1991) Strategy is the deliberate search for an action plan to develop and adjust the competitiveadvantage of a company. The differences between the organization and its competitors are thebasis of its competitive advantage.

[53] Mintzberg & Quinn Strategy is the deliberate search for an action plan to develop and adjust the competitive (1991) advantage of a company. The differences between the organization and its competitors are the

basis of its competitive advantage.

[69] Rumelt, Schendel Strategy is to define the direction of organizations. This includes issues of primary concern to & Teece (1994) the manager, or any person who seeks the reasons for success and failure between organizations.

[81] Thompson & Strategy is a set of competitive changes and business approaches that managers perform to Strickland III (1995) achieve the best performance of the company. It is the managerial plan to enhance the

organization’s position in the market, boost customer satisfaction and achieve performancetargets.

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development fully underway in the 1960s and1970s.

According to Porth [68], strategic manage-ment emerged as part of strategic planning,which is now regarded as one of its maininstruments. It was incorporated into strategicmanagement, which united planning andmanagement in the same process. On theother hand, Stead and Stead [76] stated thatstrategic management is derived from theconcept of enterprise policy. This conceptexplains the organization as a system in whicheconomic resources are applied effectively withthe company’s functional activities coordinatedaround generating profit.

Once founded, strategic managementexpanded swiftly and produced both theoreticaland practical models [22]. A broad range ofmodels emerged out of market analysis in the1960s, including the BCG Matrix, SWOTModel, the Experience Curve, and PortfolioAnalysis, as well as important concepts such asthe economic analysis of structure, behaviourand performance, distinctive competences,skills, and the so-called strategic planningsystems [29], [54], [77].

Currently, strategic management is one ofthe most prominent and relevant areas in themanagement field. It constitutes a set of ma-nagement actions that enable company managersto keep it aligned with its environment and onthe correct path of development, therebybringing about the achievement of its objectivesand its mission [25], [40], [56], [79], [17].Despite its importance, Boyd et al. demonstrate

that strategic management has many attributesof a still immature field of study, with littleconsensus and low levels of productivity. Thisresult furthermore explains the reason thereare several definitions for the same concept.

According to Ansoff and McDonnell [9],strategic management constitutes a systematicapproach to the management of changes,comprising: positioning the organizationthrough strategy and planning, real timestrategic response through the management ofproblems, and the systematic management ofresistance during strategy implementation. Onthe other hand, Porth [68] believes thatstrategic management is definable as a cross-process of formulation, implementation andevaluation of the decisions that enableorganizations to define and achieve theirmission and ultimately to create value.

Bowman et al. [16] strategic managementfocuses on issues concerning either the creationand sustainability of competitive advantage orthe search for such an advantage.Furthermore, Grant [33] argued that strategicmanagement involves a complex relationshipbetween the organizational focus, the resultsobtained, and the broad spectrum of externaland internal environmental variables of theorganization.

According to Dess et al. [25], strategicmanagement in an organization must becomea process and a single path guiding actionsthroughout the organization. It consists oforganizational analysis, decisions and actionscreating and sustaining competitive advantage.


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[48] Miller & Dess (1996) Strategy is a set of plans or decisions made in an effort to help organizations achieve their objectives.

[67] Porter (1996) Strategy means performing different activities to those performed by rivals or performing thesame activities differently.

[88] Wright, Kroll & Parnell Strategy is the set of plans from top management to achieve results consistent with the (1997) organizational mission and objectives.

[54] Mintzberg, Ahlstrand Strategy is the mediating force between the organization and its surroundings, focusing on & Lampel (1998) decisions and actions that come naturally. Strategy formation is not limited to intentional

processes, but can occur as a pattern of actions formalized or otherwise.

[12] Barney (2001) Strategy is the theory of the firm on how to compete successfully. It also considers performanceas a factor influenced by strategy, as it can be considered that to compete successfully meanshaving a satisfactory performance.

Source: own elaboration

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These authors define four key attributes forstrategic management: directed towards theoverall organization objectives, includes multiplestakeholders in decision-making, requiresincorporating short and long term perspectivesand, involves the recognition of trade-offsbetween effectiveness and efficiency.

Stead and Stead [76], in turn, definedstrategic management as an ongoing processinvolving the efforts of strategic managers toadjust the organization to the environment inwhich it operates while developing competitiveadvantages. These competitive advantagesenable the company to seize opportunities andminimize environmental threats.

More generally, strategic management isa broad term that includes determining themission and objective of the organization in thecontext of its external and internal environments.

2. PhenomenographyPhenomenography is a relatively newapproach for scientific research with the firstpublished articles appearing at the beginning ofthe 1980s [44]. This approach seeks toqualitatively describe the different forms bywhich people experience, conceptualize, perceive,and understand several aspects of a particularphenomenon. This implies that phenomeno-graphy is not concerned only about the pheno-mena under research, nor, indeed, exclusivelywith the people experiencing them. On thecontrary, it focuses upon the relationshipbetween them, i.e., the ways in which peopleexperience or think about the respectivephenomenon [23]. Hence, a phenomenographicstudy aims to describe the variation in howa determined phenomenon (for example,a concept) is understood, experienced orperceived by a group of people [13].

A phenomenographic method argues thatindividuals perceive the world in different formsas experience is always only ever partial. Atany point, time, and context, people discernand experience different aspects of anyphenomenon to different degrees and extents[19]. Thus, different forms of living a phenomenoncan be understood in terms of which aspects ofthe phenomenon are perceived [4]. Therefore,the focus of this type of research is on essentialaspects of the collective and variation ofexperience, more than the wealth of individualexperiences, leading to a limited number of

qualitatively different categories in the descriptionof the investigated phenomenon [82]. Thus,according to the rules of phenomenography,the different ways of living a phenomenon arenot constituted of independent forms, but rathermutually interrelated [63]. These different waysare ordered in terms of conscience inclusivity,within which more inclusive forms alsorepresent more complex forms of experiencingthe phenomenon indicated for ever greateramplitude of knowledge on the phenomenon’sdifferent aspects. In other words, an increasingnumber of aspects of the phenomenon areperceived as potentially different [4] articulatinginternal logical relationships between differentforms of living and experiencing sucha phenomenon [82].

Traditionally, the object of phenomeno-graphy research study has been described asvariations in the human sensing and understandingof conceptions [44] or, more recently,conscience or ways of testing a determinedphenomenon [87]. The results are analyticallyrepresented as a series of meanings (qualita-tively different) or even some ways of testinga phenomenon, called “categories” in order todistinguish between empirically interpretedcategories and the hypothetical experiencethey represent, including also the structuralrelationships that connect these different formsof testing. These relations provide a briefing onthe relations between different ways ofexperiencing a phenomenon [4].

The focus of phenomenography researchon the collective experience (and not theindividual) is usually misunderstood anddeserves clarification. Marton [44] advises ondefinitions of the diverse forms of understan-ding reality. According to this author, theseperspectives are not conceived by phenomeno-graphy as individual perceptions but rather ascategories that depict a collective conception ofa phenomenon. That is, phenomenographyresearch aims to explore gamma meaningswithin a group as a group, and not the gammameanings for each individual within the group[70]. Furthermore, Svensson [80] argues thatthe varieties of forms by which people test thesephenomena are referred to as agreements andsusceptible for presentation as descriptioncategories for the phenomenon in question.

These categories establish the base fordeveloping a hierarchy of agreements,

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themselves forming a model that describes thephenomenon in its totality. This model containsa set of categories hierarchically structuralizedaround the phenomenon under study [36].Consequently, the researcher aims at consti-tuting a logical structure relative to differentmeanings. The categories constituted byresearchers for representing the different formsof living a phenomenon are seen as representinga structuralized set – the model. This providesa means of grasping the collective humanexperience of the holistic phenomena despitethe fact the same phenomenon can beperceived in different forms by different peopleand in different circumstances. Ideally, theresults represent all the gamma of possibleforms of living a specific phenomenon, ina specific time, for the population collectivelyrepresented by the group [4].

In practical terms, phenomenography hasproven efficient when deployed to witnessdecisions on education programs and appliedin two distinct forms [4]: (i) to identify a variationin the agreement on one determined concept(involving the identification of the maincharacteristics of concepts that alumni do or donot obtain to discern their understanding of thephenomenon); and (ii) to project an educationprogram that maximizes alumni opportunities togain a full understanding of a concept based ona prior evaluation of knowledge on thephenomenon. Correspondingly, we approachphenomenography as a research method thatfocuses on concepts explaining phenomena aslived by individuals and of value in practically alleducational areas [5].

3. MethodologyIn accordance with the principles of phenome-nography (the collective analysis of individualexperiences), proposed by Marton [44],described in the introduction to this study andthe methodological decisions made explicit inthe work of Shanahan and Gerber [75], thisresearch project adopted the phenomenographicmethodology. This is characterized asqualitative, exploratory and cross-sectional[34], with data collection carried out by personalinterviews with structured questionnaires. Allmethodological decisions described in thesequence (universe and sample research,collection and analysis of data) were adaptedfrom the study of Shanahan and Gerber [70].

However studies on the field of education [5],[13], [19], [36], [63], [82] and on consumerbehaviour [87] also played their role in themethodological decisions taken over thecourse of this research project.

To attain our study objectives, we examinedstudents taking degrees in management atpublic universities in Portugal. Their curriculaprograms feature strategy and/or strategicmanagement subjects. The choice ofPortuguese public universities derives from thefact that they represent about 60% of highereducation students in Portugal [64]. All thirteenuniversities were invited to participate. Ofthese, five universities expressed interest:University of Beira Interior (UBI), University ofCoimbra (UC), University of Évora (UE), Universityof Minho (UM), and University of Porto (UP). Thequestionnaires were sent to these universitiesand then completed in the classroom andreturned completed to the researchers.

The choice of this target group derived fromtheir being on the verge of graduation and ina few months will become the youngest managersin the Portuguese market. This means theymight be expected to be the managementprofessionals with the most up-to-dateknowledge on the issues involving organizationalmanagement, including strategy and strategicmanagement. The sample gathered focuses onthe students present in classrooms on the daysof the application of the research questionnaireand that had been passed approved in thesesubjects. This type of sample appears as non-probabilistic, intentional, for trial [34]. It shouldbe noted that the results presented hererepresent only a proportion of managementstudents in Portugal. To achieve a broaderrepresentation of Portuguese managementstudents, it would be necessary to apply thesame research in other universities.

For the purposes of data collection, wedeployed a questionnaire with six open questions,which aimed to identify respondent perceptionsas to their own definitions of strategy andstrategic management. The final questionnairewas the following:1. Based on your own experience, what does

strategy mean to you?2. Using your own words, what is your

definition of strategy?3. According to your point of view, give at least

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4. Quote means of applying your concept ofbusiness strategy.

5. What the meaning of strategicmanagement? Give examples.

6. Explain what it means to strategicmanagement. How can you apply thisconcept in organizations?Significantly, each subject studied is linked

to two questions (definition of strategy, examplesof strategies, and definition and examples ofstrategic management). This is the mainfeature of the phenomenography method andaims to make the interviewee think moreprecisely about what his/her real insight is onthe phenomenon studied [2], [3], [4]. Datacollection was carried out during the periodbetween April and June 2009. After theapplication of research tools, the same, dulycompleted, were returned to the researcherswho then conducted an initial questionnaireassessment: UBI (42 completed questionnaireswith 38 considered valid); UC (29 completedquestionnaires with 28 valid); UE (25 question-naires returned, all valid); UM (of 48 completedquestionnaires, 33 proved valid); and UP (22 questionnaires returned, all valid). In sum,166 questionnaires were completed, and 146 werevalidated and incorporated into the analyticalprocess. The next step was to transfer the datacollected for software analysis.

With all answers in digital format, contentanalysis was used for data analysis aiming toidentify definitions of strategy and strategicmanagement through coding [24], with the aidof the Atlas/ti software [57].This type of analysissearches for regularities and variability basedon replications of observations or statementsentailing the quantification of qualitative data[24]. In this case, the codes were initiallyestablished by the words most common in thedefinitions of strategy and strategic management,as well as the types of strategy and strategicmanagement cited by the students. With thedata entered into the Atlas/Ti software, thecodes were also inserted into the system. Thisgrouped interviewee statements on regularitiesand similarities according to the establishedcoding. This meant we were able to collectivelyhandle and process the interviews therebyresulting in a ranking of codes present in the

data collected from the respondents (from themost present to the least present).

4. Results AnalysisThe beginning of the questionnaire asked onlytwo personal questions of respondents: ageand gender. The age of respondents rangedfrom 20 to 54 years, with the average age of22.2, with about 74% of respondents less than24 years old. This means that the majority offuture managers entering the market in thecoming months have little or no experience andbasically rely on the knowledge acquired atuniversity. This further justifies the importanceof this research as it puts forward anunderstanding of the relationship that studentsmake between the theory learned and thepractices they are to undertake thus enablingthe higher education institution (HEI) to tailortheir degrees to market necessities. Withregard to gender, the research involved 81 menand 65 women, which proved to bear nosignificant relevance to the answers returned.

Considering the questionnaire responses,we need to make one comment beforepresenting the data analyzed. Thus, in the firsttwo questions, which correspond to the conceptof strategy, most respondents gave detailedanswers, filling all the spaces for eachquestion. This allowed more detailed analysison the understanding of the strategy conceptheld by management students. Concerning thequestions dealing with types of strategies(questions 3 and 4) and the concept and typesof strategic management (questions 5 and 6),the same respondents were too general andobjective in their responses, which did not allowas thorough analysis as that on the strategyconcept.

The first two questions dealt with thepersonal understanding of each respondent onthe subject of strategy. None of thoseinterviewed cited strategy outside the field ofmanagement. There were no references tomilitary strategies, policies, among others. Thisdemonstrates that the topic discussed currentlyenters the field of management, at least amongthese representatives of future organizationalmanagers. According to respondents, strategyholds different connotations (Table 2).

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Tab. 2: Definitions of strategy based on the surveyed (part 1)

Definition Analysis

This definition of strategy was the most frequent in the responses collected. One reason is thatmany authors approach strategy in this sense [6], [9], [20], [21], [32], [43], [46], [53], [59], [61],[71], [78], [81], [84], [85]. It is presented as a more complete definition and involving theorganization as a whole. Internalising this view of strategy ensures the manager follows a logicalpath in strategic business development in planning, establishing guidelines and policies, andencouraging practice able to achieve organizational goals. What this definition lacks is therelationship with the external environment because it reduces strategy to the internal companyenvironment.

In other words, it is marketplace company policy to compete and survive, based on forwardplanning. This proved to be the second most common response, also due to several authorsciting the environment external to the organization as critical to the company’s strategicdevelopment [7], [8], [9], [10], [18], [26], [37], [38], [39], [45], [50], [54], [65], [67], [71], [72]. It isindeed a fact that a company is related to its external environment and all organizationalstrategic actions should consider aspects related to the respective prevailing environment. Thus,it is important to note that most new managers are aware that a company should be focusedon the market where it operates.

According to the respondent answers, the relationship between strategy and top managementis not often quoted by authors. The high correlation between management and strategy isreferred to by different authors [48], [49], [52], [87]. It should be noted that a common strategyin the studies is that this issue is traditionally handled by the managers running the organization,although most existing concepts are not very explicit about this.

Respondents stated that strategy is linked to corporate objectives for medium and long termcompany goals; similar to that stated in the literature, where the definitions of strategy seldommention the same relationship with its medium and long term goals [1], [9], [21]. In this sense,one can see that the classical school and its followers [86] is that which prescribes the need toplan strategically for the medium and long term.

Quoted by Ansoff and McDonell [9], Bracker [18], Drucker [26], Fahey [28], and Michel [47],defining strategy as guiding organizational structure shows that the company’s resources andcapabilities are determined according to organizational strategic options [11], and was notprominent among respondent answers. However, in accordance with the responses alreadygiven, we may consider that the specific structure necessary for the company to achieve itsobjectives is included within the scope of senior management decisions and planning strategies,words attaining greater incidence among respondents.

Strategy as the means of achieving organizational success was previously put forward byBarney [11], Porter [66], and Wright et al. [87]. This type of definition relates company successto the effectiveness of its strategy and its implementation (through activities and practices).

Also derived from the school of planning [54], the company mission and vision are proposed byNewman and Logan [59], Steiner and Miner [78], and Wright et al. [87]. This type of responseby new managers expresses a certain difficulty in converting strategy into the organizationalreality.

This response is a simplification of the others. The path to be taken refers to the medium andlong term, decisions and senior management responsibilities, the mission and vision of theorganization, leading to planning, policies and practices. This reductionist definition has alreadybeen presented by Rumelt et al. [69].


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1. [...] Strategy is thedevelopment of plans,policies and practices toachieve the companyobjectives [...] (110 similarresponses).

2. [...] Strategy is the wayin which the companyshould behave or act in the market and relate to its external environment[...] (57citations).

3. [...] Strategy is theresponsibility of seniorcompany management and the result of theirdecisions [...] (33 cases).

4. [...] Strategy is to havemedium and long termgoals. Only a fewrespondents [...] (32 replies).

5. [...] Strategy isa guideline for structuringthe company [...] (30 citations).

6. [...] Strategy is a meansof achieving businesssuccess [...] (cited 19 times).

7. [...] Strategy is the vision and mission of thecompany [...]. (cited 18 times).

8. [...] Strategy is anindication of what directionthe company should take[...] (cited by 15respondents).

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Tab. 2: Definitions of strategy based on the surveyed (part 2)

Definition Analysis

The identification of organizational competitive advantages features in the definitions of strategyput forward by Ansoff [7], Cannon [20], Henderson [38], [39], and Newman and Logan [59].Whereas the company's competitiveness is based on its advantages over competitors, it shouldbe considered that these advantages are what influence the choice of a particular strategy andso the first step in choosing the strategy is to identify the company’s competitive advantages,as pointed out by some of the respondents.

The decision of which strategy to follow depends on the collection and analysis of organizationalinformation (and including its external environment). This analysis is performed by the topmanagement of organizations, that is, in a setting that complements the fact that strategy islinked to the individuals running companies.

Uncommon among the definitions of strategy found in the literature, the involvement of the entireorganization in the respective strategy was previously cited by Ackoff [1], Glueck [32], andMintzberg and Quinn [53]. Though not often referred to by authors who conceptualize thestrategy, we see that it increases the chance of success when all members of the company fullyparticipate in the chosen strategy. This fact was pointed out by only 5 respondents.

A subject virtually forgotten by both respondents and the literature, acquiring customers asa result of organizational strategy does merit mention by Fahey [28]. This correspondingly positsthat one major objective behind developing organizational strategies is attracting and retainingcustomers, who generate the revenue necessary for the company to attain its financial results,besides fulfilling its mission and vision. Thus, attracting and retaining customers is very muchlinked to company marketing departments and often overlooked by other functional areas.Market orientation should align all participants towards the organization’s customers.


9. [...] Strategy depends on the competitiveadvantages of thecompany [...] (15 citations).

10. [...] Strategy is basedon the collection andanalysis of company andstakeholder information [...](13 citations).

11. [...] Strategy involvesthe entire company [...] (5 citations).

12. [...] Strategy is a wayto acquire customers [...] (2 citations).

In summary, these twelve understandingsof strategy expressed by managers new to themarket amount to a vision of what strategymeans to them. In addition to the set of viewsheld on the subject, the term strategy wasdefined as:

[...] Based on the collection and analysis ofinformation internal and external to thecompany, in addition to the early identificationof competitive organizational advantages,strategy is the set of decisions taken by seniorcompany management (the path to follow,objectives in the medium and long term, thenecessary structure, mobilization of the entireorganization, the company mission and vision)that leads to the development of internalpractices, action plans, policies and guidelines,which aim to improve the organization’srelationship with its external environment,geared to market. This results in the acquisition

and retention of customers, leading toorganizational success [...].

Thus, this ranges from a narrower vision toa broader view. Figure 1 sets out theunderstanding of strategy according to thesemanagers and how it closely approximates theschool of Planning, previously explained anddescribed by Mintzberg et al. [54]. This schoolapproaches the formation of strategy asa formal organisational process termedstrategic planning. Among the main authorsadopting the principles of this school are Ansoff[7], [8], Schendel and Hatten [71], Ackoff [1],McNichols [46], and Ansoff and McDonell [9].Considering the answers obtained, respondentsperceive that organizational strategy should beformalized by the setting of rules by theorganization’s senior managers. This wouldseem to be what they most expect to encounterin real organizations.

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Following the questionnaire, intervieweeswere requested they provide examples ofstrategies. Porter’s [65] generic competitivestrategies (focus, differentiation, and costleadership), and strategies for diversification,internationalization, and vertical integrationstood out and were mentioned by mostrespondents. However, when asked to translatethese strategies into real-world examples (atleast three), most respondents left this questionblank. Others cited:

[...] To improve the quality of products /services, to plan the location of the business,innovate in products, use resources appro-priately, understand and adapt to the marketwhere the company operates, to informstrategies for employees, develop motivationand the involvement of employees, usemarketing, improve the company's techno-logies, enhance the brand of products, focus oncustomer service, develop action plans to builda good corporate image, increase the radius of

company action , explore new markets, investin employee training, invest in informationtechnology, strategic alliances and cooperation,focus on e-commerce, hire skilled managers,do market research [...].

Indeed, some difficulty in translating thetheoretical approaches learned during theirdegrees to the business environment wasnoted in the respondent responses. This fact isprobably due to little or no working experienceon behalf of students answering the survey, animportant indicator both for the institution andits lecturers as well as other higher educationentities running degrees in management.Students may be graduating with a gooddefinition of an important concept (strategy) butthey are confronting difficulties in applying it toorganizations.

The final section of the questionnaire dealtwith strategic management, definitions andexamples. When concerning the definition ofthe term, most citations divided up between two


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Fig. 1: Set of visions on the definition of strategy


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definitions: (1) the organization of policies andaction plans to enact and implement thecompany strategy; and (2) the application andimplementation of strategic planning. Bothdefinitions are similar and close to the broaddefinition of Wright et al. [87] and matchorganizational reality. Other definitions cited byrespondents converge around the definitionsmentioned:

[...] It establishes common goals for allparticipants in the organization, strategiccontrol, its strategic direction, competitiveadvantages, the management of internal andexternal organizational environments, and themanagement of resources, objectives, andbusiness practices [...].

A point to note is that many respondentsconfused strategy with strategic management.There were 37 responses where respondentsdisplayed difficulties in differentiating betweenthe concepts of strategy and strategic management.Thus, it is possible to infer that a percentage offuture managers, despite having studiedstrategy and strategic management, do notdifferentiate one concept from the other, andthis should be a cause for reflection among thelecturers teaching these concepts.

With regard to examples of strategicmanagement activities, it became once againclear the difficulty of interpreting the definition inreal situations. The examples were:

[...] The formalization of the company'sstrategy, management of company growth andinternationalization, considering the needs ofthe local market, choosing a market to operate,the organization's adaptation to the environ-ment where it is located; internal analysis(resources and capabilities), identification ofcompetitive advantages, price managementand product mix, quality management,innovation and human resources, establishingand managing partnerships and cooperationagreements between organizations [...].

There were a few examples cited by students,many of whom defined strategic managementbut offered no examples. Again, it is noticeablethat students find it difficult to translate theirtheoretical definitions into organizational reality.

5. Final ConsiderationsGiven that the topics strategy and strategicmanagement are relevant fields for contem-porary organizations, it is of great importancefor the management of organizational knowledgeto identify what future managers actuallyunderstand about these issues. In order toreveal the understanding of managementstudents as to the meaning of the concepts ofstrategy and strategic management – the mainobjective of this study – it was concluded thatthere is an understanding of what each means,although it appears that these future managershave some difficulty in translating theseconcepts into the reality of organizations. Thisconfirms the importance of an effort tosystematize the concepts of strategy andstrategic management by researchers in thisscientific field, as argued for by Parayitam [62].Only with the convergence of studies in thearea around the same concept definition of thephenomenon might help in conveying a betterunderstanding of this important organizationalaspect for management practitioners anda significant and essential factor fororganizational knowledge management.

Our findings also identify how no concept ofstrategy prevails in student responses. Instead,what we found was that the understanding ofstrategy is a mixing of concepts displayed byvarious authors dealing with this issue. Whenrelating to strategic management, the definitionfound was very close to that proposed byWright et al. [87]. We observed how themajority of respondents understand strategyand the establishment of company policies,guidelines, practices and action plans designedto attain a common goal and to mediate theorganization’s relationship with its externalenvironment. Observing our model (figure 1),respondents described the path taken inestablishing strategies begins with the collectionand analysis of information on the companyand prior identification of the company'scompetitive advantages, through seniormanagement decisions (on macro-objectives,ways forward, mission and vision, structures,and the mobilization of all employees), whichgenerate the internal company actions able todeliver the chosen strategy. These internalactions are reflected in the externalenvironment where the organization is inserted.The majority of respondents reached this far.

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Others returned a more comprehensive visionand saw in the concept of strategy theopportunity to acquire and keep customers,resulting in organizational success.

Our model explains the definition of strategyin the vision of young managers on the cusp ofentering the market and represents another ofthe specific objectives of this research project.There was also confusion over the meaning ofstrategic management. In several cases, therewas a clear mix up in the definitions of strategyand strategic management. Furthermore, thisstatement does impact on managers involvedin organizational knowledge processes given ifthere is no shared perception of strategicmanagement among managers, there is theneed to unify their understanding to ensuredecision making is based on the sameprinciples [60].

Despite this finding, it was concluded thatthe definition of strategic management presentedby those students who managed to differentiatethe two terms is close to that presented in theliterature. Although they are terms that cancause some confusion, most future managersdid know the difference between strategy andits management. More could be done toexplore the next phase of research, especiallyconcerning the artefact this round generated.Additionally, a before and after comparison ofstudent perceptions on strategy and strategicmanagement would prove of relevance ingenerating insights into the effects of education.

In terms of limitations, it is important toemphasize that this is a study of a qualitativenature, with a statistically unrepresentativesample. Therefore, while the results contributeto the realities of the universities surveyed, theycannot be generalized. Therefore, thestatistical validation of the proposed model isrecommendable along with the replication ofthe research presented here in other HEI, bothin Portugal and internationally, and theconfirmation of the factors making up thedefinition of strategy in the vision of the futuremanagers. Concerning the topic of strategicmanagement, further studies may serve torefine the current concept.

Furthermore, management student lecturersengaged in the theme of strategy and strategicmanagement should strive to translate intoreal-world examples in teaching the conceptsinherent to both topics. This relationship

between theory and practice can contribute toenhancing the competences of new marketmanagers; after all, we do here demonstratethat there is a need for adjustments in theteaching of strategy related subjects onmanagement degrees. A balance between thecurrent schools of thought on the concept (tothus avoid choosing a single school andfollowing only what it prescribes) and anapproach towards the realities of practicalmanagerial and company life representchallenges for both lecturers and researchersin the field.

This research was supported by thePortuguese Science Foundation through NECE– Núcleo de Investigação em CiênciasEmpresariais (Programa de FinanciamentoPlurianual das Unidades de I&D da FCT –Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia,Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e EnsinoSuperior/Portugal).

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Emerson Wagner Mainardes, Ph.D.FUCAPE Business School

Management Department andNECE – Research Center in Business

[email protected]

João J. Ferreira, Ph.D.University of Beira Interior

Management and Economics Department andNECE – Research Center in Business

[email protected]

Mario L. Raposo, Ph.D.University of Beira Interior

Management and Economics Department andNECE – Research Center in Business

[email protected]


60 2014, XVII, 1

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Abstract

STRATEGY AND STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS: ARE THEYRECOGNISED BY MANAGEMENT STUDENTS?Emerson Wagner Mainardes, João J. Ferreira, Mário L. Raposo

The purpose of this paper is to assess the acquired knowledge of university management studentson strategy and strategic management concepts. Phenomenography was used in the analysis anda collective description was conducted. A sample of students taking management degrees at fiveuniversities was adopted. Following data analysis, a model explaining our definition of students ispresented. This definition was compared with the existing literature. Our findings do not indicatea single, predominant concept but reflect a diverse set of existing concepts. We conclude thatstudents do present difficulties when it comes to explaining their theoretical definition in realsituations applied to organizations. The results contribute towards a better understanding of theuniversities surveyed, but cannot be generalized. Thus, we recommend future studies replicate thisresearch project at other Higher Education Institutions and confirm the factors making up theconstruction of the definition of strategy from the perspective of future managers. Given that topicsrelating to strategy and strategic management are highly relevant to organizations today, it is ofsimilar great importance to identifying just what future managers perceive about these issues. Ourmodel explains the definition of strategy in the vision of young managers about to enter the market.A balance between the current schools of thought on strategy and an approach to the reality ofenterprises are presented as challenges for both teachers and researchers in this field.

Key Words: Strategy, management, strategic management, concepts, management students,phenomenography.

JEL Classification: A23, L10, M00, M10.

DOI: 10.15240/tul/001/2014-1-004

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STRATEGY AND STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS